Sei sulla pagina 1di 26

Practical Design of

Experiments (DOE)

Also available from ASQ Quality Press:


Practical Attribute and Variable Measurement Systems Analysis (MSA): A Guide for
Conducting Gage R&R Studies and Test Method Validations
Mark Allen Durivage
Practical Engineering, Process, and Reliability Statistics
Mark Allen Durivage
The Certified Pharmaceutical GMP Professional Handbook
FDC Division and Mark Allen Durivage, editor
Design of Experiments with Minitab
Paul Mathews
Reliability Data Analysis with Excel and Minitab
Kenneth S. Stephens
The Metrology Handbook, Second Edition
Jay L. Bucher, editor
The Certified Quality Engineer Handbook, Third Edition
Connie M. Borror, editor
The Certified Six Sigma Green Belt Handbook, Second Edition
Roderick A. Munro, Govindarajan Ramu, and Daniel J. Zrymiak
The Certified Six Sigma Black Belt Handbook, Second Edition
T. M. Kubiak and Donald W. Benbow
The Certified Reliability Engineer Handbook, Second Edition
Donald W. Benbow and Hugh W. Broome
The Certified Quality Inspector Handbook, Second Edition
H. Fred Walker, Ahmad K. Elshennawy, Bhisham C. Gupta, and Mary McShane Vaughn
The Certified Quality Technician Handbook, Second Edition
H. Fred Walker, Donald W. Benbow, and Ahmad K. Elshennawy
Failure Mode and Effect Analysis: FMEA from Theory to Execution, Second Edition
D. H. Stamatis
To request a complimentary catalog of ASQ Quality Press publications,
call 800-248-1946, or visit our website at http://www.asq.org/quality-press.

Practical Design of
Experiments (DOE)
A Guide for Optimizing
Designs and Processes
Mark Allen Durivage

ASQ Quality Press


Milwaukee, Wisconsin

American Society for Quality, Quality Press, Milwaukee 53203


2016 by ASQ
All rights reserved. Published 2016
Printed in the United States of America
22 21 20 19 18 17 16
5 4 3 2 1
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Durivage, Mark Allen.
Title: Practical design of experiments (DOE) : a guide for optimizing designs
and processes / Mark Allen Durivage.
Description: Milwaukee, Wisconsin : ASQ Quality Press, 2016. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015049294 | ISBN 9780873899246 (hard cover : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: EngineeringStatistical methods. | Acceptance sampling. |
Quality controlStatistical methods. | Distribution (Probability theory)
| ScienceMethodology.
Classification: LCC TA340 .D868 2016 | DDC 001.4/34dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015049294
ISBN: 978-0-87389-924-6
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Publisher: Lynelle Korte
Acquisitions Editor: Matt T. Meinholz
Project Editor: Paul Daniel OMara
Production Administrator: Randall Benson
ASQ Mission: The American Society for Quality advances individual, organizational, and
community excellence worldwide through learning, quality improvement, and knowledge
exchange.
Attention Bookstores, Wholesalers, Schools, and Corporations: ASQ Quality Press books,
video, audio, and software are available at quantity discounts with bulk purchases for
business, educational, or instructional use. For information, please contact ASQ Quality Press
at 800-248-1946, or write to ASQ Quality Press, P.O. Box 3005, Milwaukee, WI 53201-3005.
To place orders or to request ASQ membership information, call 800-248-1946. Visit our
website at http://www.asq.org/quality-press.
Printed on acid-free paper

Table of Contents

List of Figures and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ix
xiii
xv
xvi

Chapter 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 2 Statistical Tools and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 Dean and Dixon Outlier Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Hypothesis Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Type I and Type II Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Alpha (`) and Beta (a) Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Apportionment of Risk in Hypothesis Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
The Hypothesis Test for a One-Tail (Upper-Tailed) Test . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
The Hypothesis Test for a One-Tail (Lower-Tailed) Test . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
The Hypothesis Test for a Two-Tail Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
The Hypothesis Test Conclusion Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Testing for a Difference between Two Observed Variances Using
Sample Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Normal Probability Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Half-Normal Probability Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 Interpreting Effect and Interaction Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Chapter 3 ANOVA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1 One-Way ANOVA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 Two-Way ANOVA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Chapter 4 Experiments with Two Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.1 Bond Strength Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Nine Steps for Analysis of Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.2 Nonlinear Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.3 Corrosion Study Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Nine Steps for Analysis of Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Chapter 5 Experiments with Three Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.1 Chemical Processing Yield Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
v

vi

Table of Contents

Nine Steps for Analysis of Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47


5.2 Variation Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.3 Analysis with Unreplicated Experiments (Residual Analysis) . . . . . . . . 60
Chapter 6 Experiments with Qualitative (Attribute Data) Responses . . . . 65
6.1 Plastic Welding Example (without Transformation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Nine Steps for Analysis of Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.2 Plastic Welding Example
(with Transformation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Nine Steps for Analysis of Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.3 Ordered Categorical Data Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Nine Steps for Analysis of Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Chapter 7 Screening and Other Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.1 Confounding, Aliases, and Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.2 Screening Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
7.3 Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.4 Other Analytical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
7.5 Even Larger Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
7.6 Other Types of Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Chapter 8 Taguchi Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
8.1 Taguchi Orthogonal Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
8.2 Signal-to-Noise (S/N) Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
8.3 Taguchi L4 Orthogonal
Array Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Nine Steps for Analysis of Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
8.4 Taguchi L8 Orthogonal
Array Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Nine Steps for Analysis of Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
8.5 Taguchi L9 Orthogonal
Array Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Nine Steps for Analysis of Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Chapter 9 Mixture Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
9.1 Three-Factor Simplex Design Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Chapter 10 Procedural Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
10.1 Common Problems and Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
10.2 Review of the Basics in
Managing a DOE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
10.3 Obstacles to the Application
of DOE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
10.4 DOE Spreadsheets and Software Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Chapter 11 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Table of Contents

vii

Appendix A Critical Values of the Dean and Dixon Outlier Test . . . . . . . . 137
Appendix B Percentages of the F-Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Appendix C Percentage Points of the Students t-Distribution . . . . . . . . . . 151
Appendix D Cumulative Percentage Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Appendix E z-Scores of the Cumulative Percentage Points . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Appendix F Normal Distribution Probability PointsArea below Z . . . . 157
Appendix G Normal Distribution Probability PointsArea above Z . . . . 159
Appendix H Selected Full and Fractional Factorial Designs . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Appendix I

Selected Plackett-Burman Screening Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Appendix J

Selected Taguchi Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

Appendix K Selected Mixture Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171


Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

(This page intentionally left blank)

List of Figures and Tables

Figure 1.1
Figure 1.2

Cause-and-effect diagram depicting inputs (Xs) and outputs (Ys). . . . . . . 2


Relationship between statistical control limits and product
specifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Figure 1.3 Nine steps for analysis of effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Table 2.1
Hypothesis truth table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Figure 2.1 Representation of a one-tail (upper-tailed) test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 2.2 Representation of a one-tail (lower-tailed) test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 2.3 Representation of a two-tail test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 2.4 Right-skewed distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 2.5 Left-skewed distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 2.6 Short-tailed distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 2.7 Long-tailed distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Table 2.2 Calculation summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Figure 2.8 Normal probability plot for strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Table 2.3 Calculation summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure 2.9 Half-normal probability plot for effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure 2.10 Factor effect plots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure 2.11 Factor interaction plots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Table 3.1
One-way ANOVA summary table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Table 3.2 One-way ANOVA summary data table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 3.1 Decision limit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Table 3. 3 Two-way ANOVA summary table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Table 3.4
Two-way ANOVA summary data table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Figure 3.2 Decision limit for rows (pressure). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Figure 3.3 Decision limit for columns (dwell time). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Figure 3.4 Decision limit interaction (pressure and dwell time). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Table 4.1
Bond strength example data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Figure 4.1 Plot of effect A (temperature) on bond strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Figure 4.2 Plot of effect B (vendor) on bond strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

ix

List of Figures and Tables

Figure 4.3
Figure 4.4
Figure 4.5
Figure 4.6
Table 4.2
Figure 4.7
Figure 4.8
Figure 4.9
Figure 4.10
Figure 4.11
Figure 4.12
Table 5.1
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2
Figure 5.3
Figure 5.4
Figure 5.5
Figure 5.6
Figure 5.7
Table 5.2
Figure 5.8
Table 5.3
Figure 5.9
Figure 5.10
Table 6.1
Figure 6.1
Figure 6.2
Figure 6.3
Figure 6.4
Figure 6.5
Table 6.2
Figure 6.6
Figure 6.7
Figure 6.8
Figure 6.9
Figure 6.10
Figure 6.11
Table 6.3

Plot of interaction AB (temperature-vendor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32


Pareto chart of the absolute values of the effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Decision limits for the effects and interactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Temperature scale range. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Corrosion study example data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Pareto chart of the absolute values of the effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Decision limits for the effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Plot of effect A (chrome) on weight loss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Plot of effect B (nickel) on weight loss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Plot of interaction AB (chrome-nickel) on weight loss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Decision limits for linearity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Chemical processing yield data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Pareto chart of the absolute values of the effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Decision limit for the effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Half-normal plot of the absolute effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Plot of effect A (temperature) on yield. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Plot of effect B (catalyst) on yield. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Plot of effect C (ramp time) on yield. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Plot of interaction AB (temperature-catalyst) on yield. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Chemical process yield example with variances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Decision limit for variances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Chemical processing yield data (unreplicated). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Normal plot of residuals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Decision limit for variances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Plastic welding without transformation example data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Pareto chart of the absolute values of the effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Half-normal plot of the absolute effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Effects plot for effect A (time). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Effects plot for effect B (temperature). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Effects plot for effect C (pressure). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Plastic welding with transformation example data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Pareto chart of the absolute values of the effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Half-normal plot of the absolute effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Plot of effect A (time) on transformed defects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Plot of effect B (temperature) on transformed defects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Plot of effect C (pressure) on transformed defects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Plot of interaction AB (time-temperature) on transformed defects. . . . . . . 77
Quality characteristic scoring scheme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Table 6.4
Table 6.5
Table 6.6
Figure 6.12
Figure 6.13
Figure 6.14
Figure 6.15
Figure 6.16
Table 7.1
Table 7.2
Table 7.3
Table 7.4
Table 7.5
Table 7.6
Figure 8.1
Figure 8.2
Figure 8.3
Figure 8.4
Figure 8.5
Figure 8.6
Figure 8.7
Figure 8.8
Table 8.1
Figure 8.9
Figure 8.10
Figure 8.11
Figure 8.12
Table 8.2
Figure 8.13
Figure 8.14
Figure 8.15
Figure 8.16
Figure 8.17
Figure 8.18
Figure 8.19
Table 8.3
Figure 8.20

List of Figures and Tables

xi

Ordered categorical data example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80


Observations converted to probabilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Table of effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Pareto chart of the absolute values of the effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Half-normal plot of the absolute effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Plot of effect A (time). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Plot of effect B (temperature). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Plot of effect C (pressure). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Comparison of the number of runs in factorial and screening designs. . . . 87
Analysis table for three factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Illustration of identical interactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Aliases for a half-fractional factorial design with four factors. . . . . . . . . . . 89
Experiment resolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Summary of effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Accuracy versus precision. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Adjusting the process to the target value. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Taguchis view of a process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Taguchi L4 orthogonal array and interaction table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Determining the L4 interaction between factors 1 and 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Determining the L4 interaction between factors 2 and 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
L4 array displaying the interaction column of factors 1 and 2. . . . . . . . . . . 100
Taguchi L4 orthogonal array using only two factors that does not
require column 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Plastic sealing example data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Pareto chart of the absolute values of the effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Plot of effect 1 (time) on opening force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Plot of effect 2 (temperature) on opening force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Plot of effect 3 (pressure) on opening force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Steel alloy heat-treating example data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Pareto chart of the absolute values of the effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Half-normal plot of the absolute effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Plot of effect 1 (preheat) on hardness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Plot of effect 2 (equalize) on hardness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Plot of effect 3 (austenize) on hardness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Plot of effect 4 (temper) on hardness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Plot of effect 5 (quench) on hardness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Plastic processing example data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Pareto chart of the absolute values of the effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

xii

List of Figures and Tables

Figure 8.21
Figure 8.22
Figure 8.23
Figure 8.24
Figure 9.1
Figure 9.2
Table 9.1
Figure 9.3
Table 9.2

Plot of effect 1 (temperature) on the nominal specification. . . . . . . . . . . . . 119


Plot of effect 2 (time) on the nominal specification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Plot of effect 3 (pressure) on the nominal specification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Plot of effect 4 (polymer) on the nominal specification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Three-component reduced cubic mixture design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Linear, quadratic, reduced cubic, full cubic, and special quartic
mixture designs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Blown film development example data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Three-component quadratic mixture design for the blown
film example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Blown film development exampleadditional data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Preface

his booka result of 30 years of quality-related work experiencewas written


to aid quality technicians and engineers. To that end, the intent of this book is to
provide the quality professional working in virtually any industry a quick, convenient, and comprehensive guide to properly conducting design of experiments (DOE) for
the purpose of process optimization.
This book is intended for people who have never been exposed to design of experiments, been intimidated in their attempts to learn about DOE, or have not appreciated the potential of this family of tools in their process improvement and optimization
efforts. This is a practical introduction to the basics, and is not intended to provide complete coverage of DOE. When one becomes familiar with and begins applying the basic
principles presented in the book, they should be easily encouraged to go on to more-
advanced principles in DOE. Once successful with DOE, one will rarely need prodding
to continue to learn more about this powerful tool. Every effort has been made to simplify the approach and minimize the complexity of the material. This book will use a
simple statistical calculator rather than sophisticated software or spreadsheets. The book
also assumes a basic knowledge of statistical techniques and process control. Inevitably,
there are some points that might have been covered with more statistical depth. It is the
authors strong recommendation that anyone who completes this book immediately continue on to a more in-depth reference (some excellent ones are identified in the Bibliography of this book), both to learn about areas that are not covered here and to broaden
the readers depth of knowledge of DOE in general.
This book will be a useful reference when preparing for and taking many of the ASQ
quality certification examinations, including the Certified Quality Technician (CQT),
Certified Six Sigma Green Belt (CSSGB), Certified Quality Engineer (CQE), Certified
Six Sigma Black Belt (CSSBB), and Certified Reliability Engineer (CRE).

xiii

(This page intentionally left blank)

Acknowledgments

would like to acknowledge the previous work of Larry B. Barrentine in An Introduction to Design of Experiments: A Simplified Approach. This book is an expansion of
his efforts in an attempt to continue Barrentines method of presenting DOE studies
in a simple, easy-to-follow style. Several sections of this book come directly from his
previous work. I have made some changes to clarify and augment some of his points and
present the topics in a consistent manner.
I would like to thank those who have inspired, taught, and trained me throughout
my academic and professional career. I also wish to recognize my friend and colleague,
Scott Kochendoerfer, CQE, for lending his expertise in reviewing this book for accuracy
and content. I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to James McLinn, Reliability Consultant at Ops A La Carte, and Stefan Mozar, Director and Adjunct Professor
at Guangdong University of Technology, for reviewing the book and providing valuable
feedback. Additionally, I would like to thank ASQ Quality Press, especially Matt Meinholz, Acquisitions Editor, and Paul Daniel OMara, Managing Editor, for their expertise and technical competence, which made this project a reality. Lastly, I would like to
acknowledge the patience of my wife Dawn and my sons Jack and Sam, which allowed
me time to research and write Practical Design of Experiments (DOE): A Guide for
Optimizing Designs and Processes.

xv

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer
of Warranty

he author has put forth his best efforts in compiling the content of this book;
however, no warranty with respect to the materials accuracy or completeness is
made. Additionally, no warranty is made in regard to applying the recommendations made in this book to any business structure or environments. Businesses should
consult regulatory, quality, and/or legal professionals prior to deciding on the appropriateness of advice and recommendations made within this book. The author shall not
be held liable for loss of profit or other commercial damages resulting from the employment of recommendations made within this book, including special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

xvi

1
Introduction

he English statistician Sir Ronald A. Fisher pioneered the development of design


of experiments in the 1920s and 1930s, applying statistical techniques in the
study of agriculture. During the 1940s, Robin L. Plackett and J. P. Burman introduced the idea of using smaller, more economical designs for experimentation (fractional factorials). The 1950s saw the introduction of response surface methodology
(RSM), used in industrial experimentation by George E. P. Box and K. B. Wilson.
During the same period of time, Genichi Taguchi introduced methods for improving the
quality of manufactured goods, applying the loss function and signal-to-noise ratios to
experimentation.
The purpose of this introduction to the design of experiments (DOE) is to showcase
the power and utility of this statistical tool while explaining how to plan and analyze an
experiment. It is also an attempt to dispel the conception that DOE is reserved only for
those with advanced mathematics training. It will be demonstrated that DOE is primarily a logic tool that can be easily grasped and applied, requiring only basic math skills.
While software or spreadsheets would make the calculations more painless and provide
greater versatility, it is necessary to understand what the software is doing. To this end,
software is not used with this text; an inexpensive scientific calculator is used instead
to insure that the basics are learned. This is by no means a complete study of the broad
field of DOE. The intent is to introduce the basics, persuade the reader of the power of
this tool, and then recommend resources for further study. The material covered will still
be sufficient to support a large percentage of the experiments one may wish to perform.
The prerequisites of this book are familiarity with the basic concepts of statistics,
process stability, statistical process control (SPC), and measurement systems analysis (MSA). As in any process improvement activity, it is necessary to recognize that
a process is made up of input variables, process variables, and output measures (see
Figure 1.1). The intent is always to improve the output measure, which is labeled as the
response. There is no direct control on the response variable; in the classical cause-andeffect approach, it is the effect.
The causes are what dictate the response (dependent variable, output, Ys). To control the response, one must control the causes (independent variable, inputs, Xs), which
may be input variables and/or process variables involving the six elements shown in
Figure 1.1. (These variables or causes will later be referred to as factors.)
For example, there is no control setting in a sales process that allows one to set a
sales level. To control sales, one must address those variables that cause sales to change,
1

Chapter One

Materials

Methods

Measurements
Response(s)

Machines

People
Independent
inputs
(X )

Figure 1.1

Environment
Dependent
outputs
(Y )

Cause-and-effect diagram depicting inputs (Xs) and outputs (Ys).

for example, promotional literature, call frequency, pricing policies, credit policies, or
personal sales techniques. A process may be very simple, or it may be a complex group
of processes.
In concert with this cause-and-effect, or systems, approach to the process, the concepts of process variation must be understood. Every response demonstrates variation.
This variation results from (a) variation in the known input or process variables, (b)
variation in the unknown process variables, and/or (c) variation in the measurement of
the response variable. The combination of these sources results in the variation of that
response. This variation is categorized by the classic SPC tools into two categories: (a)
special cause variationunusual responses compared to previous history; and (b) inherent variationvariation that has been demonstrated as typical of the process.
A side note is needed here on terminology. Inherent, or typical, variation has a
variety of labels that are often used interchangeably. In control charting, it is referred
to as common cause variation. In control systems, it is called process noise. In DOE,
it is called experimental error or random variation. To minimize confusion, it will be
referred to in this text as either inherent variation or experimental error.
Control charts are used to identify special cause variation and, hopefully, to identify the process variables or causes that led to such unusual responses. The presence of
special causes within an experiment will create problems in reaching accurate conclusions. For this reason, DOE is more easily performed after the process has been stabilized using SPC tools. The presence of inherent variation also makes it difficult to draw
conclusions. (In fact, that is one of the definitions of statistics: decision making in the
presence of uncertainty or inherent variation.) If a process variable causes changes in
the response that exceed the inherent variation, we state that the change is significant.
Inherent variation can also be analyzed to determine whether the process will consistently meet a specification. The calculation of process capability is a comparison of
the spread of the process with the specifications, resulting in test statistics such as Cp and
Cpk. Figure 1.2 illustrates the comparison of a process with its upper and lower specification limits.
DOE is the simultaneous study of several process variables. By combining several
variables in one study instead of creating a separate study for each, the amount of testing

Introduction
3

Lower
specification
limit

Upper
specification
limit

3^

+3^

Statistical variation (6)


Part tolerance

Figure 1.2

Relationship between statistical control limits and product specifications.

Source: M. A. Durivage, Practical Engineering, Process, and Reliability, Statistics, Milwaukee: ASQ Quality
Press, 2014. Used with permission.

required will be drastically reduced, and greater process understanding will result. This
is in direct contrast to the typical one-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) approach, which limits
understanding and wastes data. Additionally, OFAT studies cannot be assured of detecting the unique effects of combinations of factors (a condition later to be defined as an
interaction).
DOE includes the entire scope of experimentation, including defining the output
measure(s) that one desires to improve, the candidate process variables that one will
change, procedures for experimentation, actual performance of the experiment, and
analysis and interpretation of the results. The objectives of the experimenter in a DOE
are to learn how to:
Maximize the response
Minimize the response
Adjust the response to a nominal value
Reduce process variation
Make the process robust (that is, make the response insensitive to uncontrollable
changes in the process variables)
Determine which variables are important to control and which are not
The basic experimental procedure is a series of basic logical steps that must be addressed
as one prepares to launch a DOE:

1. What is the process to be studied? How broadly or narrowly is it defined?


A flowchart is a good tool for this analysis.

Chapter One

2. What is the response? What needs to be improved? Should there be more


than one response? Note: Additional responses are free, costing only the
measurements!

3. What is the measurement precision? Is there bias in the measurement system?


Has a measurement systems analysis been completed? Is it adequate?

4. Generate candidate factors. This is best done with a small team using
brainstorming after a review of all available data and information on the
process and response variables. A cause-and-effect diagram and a flowchart
of the process are useful tools to use while brainstorming. The trick is to
be innovative, to think outside usual boundaries, and yet not try to reinvent
proven technology. Provide opportunities for surprises! The team should be
knowledgeable about the issues and follow the rules for brainstorming.

5. Determine the levels for the factors selected for the DOE. In screening
experiments, the rule is to have levels broadly spaced but not to the point of
being foolhardy. In refining experiments, levels will be much tighter and will
require more replication.

6. Select the experimental design. This is the set of treatments or runs that
will be performed. This also includes deciding on the amount of replication.
Finally, the randomized order of the trials is determined. (Randomization is
the insurance policy against misleading conclusions due to outside influence
during the experiment.)

7. Establish a plan to control (or at least monitor) extraneous variables.

8. Perform the experiment according to the design. The DOE must be carried
out per its design. Identify trial materials carefully. Keep good notes.

9. Analyze, draw conclusions, and assess process impact. What process variables
can be changedand howto improve the process?

10. Verify and document the new process as defined by the experiment.
11. Propose the next study for continuation of this project, or declare the project
complete. Make sure that all reports that go beyond the team are in language
and terminology that are easily understood.
Note: It is extremely important that prior to and after performing DOE a line clearance
is executed to prevent mix-ups and/or comingling of products, packaging, and labeling.
The nine steps for analysis of effects are shown in Figure 1.3. This will be the basic
flow for all experiments presented in this book. There will be times when some of the
steps cannot be completed. For instance, steps 3, 4, 5, and 6 are not used when conducting experiments without repetitions, replicates, attribute data, ordered categorical data,
and Taguchis signal-to-noise (S/N) ratios. In these cases, a half-normal plot can be used
to determine the significant effects. Some of the examples in the book that use steps 3, 4,

Introduction
5

1. Calculate the absolute values of the effects


2. Create a Pareto chart of the absolute values of the effects
3. Calculate the standard deviation of the experiment, se
4. Calculate the standard deviation of the effects, sEff
5. Determine the t-statistic
6. Calculate the decision limits
7. Determine the significant effects
8. Graph the main effects and any significant interactions
9. Model the significant effects, significant interactions, and individual
effects from significant interactions

Figure 1.3

Nine steps for analysis of effects.

5, and 6 will also have an associated half-normal plot for illustrative purposes. It should
be noted that the use of statistical decision limits is the preferred method.
For ease of instruction, a review of some the basic statistical tools and techniques is
presented, followed by small experiments, which are followed by large experiments. In
the real world, one would prefer to start with large experiments and progress to smaller
ones in order to identify variables that affect the response variables. Terms and definitions are covered as they arise. The terminology used in DOE is often different from the
equivalent terms in SPC, and is presented to assure easier readability. The initial example is used to define most of the unique terminology and many of the analytical techniques. It is suggested that the reader review the Glossary following the Appendixes.
Disclaimer: All examples in this book are fictitious, and therefore the results should not
be used to make product or process decisions.

(This page intentionally left blank)

Index

critical-to-quality (CTQ) characteristics, 97


cumulative percentage points (Appendix D),
15354
z-scores of (Appendix E), 15556

absolute values of the effects, 2931, 41, 4749,


66, 7274, 81, 104, 11011, 118
accuracy, versus precision, 97
aliases, 89
alpha (a) risk, 89
analysis of effects, nine steps for, 45
bond strength example, 2938
chemical processing yield example, 4755
corrosion study example, 4146
ordered categorical data example, 8186
plastic welding example (with transformation),
7178
plastic welding example (without
transformation), 6671
Taguchi L4 orthogonal array example, 1038
Taguchi L8 orthogonal array example, 10816
Taguchi L9 orthogonal array example, 11822
analysis of variance (ANOVA), 1926
reliability of results, 1920

D
data, missing, 129
Dean and Dixon outlier test, 78
critical values of (Appendix A), 137
decision limits (DL), 34, 42, 4546, 50, 68, 74, 83
dependent variable (Y), 1
design of experiments (DOE)
analytical considerations in, 94
basics of managing, 13132
common problems and questions, 12931
history of, 1
introduction to, 15
larger designs, 94
maximum number of factors, 130
miscellaneous designs, 9495
objectives of, 3, 55
obstacles to application of, 13233
procedural considerations in, 12934
diamond factor, 60

B
beta (b) risk, 89
blocking, 2829, 13031
Box, George E. P., 1, 55
Burman, J. P., 1

E
effect, 1, 30
effect heredity, 92
effect plots, interpreting, 1718
effect sparsity, 92
evolutionary operation (EVOP), 55, 95
experimental design, 28, 29
experimental error. See inherent variation
experimental procedure, basic, 34
experimental results, verifying, 36
experiments
with qualitative (attribute data) responses,
6586

C
cause-and-effect diagram, 2
causes, 12
coefficient calculation, 3536, 4445, 5354,
7071, 7578, 8586, 1067, 11315, 119
21, 124, 126
common cause variation. See inherent variation
confounding, 8889, 9192
control chart, 2
control factors, 97

183

184 Index

ordered categorical data example, 7886


plastic welding example (with
transformation), 7178
plastic welding example (without
transformation), 6571
with three factors, 4764
chemical processing yield example, 4755
with two factors, 2746
bond strength example, 2738
corrosion study example, 4046
unreplicated, analysis with, 6064

interaction plots, interpreting, 1718


interactions, 31, 8893
significant, 35

L
larger is better, S/N ratio, 101
left-skewed distribution, 13
long-tailed distribution, 14
loss function, 97

factors, 1
maximum number in DOE, 130
F-distribution, percentages of (Appendix B),
13949
Fisher, Ronald A., 1, 97
fold-over design. See reflection
fraction defective, S/N ratio, 102
fractional factorial designs, 9192, 94
versus Plackett-Burman designs, 130
selected (Appendix H), 16164
full-factorial designs, 28
selected (Appendix H), 16163

main effects, graphing, 35, 4344, 51, 69, 74, 84,


105, 112, 118
measurement systems analysis (MSA), 65, 78, 79
mixture designs, 95, 12327
selected (Appendix K), 17172
three-factor simplex example, 12527

gage repeatability and reproducibility (GR&R)


study, 65, 78, 79
geometric designs, 91, 130
golden factor, 60

noise factors, 97
nominal is best, S/N ratio, 101
nongeometric designs, 91, 130
nonlinear models, 3840
normal distribution probability pointsarea
above Z (Appendix G), 159
normal distribution probability pointsarea
below Z (Appendix F), 157
normal probability plots, 1315
normality, pencil test of, 1415

half-normal probability plot, 45, 1516, 3435,


43
hypothesis statement
for one-way ANOVA, 20
for two-way ANOVA, 2223
hypothesis testing, 812
apportionment of risk in, 9
conclusion statements, 11

one-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) experiment, 3


one-tail (lower-tailed) test, 10
one-tail (upper-tailed) test, 9
one-way ANOVA, 1921
ordered categorical, S/N ratio, 102
orthogonal designs, 9799
Taguchi L4 array example, 1038
Taguchi L8 array example, 10816
Taguchi L9 array example, 11622
outliers, detecting, 78

I
independent variable (X), 1, 27
individual effects from significant interactions,
35, 4446, 5155, 6971, 7478, 8486,
11315, 11922
inherent variation, 2, 3233, 59, 129

P
Pareto chart, 32, 41, 49, 66, 74, 81, 94, 104, 111,
118
pencil test of normality, 1415

Index
185

Plackett, Robin L., 1


Plackett-Burman screening designs, 9192, 94
versus fractional factorial designs, 130
selected (Appendix I), 16566
precision, versus accuracy, 97
probability plots, normal, 1315
process, definition, 1
process noise. See inherent variation

R
ramp time, 47, 59, 63
random variation. See inherent variation
randomization, 2829, 131
refining design, 38
reflection, 9293
versus replication, 129
repeat run, versus replication, 28
replication, 131
versus reflection, 129
versus repeat run, 28
residual analysis, 6064
resolution, 8990
response, 1
response surface designs, 95
response surface methodology (RSM), 1
response variable, 27
right-skewed distribution, 13
risk, apportionment of, in hypothesis testing, 9
robust design, 97

S
sample data, testing for a difference between two
variances using, 1112
screening designs, 37, 8794, 131
short-tailed distribution, 13
signal-to-noise (S/N) ratios, 97, 1012
significant effects, 3435, 43, 4446, 5155, 68,
6971, 7478, 8486, 1045, 1068, 112,
11315, 118, 11922
significant interactions, 35, 4344, 4446, 5155,
6971, 7478, 8486, 1058, 11215, 118
22, 129
smaller is better, S/N ratio, 1012
software considerations, in DOE, 13334
spreadsheets, for DOE, 13334
standard deviation of the effects (sEff ), 33, 42, 50
standard deviation of the experiment (se), 33,
4142, 49
statistical tools and techniques, 718
Students t-distribution, percentage points of
(Appendix C), 15152
Students t-test, 15

T
Taguchi, Genichi, 1, 97
Taguchi designs, 9495
selected (Appendix J), 16770
Taguchi experiments, 97122
Taguchi loss function, 97
Taguchi orthogonal designs, 9799
L4 array example, 1038
L8 array example, 10816
L9 array example, 11622
test method validation (TMV), 65, 78, 79
three-component mixture design, 123
three-factor simplex mixture design example,
12527
t-statistic, 3334, 42, 50
two-tail test, 1011
two-way ANOVA, 2226
type I error, 8
type II error, 8
typical variation. See inherent variation

U
unreplicated experiments, analysis with,
6064

V
variables, 12
variances, testing for a difference between two,
using sample data, 1112
variation, inherent, 2, 3233, 59, 129
variation analysis, 129
chemical processing yield example, 5560

W
weighted probability scoring scheme (WPSS),
78
Wilson, K. B., 1

X
XPULT Experimental Catapult, 135

Z
zero is best, S/N ratio, 102
z-scores of the cumulative percentage points
(Appendix E), 15556

(This page intentionally left blank)

Potrebbero piacerti anche