Elementary Quantum Physics

The classical view of light as an

electromagnetic wave.

Travelling Wave
An electromagnetic wave is a
traveling wave with time-varying
electric and magnetic fields that
are perpendicular to each other
and to the direction of
propagation.

E y ( x, t ) E0 Sin(kx t )
Wave number k = 2/

Phase velocity c = /k =
Intensity

1
I c 0 E02
2

0 is the absolute permittivity

Interferece

S1P S2 P n
1

S1 P S 2 P n
2

Schematic illustration of Youngs double-slit experiment.

Diffraction

2d sin n

Diffraction patterns obtained by passing X-rays through crystals can only be

explained by using ideas based on the interference of waves.
a) Diffraction of X-rays from a single crystal gives a diffraction pattern of
bright spots on a photographic film.
b) Diffraction of X-rays from a powdered crystalline material or a
polycrystalline material gives a diffraction pattern of bright rings on a
photographic film.
c) X-ray diffraction involves constructive interference of waves being
"reflected" by various atomic planes in the crystal.

Light behaving like a stream of

particles ..
Aside from exhibiting wave-like properties,
light can behave like a stream of discrete
entities or energy packets called photons.
Photon
Zero Rest mass
Carries a quantum of energy h
Momentum h/

Where,
h a universal constant
(determined
experimentally)
the frequency of
light
5

The photoelectric effect.

When >0 , a current
flows even V=0.
When V>0, I increases
until it saturates.
Isaturation is proportional
to light intensity.
Reversing the polarity
the current flow can be
stopped (stopping
voltage, V0)
1
eV0 me v 2 KEm
2

Light as Energy Quanta

Stopping Voltage depends on the

frequency of the light

KEm h h 0
h = Plancks constant

The effect of varying the frequency of light and the cathode

material in the photoelectric Experiment. The lines for the
different materials have the same slope h but different intercepts
7

Work Function
1905 Einstein gave
a successful
interpretation of the
photoelectric effect.
An electron in a
metal is in a lower
state of potential
energy than in
vacuum, by an
amount (work
function).
The lower PE keeps
the electron in the
metal.
8

Intensity of Light (New definition)

If <0 , then photoelectrons are
not generated.
This fails the classical intensity
equation
1
2
I

c 0 E0

Thinking in terms of photons

I ph (h )
Photon flux

ph
Fig 3.8

Photon energy

N ph
At

Intuitive visualization of light

consisting of a stream of
photons (not to be taken
too literally).

Example
In the photoelectric experiment, green light, with a wave
length of 522 nm, is the longest wavelength radiation that can
cause the photoemission of electrons from a clean sodium
surface.
a) What is the work function of Na, in eV?
b) In UV radiation of wavelength 250 nm is incident to the
sodium surface, what will be the kinetic energy of the
photoemitted electrons, in eV?
c) Suppose that the UV light of wavelength 250 nm has an
intensity of 20mW cm-2 . If the emitted electrons are
collected by applying a positive bias to the opposite
electrode, what will be the photoelectric current density?

10

Compton Scattering
When an x-ray strike an
electron, it is deflected
(scattered).
<
Kinetic Energy of electron, KE = h h
Since the electron has a momentum
pe now, according to momentum
conservation, photon should have a
momentum,

Scattering of an X-ray photon by a

free electron in a conductor.

Photon has an energy h and also a momentum h/.

Momentum is a particle property.
Both photoelectric experiment and Compton effect
are evidences for particle-like properties of light.
11

The Compton experiment and its results

12

Expressions for the energy and

momentum of the photons
Energy
Momentum
Angular frequency
Wave number

E h
ph

2
k 2

E h
p h k

13

Example
Typical X-rays used in mammography (medical
imaging of breasts) have a wavelength of about
0.6 . Calculate the energy and the momentum
of an X-ray photon with this wavelength, and
the velocity of a corresponding electron that has
the same momentum.

14

Black Body Radiation

Black Body Radiation: The maximum amount of radiation energy that

can be emitted by an object.
Intensity of the radiated energy depends on the materials surface.
The radiation emitted by a cavity with small aperture is independent of
the material of the cavity and corresponds very closely to black body
radiation.
15

Classical Theory of Black Body

Radiation : Rayleigh-Jeans Law
Acceleration and deceleration
of the charges due to thermal
vibrations, oscillations or
motion of atoms in the surface
region of the cavity results in
electromagnetic waves of the
emission.
This results in many types of
standing waves with different
wavelengths in the cavity.
Each wave contributes kT to
the emitted intensity. (k =
Boltzmann constant)

Spectral Irradiance : radiation

intensity (power per unit area) per
unit wavelength.

* Not agreement with experiment,

especially short wavelength range.

I 1

and
I T

16

Plancks black body radiation formula

Oscillating molecules emit and absorb a quantity of
energy that is an integer (n) multiple of a discrete
energy quantum (h).
Probability of an oscillator possessing an energy
nh,

Pr exp - nh

kT

Plancks black body

radiation formula
2hc 2
I
hc
5
exp
1
kT
17

Stefans Black Body Radiation Law

This can be derived using
Planks formula

Total radiative power

emitted by a blackbody
per unit surface area at T
Stefans Constant

Wiens displacement
law

2 5 k 4 4
4

Ps I d
T

T
s
2 3
15c h
0

2 5 k 4

s
2 3
15c h
5.670 10 8Wm 2 K 4

max T 2.89 10 mK
3

18

Emissivity
Real surfaces emits less than a black body.
Emissivity : the efficiency of a surface in
terms of black body emitter.
Total net rate of radiative power emission can
be written as
Pradiation S S (T 4 T04 )
Where,
S = surface area
= emissivity
S = Stefans constant

19

Example
A 100W incandescent bulb has a tungsten
filament of length 57.9 cm and a diameter of
63.5 m. The emissivity of tungsten is 0.35.
What is the filament temperature?
What is the wavelength of peak emission?

20

Electron as a wave

Youngs double-slit experiment with electrons involves an electron

gun and two slits in a cathode ray tube (CRT) (hence, in vacuum).
Electrons from the filament are accelerated by a 50 kV anode
voltage to produce a beam that is made to pass through the slits.
The electrons then produce a visible pattern when they strike a
Fig 3.12
fluorescent
screen, and the resulting visual pattern is photographed.

De Broglie relation
Wavelength of an electron
traveling with momentum p
This relationship can be applied
to any particle like object

or

Example:
A 50g golf ball travelling at a velocity of 20 ms -1
h
6.63 1034 Js
34

6
.
63

10
m
3
1
mv 50 10 kg 20 ms

22

Fig 3.13

The diffraction of electrons by crystals gives typical diffraction

patterns that would be expected if waves being diffracted as in x-ray
diffraction with crystals [(c) and (d)]
Fig 3.13

Schrdinger Equation
This is a general equation that that describes the wave-like
behavior of electron (particle) and, with the appropriate
potential energy and boundary conditions, will predict the
results of the experiment.
It forms the foundation of quantum theory.
Its fundamental nature is analogous to the Newtons 2 nd law
(F=ma).
This is a fundamental equation, that can predict every
observable physical phenomenon at the atomic scale.
Without this we will not be able to understand the properties
of electronic materials and the principles of operation of
many semiconductor devices.
25

Traveling-wave equation

E ( x, t ) E0 exp j (kx t ) E ( x) exp( jt )

Spatial dependence:

Average Intensity:

E ( x) E0 exp( jkx)

I av E

2
0
26

Probability
Higher intensity represents a
higher probability of electrons
hitting the screen.
Since intensity is E02 ,
probability is also proportional
to E02 or in more
mathematically precise way

Pr E ( x, t )

An electron can be represented by a wave function (x,y,z,t).

|(x,y,z,t)|2 is the probability of finding the electron per unit
volume at x,y,z at time t.
|(x,y,z,t)|2 dxdydz is the probability of finding the electron in
a small elemental volume dxdydz at x,y,z at time t.
27

Schrdingers Equation
1D wave function: (x,t).
||2 = * ( can be complex)
Electrons interaction with its environment is embodied potential
energy function, V=V(x,t).
The net force electron experience, F=-dV/dx.
Example: electron attracted by a positive charge

V (r )

e2
4 0 r
28

Time-Independent Schrdingers Equation

When V=V(x),
Total wavefunction of the electron can be
written as,
jEt
x, t x exp

Time-Independent Schrdingers Equation is

given by
2
d 2m
2 E V 0
2
dx

m is the mass of the electron

29

Boundary conditions of (x)

Since (x) represents a wave-like
behavior, it must be a smooth
function without any
discontinuities
1. must be continuous.
2. d/dx must be continuous.
3. must be single-valued and
smooth.
Enforcement of these boundary
conditions results in only certain
wavefunctions to be accepted;
they are called eigenfunctions.
They determine the behavior and
energy of the electron (matter).
Fig 3.14

Example:
1. Free Electron
Solve the Schrdinger equation for a free electron whose energy is
E. What is the uncertainty in the position of the electron and
uncertainty in the momentum of the electron?

2. Electron Beam
Electrons are accelerated through a 100V potential difference to
strike a polycrystalline Al sample. The diffraction pattern obtained
indicate that the highest intensity and the smallest angle
diffraction, corresponding to diffraction from the (111) planes, has
a diffraction angle of 30.4. From X-ray studies, the separation of
the (111) planes is 0.234 nm. What is the wavelength of the
electron and how does it compare with that from the de Broglie
relationship?
31

Electron in a one-dimensional infinite

PE well: A confined electron

2 2 nx
n x j Sin

a
a

h2n2
En
8ma 2
32

Nodes and Symmetry of wavefunction

Nodes:
A point where = 0 inside
the well.
Energy increases as the
number of nodes increase.
Symmetry:
n= 1, 3, .
n= 2, 4, .

The wave function is symmetric about x = a/2

The wave function is even parity.
The wave function is antisymmetric about x = a/2
The wave function is odd parity.

** whenever the potential energy function V(x) exhibits symmetry

about a certain point, then the wave functions have either even parity
33
or have odd parity.

Example: Electron confined within

atomic dimensions
Consider an electron in an infinite potential
well of size 0.1 nm (typical size of an atom).
What is the ground energy of electron?
What is the energy required to put the electron at
the third energy level?
How can this energy be provided?

34

Uncertainty of position and

momentum
Consider 1D infinite potential well.
Wavefunction extends from x=0 to
x=a; so x=a.
Px = +k in +x direction or -k in x ;
Px = 2k.
for n=1; Px = 2/a

(x)(Px)=(a)(2/a)=h

Because of the wavenature of

quantum mechanics, we are
unable to determine exactly and
simultaneously the position and
momentum of a particle along a
given coordinate.
35

Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle

xpx
Because of the wave nature of quantum mechanics, we are
unable to determine exactly and simultaneously the position and
momentum of a particle along the a given coordinate.
Similar uncertainty relationship between uncertainty of energy
of the particle and the time duration which it posses the energy
can be written as,

Et
36

Example 1:
Consider an electron confined to a region of size 0.1
nm, which is the typical dimension of an atom. What
will be the uncertainty in its momentum and hence
its kinetic energy?
Example 2:
Estimate the minimum velocity of an apple of 100g
confined to a crate of size 1m.
37

Tunneling Phenomenon:
Quantum leak

The roller coaster released from

A can at most make it to C, but
not to E. CD is the energy barrier
that prevents the car from
making it to E.
In quantum theory, on the other
hand, there is a chance that the
car could tunnel (leak) through
the potential energy barrier
between C and E and emerge on
the other side of hill at E.
The wavefunction for the
electron incident on a potential
energy barrier (V0). The incident
and reflected waves interfere to
give 1(x). There is no reflected
wave in region III. In region II, the
wavefunction decays with x
because E < V0.

1D Finite Potential Barrier

Divide the electrons
space into three regions
I, II and III.

39

Fig 3.17

Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) image of a graphite surface where contours

represent electron concentrations within the surface, and carbon rings are clearly
visible. Two Angstrom scan. |SOURCE: Courtesy of Veeco Instruments, Metrology
Division, Santa Barbara, CA.
Fig 3.18

42

STM image of Ni (100) surface

STM image of Pt (111) surface

SOURCE: Courtesy of IBM

SOURCE: Courtesy of IBM

43

Example
Consider two copper wires separated only by their surface oxide
layer (CuO). Suppose that for the conduction (free) electrons
have a kinetic energy of 7 eV, and the surface oxide layer looks
like a square potential energy barrier of height 10 eV.
Consider an oxide layer thickness of 5 nm and evaluate the
transmission coefficient for the conduction electrons in copper?
What will be the transmission coefficient if the oxide barrier is 1
nm?
*** Classically, since the oxide layer is an insulator, no current
should be possible through the two copper wires.
44

3D Potential Box
Electron confined in three
dimensions by a threedimensional infinite PE box.
Everywhere inside the box, V =
0, but outside, V = . The
electron cannot escape from the
box.

En1n2 n3

Fig 3.19

h2
2
2
2

n
1
2
3
2
8ma
h2
2

N
2
8ma

Example: Degeneracy
How many states (eigenfunctions) are there at
energy level E443 for square potential energy
box?

46

Hydrogen Atom

The electron in the hydrogenic atom is

atom is attracted by a central force that
is always directed toward the positive
Nucleus.
Spherical coordinates centered at the
nucleus are used to describe the position
of the electron. The PE of the electron
depends only on r.

Fig 3.20

Hydrogen Atom
Three quantum numbers are needed to
characterize wavefunction, energy, and
momentum
1. Principle quantum number (n)
2. Orbital angular momentum quantum number (l)
3. Magnetic quantum number (m)

Not all the quantum numbers are independent

positive numbers.
Wavefunction is a product of radial function and
spherical harmonic.

(r, , ) R(r )Y ( , )

48

Hydrogen Atom
Principle quantum number (n)

n = 1, 2, 3 .

Orbital angular momentum

quantum number (l)

l = 0, 1, 2, ., (n-1) < n

Magnetic quantum number (m)

ml = -l, -(l-1),0, ., (l-1),

l or |ml| l

49

50

(a) Radial wavefunctions of the electron in a hydrogenic atom for various n and values.
(b) R2 |Rn,2| gives the radial probability density. Vertical axis scales are linear in arbitrary
units.
Fig 3.21

(a) The polar plots of Yn,(, ) for 1s and 2p states.

(b) The angular dependence of the probability distribution, which is proportional to
| Yn,(, )|2.
Fig 3.22

Radial Probability Density

Pn,l (r) = Probability of
finding the
electron per unit
radial distance.
2 2
dP
Pn,l (r ) Rn,l (r ) r
dr

53

me4 Z 2
Z 2 (13.6 eV )
En

2 2 2
2
n
8 0 h n

The physical origin of spectra.

The energy of the electron
in the hydrogen
atom (Z = 1).
Fig 3.23

(a) Emission
(b) Absorption

The physical origin of spectra.

(a) Emission
(b) Absorption

Fig 3.24

An atom can become excited by a collision with another atom.

When it returns to its ground energy state, the atom emits a photon.

Fig 3.25

Example : the ionization energy of He+

1. What is the energy required to further ionize
He+ ions to He++ ?
2. The experimental ionization energy of Li is
5.39 eV which corresponds to creating a Li+
ion and an isolated electron. Calculate the
effective nuclear charge seen by the 2s
electron.
57

The Li atom has a nucleus with charge +3e, 2 electrons in the K shell , which is
closed, and one electron in the 2s orbital. (b) A simple view of (a) would be
one electron in the 2s orbital that sees a single positive charge, Z = 1
The simple view Z = 1 is not a satisfactory description for the outer electron
because it has a probability distribution that penetrates the inner shell. We
can instead use an effective Z, Zeffective = 1.26, to calculate the energy of the
outer electron in the Li atom.
Fig 3.26

Ionization energy from the n-level for an outer electron

EI , n

2
effective

(13.6 eV)
2
n

Orbital Angular Momentum

The electron in the atom has an orbital angular momentum L.
Like energy this is also quantized, but by the quantum number
l. The magnitude of L is given by,
where, l = 0, 1, 2, .... < n.
The quantum numbers n and l quantize the energy and the
magnitude of the orbital angular momentum.
In the presence of an external magnetic field Bz , taken
arbitrarily in z direction, the component of the angular
momentum along the z axis, Lz, is also quantized and given
by,
The magnetic quantum number (ml) quantizes the
component of the angular momentum along the
direction of an external magnetic field Bz.

Orbital Angular Momentum

L (angular momentum
vector) can never align
with the magnetic field
along z.
It makes an angle with Bz,
angle that is determined by
l and ml.
We say that L is space
quantized.
(a) The electron has an orbital angular momentum, which has a quantized component
L along an external Magnetic field Bexternal.
(b) The orbital angular momentum vector L rotates about the z axis. Its component Lz
is quantized; Therefore, the L orientation, which is the angle , is also quantized. L
traces out a cone.
(c) According to quantum mechanics, only certain orientations ( ) for L are allowed,
as determined by and m

Selection Rule
When an electron change the
energy level (eg. interaction with
a photon) it should obey the law
of the conservation of the energy
as well as the conservation of the
angular momentum.
The rules that govern which
transitions are allowed from one
state to another as a consequence
of photon absorption or emission
are called selection rules.
photon has an intrinsic angular momentum given by

As a result of photon absorption or emission, we must have,

Fig 3.28

Electron Spin
Analogous to the 24-hour spin of
the earth around its axis, there is
the spin of the electron about its
own axis.
This behavior does not come from
the simple Schrodinger equation.
Electrons Spin or intrinsic
angular momentum, is denoted
by S.

Where, in analogy with l and ml , we use quantum numbers s and ms, which are
called spin and spin magnetic quantum numbers. They are not integers, but are
and .

64

Orbital angular momentum vector L and spin angular momentum vector S can add either
In parallel as in (a) or antiparallel, as in (b).
The total angular momentum vector J = L + S, has a magnitude J = [j(j+1)], where in
(a) j = + and in (b) j = -
Fig 3.32

(a) The angular momentum vectors L and S precess around their resultant total angular
Momentum vector J.
(b) The total angular momentum vector is space quantized. Vector J precesses about the z
axis, along which its component must be m j
Fig 3.33

A helium-like atom
The nucleus has a charge +Ze,
where Z = 2 for He.
If one electron is removed, we
have the He+ ion, which is
equivalent to the hydrogenic
atom with Z = 2.

Fig 3.34

Pauli exclusion principle

No two electrons within a given system may have all four identical quantum
numbers, n. l, ml, and ms.

Energy of various one-electron states.

The energy depends on both n and
Fig 3.35

Paired spins in an orbital.

Electronic configurations for the first five elements. Each box represents an orbital
(n, , m)
Fig 3.37

Electronic configuration for C, N, O, F and Ne atoms.

Notice that in C, N, and O, Hunds rule forces electrons to align their spins. For the Ne
atom, all the K and L orbitals are full.
Fig 3.38

Absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulated emission

Absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission.

Fig 3.39

The principle of the LASER

a) Atoms in the ground state are pumped up to the energy level E3 by incoming
photons of energy h13 = E3-E1.
b) Atoms at E3 rapidly decay to the metastable state at energy level E2 by emitting
photons or emitting lettice vibrations. h32 = E3-E2.
c) As the states at E2 are metastable, they quickly become populated and there is a
population inversion between E2 and E1.
d) A random photon of energy h21 = E2-E1 can initiate stimulated emission. Photons
from this stimulated emission can themselves further stimulate emissions leading
to an avalanche of stimulated emissions and coherent photons being emtitted.
Fig 3.40

Schematic illustration of the HeNe laser.

Fig 3.41

74

75

The principle of operation of the HeNe laser. Important HeNe laser energy levels (for 632.8 nm
emission).
Fig 3.42

(a) Doppler-broadened emission versus wavelength characteristics of the lasing medium.

(b) Allowed oscillations and their wavelengths within the optical cavity.
(c) The output spectrum is determined by satisfying (a) and (b) simultaneously.

Fig 3.43

Energy diagram for the Er3+ ion in the glass fiber medium and light amplification by
Stimulated emission from E2 to E1.
Dashed arrows indicate radiationless transitions (energy emission by lattice vibrations).
Fig 3.44

A simplified schematic illustration of an EDFA (optical amplifier). The erbiumion doped fiber is pumped by feeding the light from a laser pump diode,
through a coupler, into the erbium ion doped fiber.

Fig 3.45

(a) The retina in the eye has photoreceptors that can sense the incident photons on them and
hence provide necessary visual perception signals. It has been estimated that for minimum visual
perception there must be roughly 90 photons falling on the cornea of the eye. (b) The wavelength
dependence of the relative efficiency eye() of the eye is different for daylight vision, or photopic
vision (involves mainly cones), and for vision under dimmed light, (or scotopic vision represents the
dark-adapted eye, and involves rods). (c) SEM photo of rods and cones in the retina.
SOURCE: Dr. Frank Werblin, University of California, Berkeley.
Fig 3.46

Some possible states of the carbon atom, not in any particular

order.
Fig 3.47