CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY
Essential Elements of Research Methodology:
1. RESEARCH DESIGN

Describes the research mode (whether the study is quantitative or

qualitative, & specific type like descriptive, survey, historical,
comparative, experimental or case study)

2. PARTICIPANTS OF THE STUDY

Describes the target population and the sample frame that comprise
the participants of the study
Describes how the participants of the study are selected or the
sampling technique used/ method of selection, the total number of
participants included in the study to represent the population
Factors to consider in determining sample size:
1) Homogeneity - the higher the degree of homogeneity of the
population, the smaller the sample size that can be utilized;
2) Degree of precision desired by the researcher- the larger
the sample size, the higher is the precision or accuracy of the results;
and
3) Type of sampling procedure probability sampling utilizes
smaller sizes than non-probability sampling
Considerations in determining the sample size:
1) Sample size as small as 30 are generally adequate to ensure
that the sampling distribution of the mean will approximate the
normal curve (Short, 1990 cited in Cristobal & Cristobal, 2009)
2) When the total population is equal to or less than 100, this
same number may serve as the sample size. This is called
Universal Sampling
3) Slovins formula is used to compute for sample size:
N
N= ________
size

where n= sample size

N=population

1+Ne2

e=

desired

margin of error
4) Acceptable sizes for different type of research (Gay, 1976):
Descriptive research
- 10- 20%
Correlational
30 participants
Comparative
- 15 participants per group
Experimental
- 15- 30 participants / group

KINDS OF SAMPLING
A. Probability Sampling in which all the members of the entire
population are given a chance of being selected; also called as
Scientific Sampling
1) Simple Random Sampling samples are drawn by chance
such as roulette wheel, fishbowl technique and use of table of
random numbers or names
2) Stratified Random Sampling population is first divided
into different strata such as age, gender and educational
attainment
3) Cluster Sampling- used in large scale studies where the
population is geographically spread out. Example a researcher
wants to interview 100 nurses from tertiary hospital across the
country.
4) Systemic Sampling a method of selecting every th
element, example, every 8th, every 9 or every 11th element

B. Non-probability Sampling process of selecting participants in

which not all members of the entire population are given a chance of
being selected as samples. Also termed as non-scientific sampling.
1) Convenience sampling
incidental sampling

also

called

accidental

or

2) Quota sampling similar to stratified sampling in which

population is divided into homogenous strata and selecting
sample elements from each of the strata. Example: researcher

will conduct study on nursing students and he desires to include

50 male and 50 female students as participants.
3) Purposive sampling involves hand picking of participants
using criteria set by the researcher. Also called judgmental
sampling

3. INSTRUMENTATION

Composed of 2 parts:
Construction - discusses the instrument or tool used for data
collection; source of the instrument/ tool ; component parts of
the tool and its content;
Validation includes discussion on the tools validity and
reliability of the instrument/ tool.

Frequently used data collection techniques:

1) Documentary Analysis use of primary or secondary data
(records review/ retrospective analysis)
2) Interview use of interview schedule or interview guide
questions using:
a. Unstructured in the form of normal conversation or
topic discussion guided by the subject or topic of study
b. Structured conduct of questioning follows a particular
progression with a well defined content. Questions asked
are those that are in the researchers interview questions,
questions not part of the guide questions are not asked but
can ask to clarify answers.
c. Semi- structured specific questions are asked based
on the set interview guide questions formulated in an open
ended manner but additional questions or probe questions can
be asked that may add depth and significance to the findings.
3) Observation provides active participation of the researcher.
The instrument is the observation guide or observation
checklist . Researcher observes the behaviors and activities of
patients or nurses to gather data on the characteristics and

conditions of individuals; verbal communications; non verbal

communications, activities and environmental conditions. The ff
dimensions should be taken into considerations: 1) focus of the
observation; 2) the condition wherein the subject of observation
has no knowledge that he/ she is being observed; 3) duration;
and 4) the method of collecting the observations.
4) Questionnaire most commonly used instrument. It is a list
of planned, written questions about a particular topic, with
spaces provided for the response. Can be structured (possible
answers are provided); or unstructured no options for answers
are provided as participants are free to answer however they
wish.

Characteristics of a good data collection instrument:

According to Shelley (1984):
1) must be concise yet able to elicit the needed data. The length
of a questionnaire must be 2 -4 pages and the maximum time of
answering is 10 minutes; the desirable lenth of each question is
less than 20 words
2) seeks information which cannot be obtained from other
sources like documents that are available on hand
3) questions must be arranged from the simplest to the most
complex
4) must be arranged according to the posted questions (problem
statements)
5) should pass validity and reliability tests
6) must be easily tabulated and interpreted
According to Nieswiadomy (2002):
1) State questions in affirmative rather than in negative manner
2) Avoid ambiguous questions like those which contain words like
many, always, usually, few , and, etc

3) Avoid double negative questions. Example: Dont you disagree

with the idea that?
4) Avoid double- barreled questions. Example: Do you want to
pursue a masters degree in nursing and seek an administrative
position upon graduation?

Scales commonly used in an instrument:

Scale a measuring instrument composed of several items that
have a logical or empirical relationship with each other.
1) Categorical Response scale
Example:
YES NO DONT KNOW
NOT APPLICABLE
2) Summative scale or Likert scale - researcher may select
a 5 point Likert scale; 4 point Likert type scale or a 3 point Likert
type scale. The rating scale will depend on the problem
statement of the study.
Example:
5
Strongly Agree
4
Agree
3
Uncertain
2
Disagree
1
Strongly Disagree
3) Graphic scale
Example:
Unfair
________________________Very Fair
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
4) Semantic Differential
Example:
Good _______________________________Bad

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF INSTRUMENT

Validity the ability of the instrument to measure what is purports to
measure
Types:
1) Face validity or Logical validity involves an analysis of
whether the instrument is using a valid scale

2) Content validity validity is determined by examining the

questions or indicators to see whether they are able to elicit the
necessary information. An instrument with high validity has to meet
the objectives of the study. This type of validity is not measured by a
numerical index but instead relies on logical instrument as to whether
the test really measures what is is supposed to measure.
Content validity is measured by subjecting the instrument to
analysis by a group of experts ( 3 -5 people who are knowledgeable
about the subject both in theory and practice).
3) Constuct validity refers to whether the test corresponds
with the theoretical constructs; concerned with the extent to which a
particular measure is related to the other measures and to which it is
consistent with the theoretically- derived hypothesis
4) Criterion- related validity involves determining the
relationship between an instrument and an external criterion. The
instrument is said to be valid if its scores correlate highly with scores in
the criterion

Reliability refers to consistency of results.

Methods in establishing reliability:
1) Test- retest or Stability the same test is given to a group
of participants twice. The scores in the 1st test are correlated with the
scores in the 2nd test. When there is a high correlation index, it means
that there is a high reliability test
2) Internal consistency test in question is designed to
measure a single basic concept. It is reasonable to assume that a
participant/ respondent who gets 1 item right is highly likely to be
correlated with each other.
3) Equivalence the degree to which 2 or more independent
observers or coders agree about the scoring on an instrument. If there

is a high level of agreement, then the assumption is that measurement

error has been minimized.

4. DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE discussion of the procedure on the

manner or conduct of data collection in sequential order, from the obtaining
consent up to the distribution and retrieval of instruments

5. STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA This is used for quantitative ,

when researcher is dealing with numerical data
Statistics is the body of logic and techniques useful for collection,
organization, presentation, analysis and interpretation of information/
data collected
Branches of Statistics:
A) Descriptive statistics involves tabulating, depicting,
describing collected data. Data are summarized to reveal overall
patterns
1) Frequency distribution- record of the number of
individuals or cases located in each category on the scale
of measurement
2) Proportions total frequency divided by the number of
cases in each category. Derived from frequency distribution
3) Percentage proportion expressed in %
4) Measures of central tendencies- indicates where the
center of the distribution tends to be located.
a) Mode- the most frequently occurring score in a
distribution
b) Median the middlemost value in a distribution
below or above which is exactly 50% of cases found
c) Mean the exact mathematical center of a
distribution. It is equal to the sum of all scores of cases
divided by the number of cases

B) Inferential statistics
1) Parametric tests require a normal distribution; level
of measurement must either be interval or ration
a) t- test used to compare 2 means; can be used
with samples of at least 30 elements
b) z test used to compare 2 means- the sample
mean and the perceived population mean; can be
used when sample has 30 or more elements
c) F test known as Analysis of Variance or
ANOVA; used when comparing means of 2 or more
independent groups. One way ANOVA when there is
1 variable involved; two way ANOVA- when there are
2 or more variables involved.
d) Pearson product moment coefficient of
correlation or pearson r an index of relationship
between tow variables
e) Simple linear regression analysis- when there
is a significant relationship between x and y
variables; used in predicting the value of y given the
value of x
f) Multiple regression analysis used in
predictions; the dependent variable can be predicted
given several independent variables

2) Non Parametric Tests this does not require the

normal distribution of scores; can be utilized when the data
are nominal or ordinal
a) Chi square test test of difference between the
observed and the expected frequencies
Functions of chi-square test

 The Test of Goodness of Fit test of

difference between the observed and the
expected frequencies
The Test of Homogeneity concerned with 2
or more samples with only 1 criterion variable ;
used to determine if 2 or more populations are
homogenous
The Test of Independence samples used
consist of members randomly drawn from the
same population; used to look into which
measures are taken or if 2 criterion variables are
either independent or associated with 1 in a
given population