Phyto-mediated biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using the rind extract
of watermelon (ce:italicCitrullus lanatus/ce:italic) under photo-catalyzed
condition and investigation of its antibacterial, anticandidal and antioxidant
efficacy
Jayanta Kumar Patra, Gitishree Das, Kwang-Hyun Baek
PII:
DOI:
Reference:

S1011-1344(16)30198-1
doi: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2016.05.021
JPB 10394

To appear in:
Received date:
Revised date:
Accepted date:

24 March 2016
30 April 2016
24 May 2016

Please cite this article as: Jayanta Kumar Patra, Gitishree Das, Kwang-Hyun Baek,
Phyto-mediated biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using the rind extract of watermelon (ce:italicCitrullus lanatus/ce:italic) under photo-catalyzed condition and investigation of its antibacterial, anticandidal and antioxidant ecacy, (2016), doi:
10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2016.05.021

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Phyto-mediated biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using the rind
extract of watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) under photo-catalyzed

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antioxidant efficacy

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condition and investigation of its antibacterial, anticandidal and

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Jayanta Kumar Patra1#, Gitishree Das2# and Kwang-Hyun Baek2*

Research Institute of Biotechnology & Medical Converged Science, Dongguk University,

Department of Biotechnology, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, Gyeongbuk 38541,

Republic of Korea

Both the authors contributed equally for this manuscript

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Ilsandong-gu, Gyeonggi-do 10326, Republic of Korea

*Corresponding author
Kwang-Hyun Baek, Ph.D.
Tel: 82-53-810-3029; Fax: 82-53-810-4769
E-mail: khbaek@ynu.ac.kr

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Abstract
The biological synthesis of nanoparticles has gained tremendous interest, and plants

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and plant extracts are preferred over other biological sources for this process because of their
rich content of bioactive metabolites. In this study, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were

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produced utilizing the aqueous extract of watermelon rind (WRA), an agricultural waste
material under photo exposed condition at room temperature, and tested for their antibacterial,

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anticandidal and antioxidant activities. The synthesized AgNPs showed surface plasmon
resonance at 425 nm with an average size of 109.97 nm. The morphology and elemental

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composition was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive
X-ray analysis (EDX). The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and

thermogravimetric and differential thermogravimetric analysis (TG/DTG) confirmed that the

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bioactive compounds from the WRA extract were involved in the synthesis and capping of
AgNPs. X-ray diffraction (XRD) revealed the crystallite nature of the AgNPs. The AgNPs
exhibited strong broad spectrum antibacterial activity against five different foodborne

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bacteria with zones of inhibition 9.1214.54 mm in diameter. When AgNPs were mixed with
kanamycin and rifampicin the mixture exhibited strong antibacterial synergistic activity. The
AgNPs also exerted strong synergistic anticandidal activity when they were combined with
amphotericin b. The AgNPs had high antioxidant activity and reducing power. Overall, the
results confirmed the bio-potentials of the synthesized AgNPs using WRA, which could have
applications in the biomedical, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, food preservation and packaging
industries.

Keywords: antibacterial, anticandidal, antioxidant, photo-catalyzed, phyto-mediated,

synergistic, silver nanoparticles, watermelon rind

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1. Introduction
Synthesis of different types of nanoparticles and their characterization comprise an

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interesting area of nanotechnology because the remarkable catalytic, electrical, magnetic and
optical properties of metal nanoparticles with broader applicability in the fields of biology,

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medicine, physics and chemistry (Song and Kim, 2009; Ali et al., 2016). Nanomaterials are
different from bulk structures due to various properties, such as their smaller sizes and high

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surface to volume ratios (Momeni and Nabipour, 2015). Metal nanoparticles can be
synthesized by chemical and physical methods (Shavel et al., 2012), electrochemical

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techniques (Maleki et al., 2008) and biological methods (Albrecht et al., 2006). Synthesis of
nanoparticles using chemical and physical methods is quite expensive and associated with

various disadvantages such as the use of toxic chemicals during synthesis, the need for high

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energy, and difficulties in purification (Begum et al., 2009). These methods often produce
toxic materials that are potentially harmful to the environment. Conversely, the biological
synthesis of nanoparticles using microorganisms, plants, proteins, polypeptides, and nucleic

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acids is considered as environment friendly and cost-effective, and does not require the use of
high pressure, temperature, energy, and toxic chemicals (Rai et al., 2008; Pugazhenthiran et
al., 2009; Thakkar et al., 2010; Devi et al., 2012). During the last five years, there have been
many attempts to develop various greener and cheaper methods for the biosynthesis of noble
nanoparticles using many biological sources (Rauwel et al., 2015; Ali et al., 2016).
Among biological methods, the extracts from living organisms such as plants,
microorganisms and algae are commonly used because they contain a wide range of
secondary metabolites with strong reducing potentials and can act as both reducing and
stabilizing agents in the synthesis process (Pandey et al., 2013; Kulkarni and Muddapur,
2014). The biomolecules found in these extracts, which include amino acids,
enzymes/proteins, polysaccharides, and polyphenols, can reduce target metal ions to produce

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desired nanoparticles of defined shapes and sizes (Momeni and Nabipour, 2015). Among the
biological sources, plants are highly desired for the synthesis of nanoparticles; therefore,

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many plants and extracts have been tested for this purpose during recent years (Bankar et al.,
2010; Roopan et al., 2012; Pandey et al., 2013; Kulkarni and Muddapur, 2014; Patra and

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Baek, 2015). Since plants are less sensitive to metal toxicity than algae and bacteria, they
provide a better green alternative for the biosynthesis of nanoparticles (Pandey et al., 2013).

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Nanoparticles synthesized by plants are better in terms of simplicity, speed of synthesis,

safety and ecological considerations (Borase et al., 2014). In addition to the faster rates of

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nanoparticle synthesis by plants, the produced nanoparticles are more stable than those
synthesized by physical and chemical methods (Song and Kim, 2009; Iravani, 2011). Apart

from plants, agricultural and food wastes derived from plants such as banana peels and

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custard apple peels, which are rich in phenolic compounds, pectin and lignin, have recently
been investigated for their potential in synthesis of different types of metal nanoparticles
(Bankar et al., 2010; Roopan et al., 2012).

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With the prevalence and increased resistance of microorganisms to multiple

antibiotics, there is an urgent need for new antimicrobial agents. Studies of antibiotics
formulated with metal nanoparticles have suggested potential for their use as antimicrobial
agents in the modern day health care system (Gardea-Torresdey et al. 2003; Shiv-Shankar et
al., 2003; Chandran et al., 2006; Gade et al., 2008). Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are gaining
particular attention because of their desirable properties, which include antimicrobial effects,
catalytic properties and high surface to volume ratios (Zhou et al., 2012; Okafor et al., 2013;
Rai et al., 2014). AgNPs exhibit higher bactericidal activity and biocompatibility than other
bactericidal nanoparticles (Nazeruddin et al., 2014; Yahyaei et al., 2014). Currently, AgNPs
are widely used in numerous consumer products, including catalysts, antimicrobial materials,
paint, textiles, laundry additives, and even food storage containers. They are also widely used

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for the disinfection of medical instruments, as well as in medical supplies such as wound
dressings, tissue scaffolds, intermittent catheters, and orthopedic prostheses (Mukherjee et al.,

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2008).
Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus var. lanatus) is one of the most abundantly consumed

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fruits worldwide (Lakshmipathy et al., 2015). The red flesh of watermelon is edible, but the
outer rind is considered waste with no commercial value. However, watermelon rind is rich in

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a variety of bioactive compounds, including cellulose, citrulline, pectin, proteins and

carotenoids (Quek et al., 2007; Mort et al., 2008; Lakshmipathy et al., 2015). Therefore, this

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study was conducted to investigate the synthesis and characterization of AgNPs using the
aqueous extract of watermelon rind (WRA). Additionally, their future applications, such as

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their antibacterial, anticandidal and antioxidant properties were investigated.

2. Materials and Methods

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2.1. Plant materials and preparation of extract

Fresh watermelons were purchased from a local market in the Gyeongsan area,
Republic of Korea. After being carefully washed with tap water, the edible portions of the
watermelons were removed and the rinds of watermelon were collected (Figure 1A). About
50 g of rinds were washed twice with double distilled water, cut into small pieces (about 1 cm)
with a sterilized knife, immersed in 250 ml of deionized water in a 500 ml conical flask, and
boiled for 15 min with continuous stirring using a magnetic stirrer. After boiling, the mixture
was allowed to cool at room temperature and filtered through Whatman no. 1 filter paper.
The filtrate extract (denoted WRA) was collected into a sterilized bottle and kept at 4C until
further use.

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2.2. Synthesis of AgNPs using WRA
AgNPs were synthesized from AgNO3 by one step phyto bio-reduction procedure

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using WRA extract. Briefly, two sets of 100 mL of 1 mM AgNO3 solution in water in a 250
ml conical flask was added to 10 mL of WRA extract slowly drop by drop with continuous

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stirring at room temperature. One set was kept in darkness and another set was kept under
direct sunlight at ambient temperature and pressure. The bio-reduction of AgNO3 to

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synthesize AgNPs in both the sets were monitored visually by the change in color of the
reaction mixture with time. After synthesis, the reaction mixture containing AgNPs was

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centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 30 min using a high speed centrifuge (Supra 22K, Hanil
Science Industrial, Republic of Korea), after which the supernatant containing the water was

discarded and the pellet was collected. The pellet was then washed twice in distilled water

(Patra and Baek, 2015).

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and dried to a powder using a vacuum dryer (LVS 201T, Ilmvac GmbH, Germany, UK)

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2.3. Characterization of AgNPs

The synthesized AgNPs were subjected to characterization of their morphological,

physical and chemical properties by UV-Vis spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy
(SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
(FT-IR), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) analysis and thermogravimetric and differential
thermogravimetric analysis (TG/DTG) as previously described (Vimalanathan et al., 2013;
Khalil et al., 2014).

2.3.1. UV-Vis spectroscopy

The reduction of Ag+ ions to form AgNPs was monitored by measuring the absorption
spectra of the reaction solution using a microplate reader (Infinite 200 PRO NanoQuant,

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TECAN, Switzerland) at a resolution of 1 nm between 350 nm to 550 nm for 24 h. Samples
were collected every 30 min time interval in a microplate, and then the color of the reaction

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solution and its absorbance scan was carried out at the time intervals.

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2.3.2. SEM and EDX analysis

The surface morphology and elemental composition of the synthesized AgNPs were

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characterized by SEM and EDX. For the SEM image, the powdered AgNPs were spread
uniformly on the sample holder using a specialized tape, sputter coated with platinum using

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an ion coater for 120 Sec, and then observed under a scanning electron microscope (S-4200,
Hitachi, Japan). The size distribution of AgNPs was obtained by counting around 100

particles from an enlarged SEM image described by Zhou et al. (2001). The elemental

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composition of the powdered AgNPs was subsequently analyzed using an EDX detector
(EDS, EDAX Inc., Mahwah, NJ, USA) attached to the SEM machine.

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2.3.3. FT-IR analysis

The FT-IR spectra of both powdered AgNPs and WRA extract were measured at
wavelengths ranging from 400 cm1 to 4000 cm1 by an FT-IR spectrophotometer (Jasco
5300, JASCO, Marys Court, Easton, MD, USA) (Basavegowda and Lee, 2013). Prior to
analysis, the powdered AgNPs were mixed with KBr powder at a 1:100 ratio and ground to
make a thin film using a specially designed screw knot, after which they were analyzed for
the presence of different types of functional groups responsible for the synthesis of AgNPs
using different modes of vibrations. For analysis, about 2 L of WRA extract was placed
directly onto the thin sheet of the sample holder, spread uniformly and analyzed.

2.3.4. XRD analysis

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The structures of the synthesized AgNPs were determined using an XRD machine
(XPert MRD, PANalytical, Almelo, The Netherlands). The machine setup for the XRD

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analysis was 30kV and 40mA with Cu K radians at an angle of 2. The powdered samples
were loaded on the specially designed sample holder glass slides, uniformly spread and

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clamped onto the XRD machine for analysis of the crystalline structure.

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2.3.5. TG/DTG analysis

The TG/DTG analysis of the powdered AgNPs was measured in a TGA machine

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(SDT Q600, TA Instruments, New Castle, DE, USA) at 20C700C with a ramping time of
10C/min under N2 gas. Prior to analysis, about 5 mg of AgNPs were weighed in a clean dry

alumina pan, placed under the TG/DTG machine and analyzed for the degradation of organic

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matter with the increase in temperature.

2.4. Antimicrobial activity of the green synthesized AgNPs against foodborne pathogens

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2.4.1. Determination of antibacterial potential

The antibacterial potential of AgNPs was determined against five different foodborne
pathogenic bacteria by the standard disc diffusion method (Diao et al., 2013). The foodborne
pathogenic bacteria used in the study included Bacillus cereus ATCC 13061, Listeria
monocytogenes ATCC 19115, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 49444, Escherichia coli ATCC
43890 and Salmonella typhimurium ATCC 43174, which were obtained from the American
Type Culture Collection (ATCC, Manassas, VA, USA). Nutrient agar (NA) and nutrient
broth (NB) used in this study were purchased from Becton, Dickinson and Company
(Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA). Powdered AgNPs were dissolved at 1,000 g/mL in 5%
dimethylsulphoxide (DMSO) and sonicated for 15 min at 30C to prepare a colloidal solution.
Filter paper discs (6 mm, Advantec, Toyo Roshi Kaisha Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) were prepared at

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a concentration of 50 g AgNPs/disc. The NA plates were spread uniformly with overnight
grown pathogen cultures (1 107 CFU/ml) in NB, after which the filter paper discs were

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placed on the plates and incubated at 37C for 24 h. The diameters of the zones of inhibition

2.4.2. Determination of MIC and MBC

minimum

inhibitory

concentration

(MIC)

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The

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around each filter paper disc were then recorded.

and

minimum

bactericidal

concentration (MBC) of AgNPs against the five foodborne pathogens were determined by the

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two fold dilution method, with minor modifications (Kubo et al., 2004). Prior to use, different
dilutions of the AgNPs in 5% DMSO were prepared by the two-fold dilution method in NB in

a 96 well microplate at the concentrations of 100, 50, 25, 12.5 and, 6.25 g/mL. Next, 10 L

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of the overnight grown culture of each bacterial strain was inoculated into the microplates
separately, after which samples were incubated at 37C for 24 h. The lowest concentration of
AgNPs that did not show any visible growth of the tested bacteria on the microplates was

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determined to be the MIC value. The lowest concentration of AgNPs that showed complete
absence of growth of bacterial colonies on the surface of NA plates was determined to be the
MBC. Both the MIC and MBC were expressed in g/mL.

2.4.3. Synergistic antibacterial potential of AgNPs with standard antibiotics

The synergistic effects of AgNPs with two standard antibiotics (kanamycin and
rifampicin) were determined by the disc diffusion method, with slight modification (Naqvi et
al., 2013). Briefly, AgNPs and antibiotics mixture solutions were prepared by mixing 500 L
of AgNPs at 1,000 g/mL and 500 L of each antibiotic at 200 g/mL in a vial, after which
the solution was sonicated for 15 min at room temperature. Filter paper discs with
AgNPs/antibiotics were then prepared by putting 50 L of the mixture solution on the filter

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paper disc (final concentration 25 g AgNPs and 5 g each standard antibiotic/disc). The
AgNPs/antibiotics filter paper discs were then placed on NA plates spread with the foodborne

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pathogens and incubated at 37C for 24 h. The synergistic antibacterial activity was
documented by measuring the diameters of the zones of inhibition in millimeters around the

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AgNPs/antibiotic discs on the plate.

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2.4.4. Synergistic anticandidal potential of AgNPs with standard amphotericin b

The synergistic anticandidal potential of AgNPs and the standard amphotericin b was

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determined against five pathogenic Candida species, C. albicans KACC 30003 and KACC
30062, C. glabrata KBNO6P00368, C. geochares KACC 30061 and C. saitoana KACC

41238, using the disc diffusion method (Murray et al., 1995). The C. glabrata

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KBNO6P00368 was obtained from Chonbuk National University Hospital (Cheongju,

Republic of Korea), while all other Candida species used in the study were obtained from the
Korean Agricultural Culture Collection (KACC, Suwon, Republic of Korea). AgNPs at 2

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mg/mL and amphotericin b at 200 g/mL were mixed equally in a 1:1 ratio and sonicated for
15 min at room temperature. AgNPs/amphotericin b filter paper discs were prepared by
adding 50 l of the AgNPs/amphotericin b mixture on a filter paper disc (final concentration,
50 g AgNPs and 5 g amphotericin b/disc). Potato dextrose agar (PDA) plates (Difco,
Becton, Dickinson and Company, Sparks Glencoe, MD, USA) were spread uniformly with
Candida species grown in potato dextrose broth (PDB, Difco, Becton, Dickinson and
Company, Sparks Glencoe, MD, USA), after which the AgNPs/amphotericin b filter paper
discs were placed over the PDA plates. The plates were then incubated at 28C for 48 h, after
which the diameters of the zones of inhibition around each paper disc were measured to
determine the synergistic anticandidal activity of the AgNPs/amphotericin b mixture solution.

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2.5. Antioxidant activity of AgNPs
The antioxidant potentials of the AgNPs were determined by 1,1-diphenyl-2-

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picrylhydraxyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging, nitric oxide scavenging, 2,2'-azino-bis[3ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid] (ABTS) free radical scavenging and a reducing power

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assay. All chemicals used in antioxidant assays, including ABTS, ascorbic acid, DPPH, and

2.5.1. DPPH free radical scavenging activity

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Griess reagent, were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA).

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The DPPH free radical scavenging potential of AgNPs was determined as per
standard procedure (Patra and Baek, 2015). Briefly, a 100 L reaction mixture composed of

50 L of AgNPs at concentrations of 20100 g/mL and 50 L of 0.1 mM DPPH in

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methanol was prepared. The reaction mixtures were then mixed properly and incubated at
37C with shaking at 150 rpm for 30 min in darkness, after which the absorbance at 517 nm
was recorded using a microplate reader. The negative control consisted of 50 L of methanol

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with 50 L of 0.1 mM DPPH in methanol. The reference control consisted of a mixture of 50

L of butylated hydroxyl toluene (BHT) at different concentrations (20100 g/mL) with 50
L of 0.1 mM DPPH in methanol. The percentage scavenging effect of AgNPs was
calculated as follows:

DPP radical scavenging

Control

Treatment

Treatment

100

where, Controlabs was the absorbance of the control and Treatmentabs was the absorbance of
the treatment.

2.5.2. ABTS free radical scavenging activity

The ABTS free radical scavenging potential of AgNPs was determined according to
the standard procedure (Thaipong et al., 2006). Before the experiment, stock solution of 7.4
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mM ABTS and 2.6 mM potassium persulfate was prepared, mixed in equal volume and kept
in the dark for 12 h to generate the ABTS working solution. For analysis, 15 L of AgNPs at

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different concentrations (20100 g/mL) was added to 135 L of the ABTS working solution
and kept in darkness for 2 h. The absorbance of the reaction mixture was then recorded at 750

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nm. The negative control consisted of 15 L of methanol with 135 L of the ABTS working
solution. The reference control was made by adding 15 L of BHT at different concentrations

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(20100 g/mL) to 135 L of the ABTS working solution. The percentage ABTS free radical
scavenging activity was calculated according to the following equation:
Control

Treatment

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ABTS radical scavenging

Treatment

100

where, Controlabs was the absorbance of the control and Treatmentabs was the absorbance of

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the treatment.

2.5.3. Nitric oxide scavenging activity

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The nitric oxide radical scavenging potential of AgNPs was determined as previously
described (Patra et al., 2015). Briefly, a 200 L reaction mixture was made by mixing 100 L
of AgNPs at different concentrations (20100 g/mL) and 100 L of 10 mM sodium
nitroprusside in phosphate buffer saline (pH 7.4). The reaction mixture was then incubated at
37C for 1 h in light. After incubation, 75 L aliquots of the reaction mixture were added to
75 L of Griess reagent (1.0% sulfanilamide and 0.1% naphthyl ethylene diamine
dihydrochloride) in a 96-well flat bottom microplate (SPL Life Sciences, Gyeonggi-do, South
Korea) and incubated at 25C for 30 min in darkness. The absorbance of the reaction mixture
was measured at 546 nm using the microplate reader. A reaction mixture composed of 100
L of methanol and 100 L of 10 mM sodium nitroprusside in phosphate buffer saline (pH
7.4) was taken as the negative control, while a reaction mixture containing 100 L of
different concentrations of BHT (20100 g/mL) and 100 L of 10 mM sodium nitroprusside
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in phosphate buffer saline (pH 7.4) was taken as the reference control. The nitric oxide

Control

Treatment

Treatment

100

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Nitric oxide scavenging

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scavenging potential of AgNPs was calculated from the following equation:

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where, Controlabs was the absorbance of the control and Treatmentabs was the absorbance of

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the treatment.

2.5.4. Reducing power activity

The reducing power of AgNPs was determined as previously described (Patra and

Beak, 2015). Briefly, a 150 L reaction mixture composed of 50 L each of 0.2 M phosphate

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buffer (pH 6.6), 1% potassium ferricyanide and AgNPs at different concentrations (20100
g/mL) was incubated at 50C for 20 min in darkness. Following incubation, the reaction

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was terminated by the addition of 50 L of 10% trichloro acetic acid (TCA) to the reaction
mixture and centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 10 min. Next, 50 L of the supernatant was
transferred to a 96-well microplate, after which 50 L of distilled water and 10 L of 0.1%
FeCl3 solution were added and the samples were incubated for 10 min at room temperature.
Following incubation, the absorbance at 700 nm was measured and the reducing power of the
AGNPs was expressed in terms of the absorbance. BHT instead of AgNPs was taken as the
reference control.

2.6. Statistical analysis

All data are expressed as the mean value of three independent replicates the
standard deviation (SD). Significance differences between the mean values obtained among
treatments were identified by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Duncans
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test at the 5% level of significance (P < 0.05) using the Statistical Analysis Software (SAS)
(Version: SAS 9.4, SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). The chemical structures of

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compounds were drawn using the ACD/ChemSketch software (ACD/ChemSketch Freeware,

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Advanced Chemistry Development, Inc., Toronto, Ontario, Canada).

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3. Results
3.1.Characterization of synthesized AgNPs

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The synthesis of AgNPs using WRA extract by the bioreduction process from AgNO3
solution to Ag nanoparticle solution was rapid in case of the reaction mixture set which was

exposed to direct light (photo condition) and there was change in color of the solution from

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colorless to reddish brown during incubation at room temperature (Figure 1B inset). However,
the reaction mixture which was kept under complete dark condition did not show any
significant development of change in color even after 12 h of incubation period, thus was

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discarded from further characterization and only the photo-catalyzed AgNPs were further
characterized. The initial change in the color of the solution was observed after 1 h of
incubation in case of photo exposed reaction solution, while a distinct color change occurred
after 3 h and complete color change to reddish brown was observed at 24 h (Figure 1B). For
further confirmation of the formation of AgNPs, the UV-Vis spectra of the solution were
recorded at different time intervals over 24 h. The maximum absorbance peak of the mixture
solution was observed at 425 nm at different time intervals (Figure 1B).

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Figure 1: Watermelon fruit and outer rind (A) and UV-Vis spectra of AgNPs (B; inset:
change in color of the reaction solution, A-AgNO3 solution; B- WRA extract; CAgNPs solution).
Characterization of the morphological, chemical and physical properties of AgNPs
was conducted by a number of techniques, namely SEM-EDX analysis, FT-IR analysis, XRD
analysis and TG/DTG analysis. The morphological characteristics of the synthesized AgNPs
were observed by SEM (Figure 2A). The nanoparticles were found to be agglomerated
(Figure 2A); however, the shape of the AgNPs were spherical in nature (Figure 2A, inset).
The particle size distribution of the AgNPs was obtained by counting about 100 particles
from an enlarged SEM image, and the diameter was calculated to be within a range of 20
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260 nm with an average size of 109.97 nm (Figure 2B). The elemental composition of the
synthesized AgNPs was confirmed by EDX analysis (Figure 2C). A strong peak observed at

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3 keV indicated the presence of elemental Ag nanoparticles. Ag metal was found to account
for 55.18% of the total composition upon EDX analysis (Figure 2C, inset). EDX analysis also

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revealed the presence of carbon (18.27%), oxygen (11.85%) and chlorine (14.69%) (Figure

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2C, inset).

Figure 2: Scanning electron microscopy image (A); size distribution graph (B) and; EDX
spectra (C, inset: elemental composition percentage) of AgNPs.
FT-IR analysis of the WRA extract and the synthesized AgNPs is shown in Figure 3A.
Absorption peaks located at 3438.38, 2353.05, 2157.81, 1645.40, 779.50, 664.44 and 564.98
cm-1 were observed in the WRA extract, whereas absorption peaks located at 3448.71,
2365.51, 1654.92, 1384.10, 1101.59, 682.57 and 541.19 cm-1 were observed for the AgNPs
(Figure 3A). The chemical structures of the active components present in the WRA extract
are presented in Figure 3B. The XRD pattern of the synthesized AgNPs is shown in Figure 4.
The diffraction pattern showed eight well-resolved diffraction peaks at a 2 angle of 27.57,
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32.00, 37.99, 46.05, 54.69, 57.29, 67.34 and, 76.72 corresponding to (220), (122), (111),
(231), (331), (241), (220) and (311), respectively (Figure 4). The results of the TG/DTG

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analysis of the synthesized AgNPs are shown in Figure 5. A total of 38.82% weight loss was
observed in three different phases when the AgNPs was heated to 700C in controlled N2 gas

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inside the TGA machine. The first phase of weight loss was observed between 12C and
250C, when 9.56% of the weight was lost. The second loss of 20.69% of the weight was

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observed between 250C and 400C. The third phase of the weight loss (8.57%) was

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observed from 400C to 700C (Figure 5).

Figure 3: FT-IR spectra of WRA extract and AgNPs (A); Chemical structure of active
components in WRA extract (B).
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Figure 4: XRD spectra of AgNPs.

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Figure 5: TG/DTG analysis of AgNPs.

3.2. Antibacterial activity of AgNPs
The antibacterial activity of synthesized AgNPs was measured against five different
foodborne pathogenic bacteria (Table 1, Figure 6). AgNPs at 50 g/disc were active against
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all tested pathogens with a diameter of the zone of inhibition of 9.12 to 14.54 mm (Table 1,
Figure 6). Among the five pathogens, AgNPs contained the highest controlling activity

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against S. aureus (14.54 mm inhibition zone) and the lowest activity against L.
monocytogenes (9.12 mm inhibition zone). The MIC values of AgNPs against the five

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foodborne pathogenic bacteria ranged from 12.5 to 50 g/mL, and the MBC values ranged
from 25 to 100 g/mL (Table 1).

AgNPs
Bacteria

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Table 1: Antibacterial activity of AgNPs against five foodborne pathogenic bacteria

MIC

MBC
5 % DMSO

(g/mL)

B. cereus ATCC 13061

10.410.21b*

25

0.000.00

50

E. coli ATCC 43890

10.450.28b

25

0.000.00

50

50

0.000.00

100

9.120.33c

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L. monocytogenes ATCC 19115

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(50 g/disc)

(g/mL)

14.540.56a

12.5

0.000.00

25

S. typhimurium ATCC 43174

11.120.43b

50

0.000.00

100

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S. aureus ATCC 49444

*Data are expressed as the mean zone of inhibition in mm SD. Values with different
superscript letters are significantly different at P< 0.05.
The synthesized AgNPs mixed with standard antibiotics kanamycin and rifampicin
were tested for synergistic antibacterial activity against five foodborne pathogens (Table 2
and Figure 6). AgNPs mixed with kanamycin increased the diameter of the zone of inhibition
significantly when compared to treatment with only AgNPs; however, those mixed with
rifampicin did not increase the controlling effect against the five pathogens (Table 2).

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Table 2: Synergistic antibacterial activity of AgNPs (25g) with standard antibiotics
kanamycin (5g) or rifampicin (5g) against five foodborne pathogenic bacteria

Bacteria
Kanamycin

AgNPs +

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AgNPs +

Rifampicin

12.190.35b*

10.620.26b

E. coli ATCC 43890

10.690.34c

9.460.22c

L. monocytogenes ATCC 19115

12.160.26b

10.260.21b

S. aureus ATCC 49444

16.061.92a

15.630.40a

S. typhimurium ATCC 43174

12.280.64b

11.310.72b

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B. cereus ATCC 13061

*Data are expressed as the mean zone of inhibition in mm SD. Values in the same column

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with different superscript letters are significantly different at P< 0.05.

Figure 6: Antibacterial activity and synergistic antibacterial capacity of AgNPs against five
different foodborne pathogenic bacteria.
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3.3. Synergistic anticandidal activity of AgNPs
The results of the synergistic anticandidal activity of AgNPs/amphotericin b mixture

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are presented in Table 3 and Figure 7. The AgNPs at a concentration of 50 g/disc did not
inhibit the growth of any of the Candida species, whereas amphotericin b at a concentration

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of 5 g/disc was only able to inhibit C. albicans KACC 30062 and C. glochares KACC
30061, with 11.01 mm and 10.72 mm inhibition zones, respectively (Table 3, Figure 7).

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However, when the mixture of AgNPs and amphotericin b was tested against Candida
species, it inhibited the growth of all tested species, with inhibition zones of 10.6614.00 mm

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(Table 3). The mixture also increased the diameter of inhibition zones of C. albicans KACC
30062 and C. glochares KACC 30061 relative to amphotericin b treatment (Table 3, Figure

7).

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Table 3: Synergistic anticandidal activity of AgNPs (50 g) with an antifungal agent,

amphotericin b (5g), against pathogenic Candida species

Amphotericin b

AgNPs +

(50 g/disc)

(5 g/disc)

Amphotericin b

C. albicans KACC 30003

00

00

11.190.41d

C. albicans KACC 30062

00

11.010.14d

14.000.59a

C. glabrata KBNO6P00368

00

00

10.660.54d

C. glochares KACC 30061

00

10.720.27d

13.160.34b

C. saitoana KACC 41238

00

00

12.49 0.31c

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AgNPs

Candida

*Data are expressed as the mean zone of inhibition in mm SD. Values with different
superscript letters are significantly different at P< 0.05.

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Figure 7: Synergistic anticandidal activity of AgNPs and five different pathogenic Candida
species.

3.4. Antioxidant activity of AgNPs

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The antioxidant activities of AgNPs are presented in Figure 8. The DPPH free radical
scavenging activity of AgNPs at 20100 g/mL ranged from 21.65% to 60.97% (Figure 8A),

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whereas the scavenging activity of the standard reference compound BHT ranged from 13.53%
to 35.17% at the same concentration (Figure 8A). The nitric oxide scavenging activity of
AgNPs and the BHT as the standard reference compound are shown in Figure 8B. The
scavenging activity of AgNPs and BHT ranged from 9.05% to 54.15% and 38.79% to
61.50%, respectively at a concentration of 20100 g/mL (Figure 8B). The results of the
ABTS radical scavenging activity of both AgNPs and BHT are presented in Figure 8C. Both
AgNPs and BHT displayed scavenging activities of 11.25% to 55.26% and 57.97% to
88.67%, respectively, at a concentration of 20100 g/mL (Figure 8C). The reducing power
of both AgNPs and BHT at a concentration of 20100 g/mL is presented in Figure 8D. Both
AgNPs and BHT displayed increased reducing power that was positively correlated with the
concentration of the reactants.

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Figure 8: Antioxidant activity of AgNPs; (A) DPPH free radical scavenging activity; (B)

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nitric oxide scavenging activity; (C) ABTS radical scavenging activity and (D) reducing
power activity. Different superscript letters in each column indicate significant differences at

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P<0.05.

4. Discussion

Biosynthesized metal nanoparticles have been shown to be the most efficient mode of
drug delivery in modern science (Arokiyaraj et al., 2014; Banala et al., 2015). The utilization
of various medicinal plant materials, microbes, enzymes, agricultural wastes and food wastes
for the synthesis of nanoparticles has been revolutionized during recent years, and these
nanoparticles can serve as alternatives for antibiotics and medicines, as well as be utilized in
drug delivery and cancer treatment (Palanisamy et al., 2014; Banala et al., 2015). In the
present study, AgNPs were synthesized using watermelon rind aqueous extracts (Figure 1A),
which is a novel approach of utilizing biological waste materials in the synthesis of

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nanoparticles. This process of nanoparticle synthesis is photo catalyzed, environmental
friendly, nontoxic and cost effective.

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The gradual change in the color of the reaction solution in the photo catalyzed
reaction to reddish brown (Figure 1B inset) might have been due to surface plasmon

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resonance (SPR) vibrations of AgNPs influenced by photo condition (Krishnaraj et al., 2010).
Similar changes in color have been observed in previous studies (Singhal et al., 2011; Lalitha

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et al., 2013; Namratha and Monica, 2013), indirectly confirming the synthesis of AgNPs.
Further characterization of the synthesized AgNPs was conducted using UV-Vis spectra

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recorded after different time intervals (Figure 1B). Metal nanoparticles have free electrons
that yield a SPR absorption band because of the mutual vibration of electrons of metal

nanoparticles in response to light waves (Anandalakshmi et al., 2015). The appearance of the

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maximum absorbance peak at 425 nm was due to the characteristic feature of the SPR of
silver nanoparticles (Anandalakshmi et al., 2015). In general, peaks at longer wavelengths
indicate an increase in particle size, whereas those at shorter wavelengths represent smaller

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sized particles (Smitha et al., 2008; Sathishkumar et al., 2009; Ali et al., 2016). The UV-Vis
spectra was measured a longer spectrum, depending on the shape and size of the NPs, which
suggested that the synthesized AgNPs are polydispersed in nature. The polydispersity nature
of the AgNPs might be due to various secondary metabolites present in the WRA extract that
have potentially different reduction properties, which may have affected the AgNPs
nucleation and growth (Anandalakshmi et al., 2015; Ali et al., 2016). This nature of the
synthesized AgNPs was further confirmed by the SEM image (Figure 2A) and the particle
size distribution (Figure 2B). These findings are similar to those of previous studies (Awwad
2013, Banala et al., 2015, Banerjee et al., 2014, Anandalakshmi et al., 2015).
The elemental composition of AgNPs showed the presence of other elements,
including carbon, oxygen and chlorine, along with the dominant silver (Figure 2C). These

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findings can be attributed to the use of the WRA extract in the synthesis process. The WRA
extract consists of different types of bioactive compounds and secondary metabolites,

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including cellulose, carotenoids, pectin, and proteins, which might be responsible for the bioreduction of AgNO3 to AgNPs. The presence of these compounds was confirmed by the EDX

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spectra (Lakshmipathy et al., 2015).

FTIR spectra measurements were carried out in order to identify various functional

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groups present in the bioactive compounds in the WRA extract that were responsible for the
bioreduction of Ag+ and capping/stabilization of AgNPs. The observed intense bands in both

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WRA extract and AgNPs were compared with the reference standard values to identify the
particular functional groups in the WRA extract which were responsible for the synthesis

process (Jyoti et al., 2015). The FT-IR spectra of the synthesized AgNPs revealed the

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involvement of functional groups present in the WRA extract as reducing/capping agents

(Figure 3A). The intense broad band located at 3448 and 3438 cm-1 in the spectra of AgNPs
and the WRA extract corresponded to O

stretching of the alcohol and phenol group. The

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peaks located at 1654 and 1645 cm-1 for AgNPs and the WRA extract corresponded to
C C stretching of the alkenes group, respectively, while those located at 682 and 664 cm-1
for AgNPs and the WRA extract, respectively, corresponded to CCH: CH stretching of
alkyne groups (Dauthal et al., 2013). A strong peak at 1384 cm-1 corresponded to the C-N
stretch vibrations as well as to the amide I bands of the proteins (Gurunathan et al., 2015).
These functional groups have roles in stability/capping of AgNPs as reported in previous
studies (Niraimathi et al., 2013; Prakash et al., 2013). Watermelon rind is rich in phenolic
compounds, flavonoids, lycopene and citrulline as the major component (Figure 3B)
(Perkins-Veazie and Collins, 2004; Campbell, 2006; Parmar and Kar, 2009; Rahman, 2010;
Davis et al., 2011; Al-Sayed and Ahmed, 2013). The bio-reduction and capping of the silver
ion into the AgNPs in the present study might have been due to the presence of these organic

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compounds and proteins in the WRA extract (Prabhu et al., 2010; Reddy et al., 2014; Zuas et
al., 2014).

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The AgNPs were further characterized using XRD to confirm the particles as silver
and determine their structural information (Figure 4). The XRD pattern of the synthesized

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AgNPs is shown in Figure 4. The diffraction pattern showed eight well-resolved diffraction
peaks at a 2 angle that correspond to (220), (122), (111), (231), (331), (241), (220) and (311)

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planes of silver as per the standard FCC structures of Ag (JCPDS card no. 04-0783) (Khurana
et al., 2014; Roy et al., 2015). Along with the identified peaks, two unassigned weaker peaks

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were obtained at 74.68 and 85.78, which might have been due to the bioorganic compounds
from WRA extract occurring on the surface of AgNPs as capping agents (Anandalakshmi et

al., 2015). The relatively high levels of the phenols, flavonoids and lycopenes in the WRA

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extract might have acted as reducing agents and other phyto-constituents as the capping
agents which was presumed to have provided the stability to the AgNPs. The synthesized
AgNPs were found to be within a range of 20260 nm with an average size of 109.97 nm and

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be spherical in shape which was influenced by the reaction temperature, dosage of the WRA
extract and the secondary metabolites present in it (Vanaja et al., 2013; Ahmed et al., 2016).
The TG/DTG curve recorded at a heating rate of 10C/min when the AgNPs were
heated to 700C (Figure 5). Taking into account the shape of the curves, it can be concluded
that the reduction of silver nitrate to AgNPs is a three step process (Jelic et al., 2010). The
first step of degradation up to 250C was due to the loss of water molecules, the second
degradation up to 400C was due to the thermal degradation of the organic material from
WRA extract that acted as a capping agent for AgNPs and the third phase up to 700C
showed weight loss due to residual compounds (Badri-Narayanan and Sakthivel, 2013). It is
observed from the TGA curve that dominant weight loss of the sample occurred in
temperature region between 250 and 400C, whereas there was very little weight loss below

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250C and above 400C. Overall, the TGA results showed a total weight loss of 38.82% up to
700C. The DTA plot displays an intense exothermic peak between 250C and 400C which

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mainly attributed to crystallization of AgNPs. DTA profile showed the simultaneous

occurrence of the complete thermal decomposition and crystallization of the sample. The

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result outcome confirmed the involvement of the bioorganic compounds present in the WRA
extract in the synthesis and capping of the AgNPs, but those compounds were degraded at

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high temperatures (Khan et al., 2011; Shaik et al., 2013).

Silver has long been utilized for a variety of purposes (Elechiguerra et al., 2005).

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AgNPs synthesized using biological substrates are employed in different areas of basic and
applied research, including antibacterial, anticandidal and antioxidant activities (Nakkala et

al., 2014; Mata et al., 2015; Swamy et al., 2015; Ali et al., 2016). In the present study, the

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synthesized AgNPs were subjected to their antibacterial, anticandidal and antioxidant

potential studies. The AgNPs showed a broad spectrum of antibacterial activity, as indicated
from the results shown in Table 1 and Figure 6. The broad spectrum antibacterial potential of

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AgNPs might be due to differences in the bacterial morphological structures. AgNPs with an
average size of 109.97 nm might confer the ability to penetrate microbial cells and exert
bactericidal effects. The mechanism of action of silver nanoparticles is ambiguous in
microorganisms (Kim et al. 2007, 2011); however, it is assumed that the AgNPs due to their
smaller size might have penetrated inside the bacterial cells and impaired the respiration due
to diminution of energy compounds or by causing cell membrane damage (Ramesh et al.,
2015; Swamy et al., 2015). The enhanced antibacterial activity of AgNPs could be due to
their high specific surface area because of their small size and large fraction of surface atoms
when compared to the bulk silver metal (Shahverdi et al., 2007). AgNPs have been reported
to exhibit higher bactericidal activity and biocompatibility than other bactericidal
nanoparticles (Robertson, 2006; Rhim and Ng, 2007; Finnigan, 2009; Nazeruddin et al., 2014;

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Yahyaei et al., 2014); thus, the AgNPs synthesized using WRA extract could be beneficial for
use in biomedical applications and treatment against various pathogens, as well as in food

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packaging and preservation.

The incursion of different resistant bacterial strains due to uncontrolled use of a

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number of antibiotics has been increasing day by day. AgNPs at a concentration of 25 g/disc
and the standard antibiotics, kanamycin and rifampicin at 5 g/disc were not effective against

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any of the tested pathogens; however, when they are combined together at this concentration,
they showed synergistic inhibitory activity, with inhibition zones of 9.46 to 16.06 mm (Table

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2, Figure 6).

Kanamycin is an aminoglycoside bacteriocidal antibiotic used to treat a wide variety

of infections caused by a number of Gram-negative bacteria including E. coli, Klebsiella

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pneumoniae and Serratia marcescens (WHO, 2013). Rifampicin is used to treat a numerous
bacterial infections including tuberculosis, leprosy, and Legionnaire's disease (Torok et al.,
2009). Since both the antibiotics had broad spectra of controlling pathogenic bacteria and also

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used for the treatment against a number of pathogenic microorganisms, thus both were tested
for their synergistic antibacterial activity study together with the AgNPs at low
concentrations. The synergistic activity could be beneficial for the development of
antibacterial drugs that reduce mammalian cell toxicity and also pressure on bacteria to gain
resistance (Hwang et al., 2012).
The AgNPs displayed promising synergistic anticandidal activity together with
amphotericin b at very low concentrations against different strains of Candida sp. (Table 3,
Figure 7). Amphotericin b is a common antifungal drug widely used for serious systemic
fungal infections. Though it is the only effective treatment for some fungal infections, the
treatment resulted in common side effects including headaches, low blood pressure, fever and
shaking chills, as well as kidney and electrolyte problems (Moen et al., 2009; Rex and

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Stevens, 2014). Due to its extensive side effects, it is only used in case of severe infections in
critically illness, or immune-compromised patients as the first line therapy for invasive

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cryptococcal meningitis, mucormycosis infections, and certain Aspergillus and Candidal

infections (Moen et al., 2009; Rex and Stevens, 2014). Since the drug is very effective, so,

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the reduction of the treatment concentration by the synergistically usage with AgNPs could
be beneficial for the formulation of low-cost but effective anticandidal drugs for the treatment

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against Candida-related diseases (Khan et al., 2003, Gajbhiye et al., 2009). They can also be
used for the disinfection of medical instruments and in medical supplies such as wound

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dressings, and tissue scaffolds.

Apart from the antibacterial and anticandidal activity, the synthesized AgNPs

displayed promising antioxidant activity in terms of DPPH radical, nitric oxide and ABTS

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radical scavenging and reducing power (Figure 8). The strong DPPH radical scavenging
potential of AgNPs (Figure 8A) might be attributed to their ability to donate electrons or
hydrogen ions to neutralize DPPH free radicals (Rajamanikandan et al., 2011). The AgNPs

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also showed strong nitric oxide scavenging activity (Figure 8B). Endogenously generated
nitric oxide is very unstable and is involved in many physiological processes. It is also
associated with cancer and inflammatory diseases, aging, etc. (Soneja et al., 2005; Cheng et
al., 2010). Thus, the effective nitric oxide scavenging potential of AgNPs could make it a
promising candidate in the formulation of sun cream lotions and anti-aging creams (Royer et
al., 2013). AgNPs displayed strong ABTS radical scavenging and reducing power activity
(Figure 8C and D). The WRA extract is rich in different types of phenolic compounds,
vitamins, lycopene and citrulline which comprise one of the largest groups of natural
antioxidant secondary metabolites in plants (Perkins-Veazie and Collins, 2004; Campbell,
2006; Quek et al., 2007; Mort et al., 2008; Parmar and Kar, 2009; Rahman, 2010; Davis et al.,
2011; Al-Sayed and Ahmed, 2013; Lakshmipathy et al., 2015). The reduction properties of

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these antioxidant metabolites that have acted as capping agents for the AgNPs can be linked

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with the higher antioxidant potential of the AgNPs.

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5. Conclusions

Conclusively, the utilization of aqueous watermelon rind extract for the synthesis of

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AgNPs is a novel approach to biological waste utilization in the development of low cost
methods of nanoparticle synthesis. The synthesized AgNPs under light had a SPR at 425 nm

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with an average particle size of 109.97 nm. Elemental analysis based on the EDX spectra
confirmed the synthesis of AgNPs. The XRD pattern showed the face-centered cubic crystal

structure of the synthesized AgNPs. The bioactive compounds of WRA extract responsible

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for the reduction, stabilization and capping of AgNPs might be phenols or flavonoids, as
indicated by FT-IR analysis. The AgNPs exhibited strong antibacterial, anticandidal and
antioxidant activity, indicating that they have the potential for use in the agricultural,

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biomedical, cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries.

Acknowledgements

This research was conducted with support from a research fund provided by
Yeungnam University in 2015.

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Highlights
Phyto-mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles using rind waste of watermelon

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under photo-catalyzed condition.

AgNPs were characterized using microscopic and spectroscopic analyses.

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AgNPs showed promising antibacterial potential against foodborne bacteria.

AgNPs displayed effective synergistic anticandidal potential.

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AgNPs exhibited antioxidant activity.

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