9 Failure PDF

MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials
Failure: Fracture, Fatigue, and Creep

Reading: Callister Chapter 9
Ship cyclic loading
Ship-cyclic
from waves.
Adapted from Fig. 8.0, Callister 6e. (Fig. 8.0 is by
Neil Boenzi, The New York Times.)
Adapted from Fig. 18.11W(b), Callister 6e.

(Fig. 18.11W(b) is courtesy of National
Semiconductor Corporation.)
Adapted from Fig.

17.19(b), Callister 6e.
Computer chip-cyclic Hip implant-cyclic

thermal loading. loading from walking.
1
©
© 2007, 2008 Moonsub
2007 University ShimBoard of Trustees. All rights reserved.
of Illinois MSE280
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Ductile vs. Brittle failure.
• Fracture testing.
• Fl
Flaws, stress
t concentration,
t ti and
d fracture.
f t
• Fracture toughness.
• Fracture in polymers: crazing.
• Fatigue and crack propagation rate.
• Creep.
These issues are to understand the mechanisms for failure,,

especially to prevent in-service failures via design.
This can be accomplished via:
- Materials selection.
- Processing (e.g. strengthening).
- Design Safety.
2
© 2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim MSE280
1
Ductile Fracture
TS
Recall necking…
engineeriing
stresss
Typical response of a metal
strain
1. Neck formation (subsequent
deformation is confined to the
neck).
2 Small cavity (microvoids)
2.
formation.
3. Further deformations leads to
coalescence of voids into a crack.
4. Crack propagation.
5. Fracture.
3
Moderately Ductile Failure

• Evolution to failure:
void void growth shearing
necking fracture
nucleation and linkage at surface
σ
• fracture 50μm
50 μm
surfaces
(steel)
100 μm
particles From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire
serve as void Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin,
nucleation Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P. OH. Used with permission.
Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp.
sites. 347-56.)
Adapted from D. Johnson 4
2
Stress-Strain Behavior versus Temperature
• Ductility is reduced with temperature reduction.
So, Ambient and Operating temperatures can affect

failure mode of materials.
Such an effect shows Ductile to Brittle Transition.

Adapted from D. Johnson
Choose materials with D-B transition T far away from its usage T
5
Ductile vs. Brittle Fracture

Fracture: Separation of a material into two or more
pieces in response to imposed stress.
Ductile Brittle
Highly Moderately Brittle

ductile ductile
6
3
Why brittle fracture in ceramics?
Recall slip is the mechanism of plastic deformation in
metals.
What happens in ceramics (e.g. ionic crystals)?
Mg2+ O2- Mg2+ O2-
O2- Mg2+ O2- Mg2+
Mg2+ O2- Mg2+ O2-
O2- Mg2+ O2- Mg2+
7
Brittle fracture
No appreciable plastic deformation (catastrophic fracture without
warning).
Rapid
p crack p
propagation
p g ((typically
yp ypperpendicular
p to applied
pp stress).
)
Transgranular: fracture cracks pass through grains.
Intergranular: crack propagation along grain boundaries.
• Intergranular • Transgranular
(between grains) (across grains)
316 S. Steel
304 S. Steel ((metal))
Reprinted w/permission from (metal)
"Metals Handbook", 9th ed, Fig. Reprinted w/ permission
633, p. 650. Copyright 1985, from "Metals Handbook",
ASM International, Materials 9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
Park, OH. (Micrograph by J.R. Copyright 1985, ASM
Keiser and A.R. Olsen, Oak International, Materials
Ridge National Lab.) Park, OH. (Micrograph by
D.R. Diercks, Argonne
National Lab.)

4
Brittle Fracture Surface
Chevron marks
From brittle fracture
Origin of crack
Fan-shaped
F h d
ridges
coming from
crack

Charpy Impact Data: Energy vs Temperature

Notched sample is hit and crack propagates.
sample Adapted from Fig. 8.11(a) and (b),
Callister 6e. (Fig. 8.11(b) is adapted
(Charpy) from H.W. Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J.
Wulff,, The Structure and Properties
p of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (1965) p. 13.)
final height initial height (e.g., Cu, Ni)

FCC metals
BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914C)

Impact Enerrgy
polymers
Brittle More Ductile
High strength materials ( σy >E/150)
From Callister: Adapted from C. Barrett, W.
Nix, and A.Tetelman, The Principles of
Engineering Materials, Fig. 6-21, p. 220,
Prentice-Hall, 1973. Temperature
Ductile-to-brittle 10
transition temperature
5
Ideal versus Real Behavior
• Stress-strain behavior (Room T):

σ perfect mat’l-no flaws TSengineering << TSperfect
E/10
materials materials
carefully produced glass fiber
E/100 typical ceramic typical strengthened metal

typical polymer
0.1 ε
• DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed...
observed
--the longer the wire, the smaller the load to fail it.
• Reasons:
--flaws cause premature failure.
--Larger samples are more flawed!
11
Flaws and fracture

Actual fracture strength in most materials are significantly lower
than expected from bond strengths. Flaw/cracks can amplify or
concentrate stress!
Max stress at the crack tip:
For long microcracks:
σm a
Kt = =2
Stress concentration factor: σo ρt
12
6
Flaws and fracture
σm a
Stress concentration factor: K t = =2
σo ρt
• Large Kt promotes failure:

Minimize crack size
NOT (a) and maximize
SO Kt =3 BAD! Kt >>3 radius of curvature
BAD (ρt) if crack is
unavoidable
σo
w
σmax
• Surface cracks are worse! Avoid sharp
r, h corners!
fillet
13
radius
Critical stress for crack propagation

stress at which crack propagates
E = elastic modulus
γs = specific surface energy
γp = plastic deformation energy
i.e. For a crack to propagate, enough stress must be applied to

overcome energy needed to create surface and cause plastic
deformation.
Highly ductile Brittle
14
7
Fast Fracture
Fast-Fracture Condition:
K =σ c πa0 = EGc = constant!!
Units of MPa√m
“stress intensity Hard to measure Measureable (fixed)
factor” Internal flaws materials properties
Gc = 2(γs+γp)
• fast fracture occurs when:
1) (in a material subjected to stress σo) a crack reaches some critical size “a”
OR
2) when a material contains cracks of size “a” is subjected to some critical
stress.
• the critical combination of stress σo and crack length at which fast fracture
occurs is a MATERIAL CONSTANT!
15
Fracture toughness
Measure of material’s resistance to brittle

fracture.
In the presence of a crack, it is related to
critical stress for crack propagation and
depends on:
1) material size & geometry
2) crack dimension & orientation
3) the manner in which the load is applied.
Relates to how the
Fracture Toughness: K c = Yσ c πa load is applied, crack
orientation etc.
Fast fracture occurs when: K ≥ Kc 16

8
Plane strain fracture toughness
σ For thin specimen:

Kc will
ill d
depend
d on B
W
When B becomes large:
Kc is independent of B
2a -> Plane strain conditions
2a
Plane strain fracture toughness:
B
K Ic = Yσ πa
K and KIc relation is analogous σ and σy.

17
Example
A) Determine if a ceramic material with characteristics
given below will fail at an applied tensile stress of
750MPa.
E = 250GPa
Most severe crack (internal) a = 0.1 mm, ρt = 0.001 mm
B) If it does not fail at 750MPa, at what stress level will it

fail?
C) If ρt = 10-9 m (i.e. a few atoms in size), at what stress

level will it fail?
18
9
Griffith’s Criteria for Fracture and Failure
A=A’=A” etc. Crack sizes, orientations and distributions
It should be almost intuitive that the relative
lengths of cracks will control which crack will
A’ B
A B’ propagate under stress, such can be said of
A the orientation and distribution also.
B
*If cracks each act independently, then, if
A” B” A < B, failure will not occur from A.
*Failure will not occur from A' and B'
because they are parallel to applied
Which will be the stress.
site of failure? *Thus, B-type crack is failure mode, as
it has the highest stress concentration.
• Since fast fracture occurs when K ≥ K c ,

the largest, the most stressed cracks grow first! 19
Designing Against Crack Growth

• Crack growth condition: K ≥ Kc
Yσ πa
• Largest, most stressed cracks grow first!
--Case 1: Max flaw size --Case 2: Design stress
dictates design stress. dictates max. flaw size.
Kc 1 ⎛ Kc ⎞2
σdesign < a max < ⎜⎜ ⎟
Y πa max π ⎝ Yσdesign ⎟
⎠
a max
σ
fracture fracture
no no
fracture a max fracture σ
20
10
Design Example: Aircraft Wing
Material has Kc = 26 MPa-m0.5
• Two designs to consider...
Design A Design B
--largest flaw is 9 mm --use same material
--failure stress = 112 MPa --largest flaw is 4 mm
--What is failure stress?
Kc
• Use: σc =
Y πa max
• Key point: Y and Kc are the same in both designs.
--Result:
112 MPa 9 mm 4 mm
(σc a max )A = (σc a max )B

Answer: (σc )B = 168MPa
• Reducing flaw size pays off! 21
Adapted from D. Johnsonv
Design Example: Gas tank

Spherical gas/fluid tank
under pressure p
Circumferential wall stress:

pr
σ=
2t
Two possible designs for safety:
A) Plastic distortion before leaking (i.e. the mechanical deformation
before leak occurs).
- Calculate relative maximum critical crack length where plastic
deformation occurs before catastrophic crack propagation for 1040
Steel, Ti alloy and Stainless steel.
B) Leak-before-break (e.g. to prevent pressure build-up leading to
explosion). Achieved when ac = t (i.e. complete opening before crack
propagation).
- Calculate the relative maximum pressure for same 3 materials as A).
22
11
Transformation toughening
Density (g/cm3)
Monoclinic 5.6
Zirconia (ZrO2)
Tetragonal 6.1 (metastable)
What happens with further stress? 23

Fracture of polymers
Thermosets: Brittle fracture via crack propagation (crosslinked and
network
t k polymers
l – covalent
l t bonds
b d have
h to
t be
b broken).
b k )
Thermoplastics: Both ductile and brittle fracture possible.

Factors that favor brittle fracture:
- low T.
- high
hi h strain
t i rate.
t
- flaws (scratches, cracks and sharp edges).
- larger specimen thickness.
24
12
Crazing
Fracture mechanism in which polymers fracture via localized yielding with
formation of small and interconnected microvoids (different from crack
propagation).
ti )
Crazing in poly(phenylene oxide)

25
Fatigue
• Fatigue = failure under cyclic stress.
• Stress varies with time.
--key parameters are S and σm
• Key points: Fatigue...

--can cause part failure, even though σmax < σc.
--causes ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.
g failure: 1)) Crack initiation (almost

Fatigue ( always
y on the surface; scratches, dents…))
2) Crack propagation (incrementally with each cycle)
3) Final failure (rapid after the crack reaches a critical size).
26
13
Equal tensile and
compressive stress
Asymmetric wrt
zero stress
Random
27
Fatigue limit: Stress level

below which fatigue
failure will not occur.
Fatigue strength: Stress

level at which failure will
occur for some specified
number of cycles (e.g. 107
cycles).
Fatigue life: Number of

cycles to cause failure at
a specified stress level. no fatigue limit
28
14
Crack propagation rate
What would happen if we were able to examine crack length (a) at
each cycle of stress?
What happens at higher stress?
Define crack propagation rate at a fixed crack size

29

NOTE:
1) Initially,
I iti ll smallll propagation
ti
rate but the rate increases
with crack size.
2) For a fixed crack length,

increasing stress leads to
increased crack
propagation
p p g rate.
A and m are material dependent

Express rate as: da
= A(ΔK ) m constants.
dN ΔK = Kmax – Kmin (K = stress intensity
factor) 30
15
Take log of both sides of the rate equation:
⎛ da ⎞
log⎜ (
⎟ = log A(ΔK )
m
)
⎝ dN ⎠
⎛ da ⎞
log⎜ ⎟ = m log ΔK + log A
⎝ dN ⎠
constant
Region II
da
= A(ΔK ) m
dN
Using: ΔK = YΔσ πa
ac
1 da
(Δσ ) ∫ Y
Nf =
Aπ
m m
m/2
ao
am/2 31
© 2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim Predict cycles to failure! MSE280
Fatigue life prediction example

Large steel sheet under cyclic stress:
tensile 150 MPa
compressive 50MPa
Prior to stress:
largest crack a = 2 mm
Estimate fatigue life given the following information.
KIc = 25 MPa m1/2

m = 3.0
A = 10-12
12
Y = 1 (assume independent of crack length)
32
16
Improving Fatigue Life S = stress amplitude
Adapted from
1. Impose a compressive Fig. 8.22, Callister 6e.
surface stress (to suppress
near zero or compressive σm
cracks from growing) moderate tensile σm
larger tensile σm
N = Cycles to failure
--Method 1: shot peening --Method 2: carburizing
shot
C-rich gas
put
surface
into
compression
bad better
2. Remove stress Adapted from
concentrators. Fig. 8.23, Callister 6e.
bad better
3. Polish surface (remove surface cracks) and optimize processing
conditions to minimize internal defects 33
Creep
• Time-dependent permanent deformation due to static mechanical stress
(usually at elevated temperatures;T > 0.4 Tm for most metals).
• Undesirable and limits lifetime of materials.
• Creep test: apply constant stress at constant T and measure deformation
(strain) over time.
Accelerated creep due to, e.g.,

grain boundary separation, crack
nucleation etc..
Decreasing
Steady-state creep: competition
slope: strain
between strain hardening and recovery
hardening
34
17
Stress and temperature effects
Steady-state creep rate:
•
Increasing T or σ
ε s = K1σ n
Material dependent constants
Including T dependence:
•
⎛ Qc ⎞
ε s = K1σ n exp⎜ − ⎟
⎝ RT ⎠ Arrhenius behavior at fixed stress 35
To minimize creep…
First, we need to know what the possible mechanisms are.
Several mechanism suggested

gg for creep.
p
• Stress-induced vacancy diffusion.
• GB diffusion and sliding.
• Dislocation motion.
Each gives different slope for stress vs. creep rate.
Possible solutions:
• U single
Use i l crystals
t l ((usually
ll a costly
tl solution).
l ti )
• Increase grain size.
• Solid solutions.
• Precipitation hardening.
36
18
Concepts to remember
• Engineering materials don't reach theoretical strength.
• Flaws produce stress concentrations that cause
premature failure.
• Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
• Failure type depends on T and stress:
-for noncyclic σ and T < 0.4Tm, failure stress decreases with:
increased maximum flaw size or rate of loading, or decreased T,
-for cyclic σ: cycles to fail decreases as Δσ increases.
-for higher T (T > 0.4Tm):
time to fail decreases as σ or T increases.
37
Adapted from D. Johnsonv
19

9 Failure PDF

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

9 Failure PDF

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

Failure: Fracture, Fatigue, and Creep

Adapted from Fig. 18.11W(b), Callister 6e.

Adapted from Fig.

Computer chip-cyclic Hip implant-cyclic

These issues are to understand the mechanisms for failure,,

Typical response of a metal

Moderately Ductile Failure

So, Ambient and Operating temperatures can affect

Such an effect shows Ductile to Brittle Transition.

Ductile vs. Brittle Fracture

Highly Moderately Brittle

Mg2+ O2- Mg2+ O2-

O2- Mg2+ O2- Mg2+

Mg2+ O2- Mg2+ O2-

O2- Mg2+ O2- Mg2+

Adapted from D. Johnson 8

Adapted from D. Johnson 9

Charpy Impact Data: Energy vs Temperature

final height initial height (e.g., Cu, Ni)

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914C)

• Stress-strain behavior (Room T):

E/100 typical ceramic typical strengthened metal

Flaws and fracture

For long microcracks:

• Large Kt promotes failure:

Critical stress for crack propagation

i.e. For a crack to propagate, enough stress must be applied to

Highly ductile Brittle

Measure of material’s resistance to brittle

Fast fracture occurs when: K ≥ Kc 16

σ For thin specimen:

K and KIc relation is analogous σ and σy.

B) If it does not fail at 750MPa, at what stress level will it

C) If ρt = 10-9 m (i.e. a few atoms in size), at what stress

• Since fast fracture occurs when K ≥ K c ,

Designing Against Crack Growth

(σc a max )A = (σc a max )B

Design Example: Gas tank

Circumferential wall stress:

What happens with further stress? 23

Thermoplastics: Both ductile and brittle fracture possible.

Crazing in poly(phenylene oxide)

• Key points: Fatigue...

g failure: 1)) Crack initiation (almost

Fatigue limit: Stress level

Fatigue strength: Stress

Fatigue life: Number of

Define crack propagation rate at a fixed crack size

Crack propagation rate

2) For a fixed crack length,

A and m are material dependent

Fatigue life prediction example

Estimate fatigue life given the following information.

KIc = 25 MPa m1/2

Y = 1 (assume independent of crack length)

Accelerated creep due to, e.g.,

Material dependent constants

Several mechanism suggested

Potrebbero piacerti anche