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Erich U. Petersen
OBJECTIVE
In this laboratory exercise you will learn to use reflected-light observations to
identify minerals in polished mounts or polished thin-sections.
PROCEDURE
Read Craig and Vaughan (1981), Spry and Gedlinske (1987), and review the
accompanying summary before you begin work. Eight techniques will be used to
distinguish minerals in reflected-light.
1.
Color - especially color contrasts between your unknown and known minerals.
Best seen in oil, but it's messy (We will not use oils).
2.
Reflectivity - the amount of light reflected back by the mineral. In a lab set up for
quantitative work, monochromatic light sources are used, and the light reflected
from the mineral is measured by a photocell. We will simply note whether the
reflectivity is weak, moderate, or strong.
3.
Hardness - In a lab set up for quantitative work, the size of indentations made by
small weights dropped for a fixed distance onto the polished surface are compared
from mineral to mineral (Microhardness testing). Instead, we will observe the
movement of the pseudo-Becke line, a faint bright line which moves into the softer
of two adjacent minerals as the objective/sample distance is increased.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
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Dissolved impurities also affect reflectivity, but again, except in a few cases like
sphalerite where an increase in iron content increases reflectivity, the differences are
practically negligible as far as visual comparison is concerned.
B. Color of Reflection
The colors of ore minerals, which range from pure white to gray, are one of their
most characteristic and useful properties. The eye is poor at 'remembering' a particular
color after even a very short time lag, and hence consecutive comparisons of color can be
made only for large differences. This means that a color cannot be distinguished by a
name, except in a crude way. For example pyrrhotite has a characteristic color ('pyrrhotite
color') which the observer soon learns to recognize, but which has been described in the
literature as cream, pale brownish-cream, clear-bronze, pale yellowish-red, and so on. As
color is a function of the character of the human eye, each observer must make his own
descriptions of the colors of minerals and must not be disconcerted if the pale cream
mineral he has just observed is described as light yellow by someone else. As the eye is
quite sensitive to very slight differences in hue or brightness of two minerals lying side by
side, use of the double, or comparison microscope is strongly urged. This apparatus
allows an unknown mineral to be viewed in the same field with a standard mineral from
another specimen.
Notes:
1. A difference in reflectivity can affect the eye, and where two minerals have a similar
color but different reflectivity, the one of higher reflectivity appears the clearer
because of its greater brightness.
2. The color of a mineral is strongly influenced by the color of neighboring crystals
('mutual color interference').
For example, chalcopyrite by itself has a
characteristic and easily recognizable yellow color. Inside sphalerite, it appears a
very clear yellow, but in contrast with native gold, it appears a dull greenish
yellow. In these circumstances, it may help to close down the IFS, so that the field
of view is essentially monomineralic.
3. Color is a function of the index of refraction of the immersion medium (the medium
comprising the space between the objective and the surface of the mineral).
Covellite in air (R.I. = 1.00) is deep blue, in water (R.I. - 1.333) violet blue, in
cedar oil (1.515) red violet, and in methelene iodide (R.I. = 1.74) orange red.
4. It should be stressed that many minerals which occupy solid solution fields (for
example ilmenite, sphalerite, pentlandite) will exhibit color variations, even in
identically oriented sections; occasionally, this leads to an overlapping of the colors
of minerals which may normally distinguished readily.
In some cases the change of color produced by immersion in cedar oil is an aid to
identification.
TO OBSERVE COLOR:
IFS and IAD (incident aperture diaphram) opened wide
Low power objective
High voltage for light of good intensity
Polarizer inserted, Analyzer withdrawn
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Mean Color
Color of R1 (darker)
Color of R2 (lighter)
covellite
blue
bluish-white
molybdenite
whitish to gray
whitish-gray
white
pyrrhotite
pinkish-brown
brownish-yellow
niccolite
clear pinkish-brown
bluish-white
cubanite
bronze-yellow
pink-brown
clear yellow
Notes:
1. Bireflectance, like color, is a function of the index of refraction of the immersion
medium. Generally, the higher the index of refraction of the immersion medium,
the higher the bireflectance of an ore mineral. You should examine covellite both in
air and in cedar oil to convince yourself of this fact.
2. Bireflectance is also a function of crystallographic orientation, and for every
anisotropic mineral, there is at least one crystallographic plane, sections parallel to
which will show no bireflectance (for example, sections of hexagonal or tetragonal
crystals perpendicular to the c-axis). Thus, observations of bireflectance should be
made on several grains of each anisotropic silicates.
3. Bireflectance is also shown by the carbonate of Pb, Fe, Mg and Ca, but not by the
common rock-forming silicates.
4. When studying a section, always record the strength of the bireflectance, and also
any color changes, if detectable, for several grains of each bireflectant mineral,
noting the relationships between the positions of maximum and minimum
reflectance and crystal outline, cleavage traces, etc.
TO OBSERVE BIREFLECTANCE (AND PLEOCHROISM):
IFS and IAD opened wide
Polarizer inserted, analyzer withdrawn
Low power objective
High voltage
Choose an area with several grains of the mineral in question and NO grains
of any other mineral showing bireflectance. (If this is not possible, close
down the IFS to shut out the unwanted mineral grains from the field of
view).
One final note . . . when you can detect the bireflectance of pyrrhotite and
arsenopyrite your eye is trained to a satisfactory sensitivity. Congratulations.
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D. Measurement of Hardness
There are numerous ways of estimating hardness in polished surfaces. When a
specimen is polished on a yielding (e.g. cloth) lap, obviously the harder minerals will be
cut less than the softer and thus stand in positive relief with respect to the softer. In such
cases it is possible to judge the relative polishing hardness by mere observation. But if the
specimen has a low-relief polish from a hard lap and diamond dust the hardness of minerals
softer than a steel needle may be judged by drawing the needle lightly across the surface of
the mineral in question. The lightest possible scratch is the most definitive. Comparative
hardness can be ascertained by drawing the needle lightly across a contact between a
known-mineral and an unknown, and relative hardness can be obtained by varying the
specimen - objective distance. With a little practice it is possible to estimate the difficulty
with which soft minerals scratch. One should eventually be able to estimate which of
Short's soft mineral groups A, B, C and D applies. With increasing practice, one can add
qualifications such as A-, slightly softer than A. This is an important property to measure
as accurately as possible.
Kalb Hardness Determination
At the junction of a hard and soft
grain, there tends to be a slight departure
from flatness, and the Kalb light-line effect,
which is analogous to the Becke-line effect,
can be observed.
As the distance between the objective
lens and the polished section is increased (i.e.
the stage is lowered) the white line will move
into the softer mineral.
TO OBSERVE THE KALB LINE:
Moderate voltage
IFS opened wide
IAD closed
10 X or 40 X power objective
Polarizer inserted, analyzer withdrawn
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Rotation of
polarizer
0o
-1o
-2o
-4o
Blue
Deep blue
Dark violet gray
Deep brownish-yellow
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cubanite
Clear orange-brown
-5o
Bluish-gray
Deep violet
Reddish brick-brown
Leather-brown
Purplish
0o
-2o
-5o to -4o
-6o to -5o
-6o
Bluish-gray
yellowish-white
Mineral
scheelite
sphalerite
clear blood red
miargyrite
rutile
azurite
cuprite
cinnabar
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chromite
hematite
wolframite
ilmenite
brownish-red
blood red
deep brown
very deep brown
tetrahedrite
uraninite
reddish brown
very deep brown
Focus initially at
F1; Lower mineral
specimen so that the
focus is now at F2
and observe th Kalb
line.
F2
F1
M2
M1
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arsenopyrite
bismuth (native)
Bi Hexagonal H = 2-2.5
White tarnishing to pink and brown
brighter than antimony; whiter than niccolite
Pleochroic
Very high reflectivity
Anisotropic - distinct to strongly so
bornite
Cu5FeS4 Isometric H = 3
Pinkish brown to orange - tarnishes purple and violet; darker
and more variegated than enargite
Moderate reflectivity
Anisotropic - weakly anomalous (it's isometric)
cassiterite
chalcocite
chalcopyrite
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covellite
chromite
enargite
Cu3AsS4 Orthorhombic H = 3
Grayish pink to grayish violet - pleochroic
pinkish white relative to bornite
pinkish brown relative to chalcocite
gray relative to galena
darker pink than tennantite
Moderate reflectivity
Anisotropic - strong blue to red to orange
galena
hematite
huebnerite
MnWO4 Monoclinic H = 5
Gray - pleochroic
similar to sphalerite
reddish and lighter than wolframite
Low reflectivity
Anisotropic - strong
ilmenite
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magnetite
Fe3O4 Isometric H = 6
Gray often with a brown tint
admixed TiO2 gives a brown tint
admixed MnO gives a yellow-green tint
much darker and browner than hematite
lighter than ilmenite
lighter than sphalerite
darker and duller than psilomelane
Low reflectivity
Isotropic
marcasite
molybdenite
niccolite
pentlandite
pyrrhotite
Fe1-XS Hexagonal H = 4.
Cream to red brown-tarnishes-pleochroic
much darker than pentlandite and niccolite
cream-brown relative to bismuth
High reflectivity
Anisotropic - strong-yellow-gray to green-gray to blue gray
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pyrite
rutile
TiO2 Tetragonal H =
High reflectivity
Anisotropic
Internal reflections, Twinning common
silver (native)
Ag Isometric H = 2.5-3
Bright white - tarnishes to pink or brown
brighter than native antimony, copper, or bismuth
Reflectivity - the highest of all ore minerals
sphalerite
stannite
wolframite
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REFERENCES
Craig, J.R. and Vaughan, D.J., 1981, Ore Microscopy and Ore Petrography. Wiley,
New York, 1-14, 33-47, 315-377.
Klein, C. and Hurlbut, C.S., Jr., Manual of Mineralogy, (Any Edition), John Wiley and
Sons.
Palache, C., Berman, H. and Frondel, C., 1944, Dana's System of Mineralogy, Volume I,
(Seventh edition), John Wiley and Sons, 834 p.
Spry, P.G. and Gedlinske, B.L., 1987, Tables for the Determination of Common Opaque
Minerals. Economic Geology.
Wuensch, B.J., 1974, Sulfide crystal chemistry, Sulfide Mineralogy, (P.H. Ribbe, Ed.),
W21- W44.
Zoltai, T. and Stout, J.H., 1984, Mineralogy: Concepts and Principles, Burgess
Publishing Company.
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Pleochroism
(1 filter)
Colored
Anisotopism
(2 filters)
Weakly Colored
Internal Reflections
Hardness
Mineral Group
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12
13
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Pleochroism, Anisotropism:
W, weak
S, strong
Internal Refelctions:
A, absent
P, present
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Hardness:
S, soft
M, medium
H, hard
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Mineral Group
1 breithauptite
covellite
delafossite
famatinite
idaite
luzonite
mackinawite
marcasite
mawsonite
niccolite
valleriite
2 cubanite
enargite
millerite
niccolite
pyrrhotite
3 bornite
chalcocite
chalcopyrite
bornite
4 bornite
bravoite
chalcopyrite
copper
digenite
gold/electrum
pyrite
tetrahedritetennantite
ulvospinel
5 alabandite
amphibole
biotite
brannerite
chromite
columbite
cuprite
feldspar
franklinite
freibergite
garnet
jacobsite
pyroxene
quartz
sphalerite
tetrahedritetennatite
uraninite
wurtzite
zincite
6 calaverite
chalcocite
djurleite
freibergite
galena
silver
tetradymite
7 allargentum
carrolite
coffinite
cooperite
maghemite
maucherite
pentlandite
platinum
tetrahedritetennantite
8 bixbyite
braunite
carrolite
chromite
cobaltite
gersdorffite
jacobsite
linnaeite
magnetite
pyrite
seigenite
skutterudite
sperrylite
ullmannite
violarite
9 pearcite
realgar
10 cuprite
scheelite
zincite
11 cassiterite
columbite
goethite
hematite
wolframite
12 acanthite
argentite
stephanite
tetradymite
13 bournonite
chalcostibite
dyscrasite
gaucodot
14 braunite
cobaltite
15 cassiterite
cinnabar
cuprite
goethite
hausmannite
hematite
manganite
pearceitepolybasite
realgar
rutile
zincite
16 bismuth
bismuthinite
boulangerite
bournonite
krennerite
stromeyerite
tetradymite
17 antimony
arsenic
braggite
cubanite
enargite
pararammelsbergite
stannite
18 arsenopyrite
ilmenite
loellingite
pyrolusite
rammelsberite
safflorite
19 cnnabar
jamesonite
lepidochrocite
miargyrite
orpiment
pyrolusitepyrargyrite
psilomelane
20 berthierite
boulangerite
calcite
chalcophanite
graphite
mackinawite
marcasite
molybednite
stibnite
tenorite
valleriite