Chapter 1: Introduction to Agro-Industrial

Waste Management

Leather Manufacturing Process

1. Pretreatment / Hide Preparation
- removal of raw skin components such as
hair, unwanted flesh, and discoloration
2. Leather Tanning
- Either use of wood tannin or chromium
treatment
3. Crusting
- A series of thinning, splitting, and dyeing
to furnish a leather that is soft yet durable
for the manufacture of various leather
products

Agricultural Industries
-

covers all post-harvest operations till the materials

reaches the desire form, packaging, quantity,
quality and price

Agro-Industrial Processes
-

use of materials, tools and labor to produce goods

for use or sale
raw materials are transformed into finished goods

Food Processing
-

conversion of raw food materials into marketable

food products

Steps in Food Processing

1. Pre-processing
-

Preparatory operations in order to meet working

conditions of processing.

Size Reduction
- Mechanical operations to decrease bulk volume
SIZE
Coarse (> 3 in)
Intermediate (1 3 in)
Fine (0.25 0.5 in)

SIZE REDUCTION
EQUIPMENT
Gyration Crusher
Jaw Crusher
Cone Crusher
Roll Crusher
Mills

2. Refining / Purification
-

Removal of impurities from food products to

improve quality

3. Storage and Preservation

-

Pulp and Paper Production

Textile Manufacturing
Rubber Processing

Nature of Waste Generation

Waste
- Any material that is discarded from an activity
Discarded Materials
-

4. Packaging
Non-Food Products Manufacturing
Leather Manufacturing
Preserving animal hides in the manufacture of
clothes, and clothing accessories

Most common sources of wastes in industrial

processes
Components are unnecessary and may render low
quality products
Either residues from pretreatment or impurities
from refining

By-products
-

Not all raw materials are completely converted

into the products ideal form
Low efficiency = low product yield
Competing reactions

Excess Processing Materials

-

Makes food products resistant to drastic spoilage

Preservation Techniques
1. Thermal treatment
2. Freezing
3. Dehydration
4. Irradiation
5. Fermentation

Consist of spent materials that still contains

residual amounts of acting agents

Sustainable Development
-

Cradle-to-cradle model
Meeting the needs of the present generation
without compromising the needs and resources of
the future generation
- According to Dr. Karl-Henrik Robert (1989), it can
be attained by preventing :
Exhaustion of substances from the Earths crust
Accumulation of human made compounds
Human-made compounds
- persistent and unnatural compounds
- not completely and easily degraded
- waste materials when discarded from use

 Utilization of resources at a faster rate than

their regeneration

Leading Implementing Agency

National
Pollution
Control
Commission

Sustainable Waste Management

-

Consists of activities that aim to protect the people

and environment from the risks of pollution
Comprehensive control upstream and downstream
of pollution

National
Environmental
Protection
Commission

Hierarchy of Waste Management

Source Reduction

Department of
Environment and
Natural Resources
Environmental
Management Bureau

Recycle / Reuse
Treatment
Disposal

Benefits of Sustainable Waste Management

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Protection of human health and environment

Cost savings
Simpler design and operation
Improved work safety
Lower liability
Higher product quality
Building community relations

Chapter 2: Overview of Pollution Control

Policies in the Philippines

Sustainable Development revolutionized new

programs centered on environmental protection and
management
To prevent future risks from population and
urbanization, health hazards, scarcity of resources,
climate change, and dispersion of toxic materials

Elements of Sustainable Development

Environment
Economy
Society

The state shall protect and advance the right of the people
to a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the
rhythm and harmony of nature.
- 1987 Philippine Constitution

Oversee implementation, conservation, management,

development, & proper use of the countrys
environment and natural resources
Formulate, review & update
Establish quality standards
Enforce prohibitions and penalties

R.A. 6969: Toxic Substances and Hazardous and

Nuclear Waste Control Act of 1990
-

Pursuant to the Basel Convention of 1989

Minimize transboundary movement of toxic
chemicals and hazardous wastes
Regulation on importation, manufacture,
processing, handling, storage, transportation, sale,
use, and disposal

DAO 1992-29 (IRR of R.A. 6969) Prescribed Hazardous

Wastes
Prescribed Hazardous Wastes
Acid Wastes
Inorganic Chemicals
Reactive Chemicals
Paints
Resins
Organic Solvents

Chemical Control Order (CCO)

Mercury and mercuric compounds
Cyanide and its compounds
Asbestos
Ozone depleting substances
Polychlorinated biphenyls
Lead and lead products

Characteristics of Hazardous Wastes

Corrosivity
Toxicity
Ignitability
Radioactivity

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

R.A. 8749: Clean Air Act of 1999

-

Comprehensive program on air quality

management, pollution control and abatement
through:
Improving emission standards
Prohibiting large scale incineration
- Except backyard burning
Implementing emission standards for motor
vehicles
Prohibiting smoking
Improving fuel composition
- Banning of leaded gasoline
Phasing out Ozone Depleting Substances

Air Sheds in the Philippines

Luzon

Metro Tuguegarao
NCR
Makiling-Banahaw Geothermal (MakBan)
Bacod-Manito Geothermal (BacMan)
Naga Cit

Visayas

Metro Iloilo
Metro Cebu
Leyte Geothermal
Southern Negros Geothermal

Mindanao

Metro CDO
Davao City
Zamboanga City

National Air Quality Standards

Area Sources
a. Attainment Areas
i. Maintenance
b. Non-attainment Areas
i. Management

Point Sources
a. Stationary Sources
i. Emission Standards
1. Air Quality Control
Techniques
b. Mobile Sources
i. Exhaust Standards

Others
Smoking
Fuels & Additives
ODS
GHG
POPS
Radioactive Emissions
Hazardous Pollutants

R.A. 9003: Ecological Solid Waste Management of 2000

- Program creating the necessary institutional
mechanisms and incentives, declaring certain acts
prohibited and providing penalties, appropriating
funds thereof, and for other purposes related to
solid waste management
- Established
the
National
Solid
Waste
Management Board
1. Pre-processing
2. Processing
3. Disposal

R.A. 9275: Clean Water Act of 2004

-

Comprehensive program to improve water quality

Abatement and control of water pollution from
land-based sources
Designation of Water Quality Management Areas
(WQMA)
National Sewerage and Septage Management
Program (NSSMP)
Penalties and Fines: Wastewater charge system

Water Quality Management Areas / Water Sheds in

the Philippines
Laguna Lake Watershed
Davao River
Marilao Meycauayan Obando River
System (Bulacan)
Sinocalan Dagupan River System
(Pangasinan)
Calapan River System (Mindoro)

Some Pollution Control Laws Passed in the Philippines

No. YEAR
Late 1800s - 1970

LAW

1
2
3

1866
1936
1938

Ley de Aguas Spanish Law of Waters

Mining Act
Anti-dumping Act

1964

RA 3931: Pollution Control Law

1970

RA 4850: Laguna Lake Development

Authority

AREA OF CONCERN
Water Pollution Prevention
Control of mine tailings
Safe disposal of wastes
Creation of National Water and Air Pollution Control
Commission (NWAPCC)
Creation of the Laguna Lake Development Authority

Marcos Administration (1972-1986)

6

1974 PD 600: Coastal Guard Law

1976 PD 984: Pollution Control Law

Makes the Philippine Coast Guard responsible for

the prevention and control of pollution of water
bodies
Creation of the National Pollution Control
Commission in place of NWAPCC

PD 1121: Philippine Environmental

Protection Council
Policies and programs for environmental
9
1977 PD 1151: Philippine Environmental Policy protection and management
10 1977 PD 1152: Philippine Environment Code
Prevention, control and abatement of air pollution
11 1977 PD 1181: Air Pollution Control Law
from motor vehicles
PD 1586: Philippine Environmental
Implementation of environmental impact
12 1978
Impact Statement System
statement system (EISS) for environmental
management of environmentally critical areas and
PD 2146: Environmentally Critical Areas
13 1981
projects
and Projects
1987 Present
Creation of the DENR as the primary agency for
EO 192: Reorganization of the
environmental protection and management;
14 1987 Department of Environment and Natural Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) in
Resources
place of NPCC; and Pollution Adjudication Board
(PAB)
RA 6969: Toxic Substances and
Control and regulation of production, importation,
15 1990 Hazardous and Nuclear Waste Control
handling, and disposal of toxic substances, and
Act
hazardous and nuclear wastes
16 1999 RA 8749: Philippine Clean Air Act
Comprehensive air pollution control policy
Creation of institutional mechanisms, incentives,
RA 9003: Ecological Solid Waste
17 2000
prohibitions and penalties, & funding of solid
Management Act
waste management;
Comprehensive water quality and management
18 2004 RA 9275: Philippine Clean Water Act
and for other purposes
8

1977

Chapter 3: Environmental Impacts of

Agro-Industrial Development

1. Effects of organic matter on water bodies

-

Environmental Disturbance
Any sudden, temporary or permanent shift, o
displacement in the population of species caused by direct
or indirect alteration in the environment

Environment Pollution
Any anthropogenic change in the natural quality
of the environment brought about by chemical, physical,
and biological factors

2. Effects of nutrients on lakes

-

Case Study: Operation Cat Drop

Increases food matter for consumers and

decomposers
Increases the required oxygen for
metabolic requirements of fermentation
and respiration or Biochemical Oxygen
Demand (BOD)
Depletes dissolved oxygen (DO) levels
At
anoxic
conditions,
anaerobic
decomposition promotes the generation
of methane

Location: Sarawak, Borneo

Time: Early 1950s
Disease Caused: Malaria
Chemical Treatment Used:
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)
A popular chemical insecticide
Outcome:
Mosquitoes died
Rat infestation
Sylvatic Plaque and typhus
Possible Cause:
Biomagnification of DDT poisoning in wild cats

Due to low mixing flows, lakes are highly

vulnerable to accumulation of wastes and
pollutants

Algal Bloom
-

Eutrophication
-

Ecosystems
Interaction between living
components of the environment

and

non-living

Ecology
- The study of the structure and function of ecosystem

Ecosystem Stratification
-

Classification of organisms in terms of how they

function in an environment

Food Chain
1. Decomposers
2. Producers
3. Consumers

Material & Energy Flow

-

Movement of matter and energy in the

environment
Flow of matter is cyclic due to First Law
Flow of Energy is unidirectional due to Second Law

Change in the environmental quality to make

conditions less suitable for life

The increased food supply in lakes

leads to a decrease in dissolved
oxygen

3. Effects of criteria air pollutants

-

Generated from combustion processes

Criteria Air Pollutants

Nitrogen oxides or NOx
Sulfur oxides or Sox
Carbon monoxide
Lead
Tropospheric Ozone
Particulate Matter

Secondary Air pollutants

-

Can be produced from

reactions in the atmosphere

the

Photochemical Smog
-

Effects of Pollution
1. Direct Effect on the physical environment
-

The increased concentration of

nitrogen in lakes accelerates the
growth of algae on the surface of
the water forming green slimy
algae mats

Photochemical
reaction
of
nitrogen oxides, tropospheric
ozone, and hydrocarbon gases
Mixture of aldehydes, ketones and
peroxyacetylnitrates which are
known eye and respiratory
irritants
Damages
plant
growth
in
agricultural systems

Affect aesthetic quality and

visibility (reddish brown haze)

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Acid Deposition / Acid Rain

-

Reaction of sulfur oxides and

nitrogen oxides with moisture
Decreases the pH of soil and water
environment

Guidelines for surface water quality (DAO 1990-34)

-

Classification of Philippine waters according to

beneficial use
a) Class AA
Public Water Supply Class I
- Uninhabited
and
otherwise
protected watersheds
- Only
requires
approved
disinfection to meet the National
Standards for Drinking Water
(NSDW)
b) Class A
Public Water Supply Class II
- Water supply sources
- Requires complete treatment to
meet NSDW
c) Class B
Recreational Water Class I
- For primary contact recreation
such as bathing, swimming, skindiving, etc.
d) Class C
Fishery Water
- For propagation and growth of fish
and other aquatic resources
Recreational Water Class II
- Boating, etc.
Industrial Water Supply Class I
- For manufacturing processes after
treatment
e) Class D
Industrial Water Supply Class II
- Cooling, etc.
For agriculture, irrigation, livestock water,
etc.
Other inland waters. By their quality

Surface water quality criteria for pollutants that

affect aesthetics, oxygen demand, and toxicity
levels

2. Toxic effects on living systems

-

Direct effect on organisms health upon chronic or

acute exposure

Factors affecting Toxicity

1. Concentration
2. Form
3. Persistence

Increase of pollutant
biological systems
1. Bioaccumulation
-

concentration

in

Accumulation of pollutants overtime at a

cellular level
Individual cell organisms absorb dilute
compounds from the environment

2. Biomagnification
-

Increase in contamination at higher

trophic levels
Concentration of pollutants as they are
passed through food chains

Pollutants
-

Any deleterious substance in the environment

resulting from human activities
Exists at extreme concentrations and may not be
suitable for the survival of organisms
Components in wastes that renders the
environment unfit for its beneficial purpose

Environmental Quality
-

Overall condition of the environment

Physical, chemical, and biological characteristics,
properties and other measures

Beneficial Purpose
-

Relative capacity of the environment to service the

needs of its constituents

Surface Water Quality

Beneficial uses of water (RA 9275)
1. Domestic use
2. Fisheries
3. Industries

Irrigation
Livestock Raising
Municipal Water Supply
Power Generation
Recreation

Ambient Air Quality

-

Beneficial purpose is for breathing

Guidelines for ambient air quality standards (DAO
2000-81)
Standards for criteria air pollutants

Chapter 4: Waste Generation and

Characteristics

Turbidity
-

Environmental Toxicology
-

Studies the effects of toxic substances and

pollutants on the environment

Point Source Pollution

-

Any single identifiable source of pollution

Non-Point Source Pollution

-

Pollution coming from dispersion of pollutants in

the environment

Properties of Wates
-

Wastewater
Spent or used water that contains environmental
pollutants
Fouled water from domestic and municipal sources
Industrial
wastewaters
contains
higher
concentrations of pollutants

Effluent Standards
DAO 1990-34: Surface water classification and
quality

Significant wastewater parameters to be

monitored in different industries

DAO 1990-35: Industrial effluent regulation

Toxic and other deleterious substances

Conventional and other pollutants
affecting aesthetics and oxygen demand
Approved method of analysis

Physical Characteristics
Color
-

Hotness
or
coldness
of
wastewater defining the solubility
of oxygen in water

Total Solids
-

1. The selection and operation of equipment and

facilities
2. The design and operation of collection, treatment,
and disposal facilities
3. Assessing the feasibility of resource and energy
recovery
4. The engineering management of environmental
quality

Temperature

Solid residue when water is

evaporated at 103-105 degree
Celsius

Odor

Physical
Chemical
Biological

An understanding of the nature of waste is essential

in:

Indication
of
presence
of
suspended matter
Measure of the ability of sunlight
to pass through matter
Measure of the ability of water to
disperse materials disposed into it

Natural appearance of wastewater

indicative of presence of various
color compounds

Natural scent of wastewater

indicative of presence of various
volatile compounds
May
come
from
septic
decomposition of organic wastes

Chemical Characteristics
pH
-

measure of acidity or alkalinity of

water

Calcium & Magnesium Salts

-

Measure of the hardness of water

which causes scales and deposits

Nitrogen & Phosphorus

-

Basic nutrient components for

microbial growth

Trace Metals
-

Refers to highly toxic heavy

metals
Mercury,
Cadmium,
Lead,
Chromium, Arsenic

Fats, Oils, & Greases

-

Principal constituents of animal

organisms
Causes extremely foul odors in
large quantities

Surfactants
-

Substances that causes foaming in

water

Phenols
-

Cause taste problems in waters

Organo Chlorides & Phosphates

-

Persistent organic pollutants and

carcinogens

Cyanide
-

Highly toxic compound

 Organic Carbon
-

Amount
matter

of

available

organic

Oxygen Demand
-

Amount of oxygen needed to

degrade organic matter

Biological Characteristics
Biodegradability
-

Ratio of biodegradable organic

matter to total organic matter

Pathogens
-

Disease causing organisms

7. Agricultural Wastes
-

From diverse agricultural activities

Waste Analysis and Characterization Survey (WACS)

-

Comprised of a waste stream composition profile

by material types with corresponding weight
estimates
Assesses the current status of solid waste
management to develop future programs for
waste diversion and conversion process

Physical Characteristics
Individual Components
-

Emissions
-

Sludge from industrial treatment

Any air contaminant, pollutant, gas stream or

unwanted sound from a known source which is
pass into the atmosphere

Moisture Content
-

Air Pollutant
-

Any matter found in the atmosphere other than

oxygen, nitrogen, water vapor, carbon dioxide,
and the inert gases in their natural or normal
concentrations that is detrimental to health or the
environment

Emission Standards
-

Monitor criteria and non-criteria (source specific)

air pollutants from stationary and mobile sources
RA 8749 and DAO 2000-81

Types of Solid Wastes

1. Rubbish
-

Combustible and noncombustible

2. Ashes and Residue

-

Razed buildings and other structures

4. Special Wastes
-

From non-specific diffuse sources

5. Hazardous Wastes
-

Reactive, flammable, radioactive

6. Treatment Plant Wastes

Amount of water in solid waste

depending on the type of waste,
season of the year, humidity and
weather conditions
Wet-weight method and Dryweight method

Density
-

Often needed to assess the total

mass and volume of solid to be
managed
Compaction
and
direct
measurement

Chemical Characteristics
Biodegradability
-

Results of burning and combustion

3. Demolition and Construction Wastes

Typically identifiable and adequate

components of solid waste
WACS

Organic matter content of solid

wastes and its capacity to degrade
at given conditions
C/N ratio

Energy Content
-

Important if solid wastes are to be

used as fuel
Proximate and Ultimate Analysis
Heating Value

Industrial Effluents
Solid Calculations

Total Solids = Total Suspended Solids + Total Dissolved Solids = Total Fixed Solids + Total Volatile Solids
Total Suspended Solids = Fixed Suspended Solids + Volatile Suspended Solids
Total Dissolved Solids = Fixed Dissolved Solids + Volatile Dissolved Solids
Total Fixed Solids = Fixed Suspended Solids + Fixed Dissolved Solids
Total Volatile Solids = Volatile Suspended Solids + Volatile Dissolved Solids

Oxygen Demand Calculation

Chemical Oxygen Demand
(

( ) ( ) 8000

)=

()

Biological Oxygen Demand

o Unseeded BOD Test
5 = ( )

o Seeded BOD Test

5 = [( ) ( ) ]

Where: D = Dilution Factor (D = 300 mL / volume of sample in mL)

x = volume of seeded dilution water in the sample
y = volume of BOD bottle

Solid Wastes
Dulong Formula
=
Where: C, H, O, S are in % values

[8080 + 34500 ( ) + 2240] /

100
8