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lanetary geology is the study of the formation and evolution of the bodies in our solar systemincluding the eight planets and myriad smaller objects: moons, asteroids, comets, and mete. oroids. Studying these objects provides valuable insights into the dynamic processes that
operate on Earth. Understanding how other atmospheres evolve helps scientists build better models
for predicting climate change. Studying tectonic processes on other planets helps us appreciate how
these complex interactions alter Earth. In addition, seeing how erosional forces work on other bodies
allows us to observe the many ways landscapes are created. Finally, the uniqueness of Earth, a body
that harbors life, is revealed through investigations of other planetary bodies.
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FOCUS om CONCEPTS
To assist you in learning the important concepts in this chapter, focus on the following questions:
What is the nebular theory?
What are the general characteristics that differentiate the terrestrial planets from the Jovian planets?
air What factors determine the variations observed among the atmospheres of planetary bodies?
3} How did Earth's Moon form?
2;) What are the major features of the lunar surface?
rgis How is crater density used to date surface features on the Moon?
Why is the Venusian surface so hot?
What surface features do Mars and Earth have in common?
<33 Why is the discovery of subsurface ice on Mars important?
What are the "spots" in the atmosphere of the Jovian planets?
Which planets have rings?
Where are most asteroids found?
Ci How are asteroids different from comets?
3:j,3 What are dwarf planets?
within the Sun. Collectively, the planets account for most of the
remaining 0.15 percent. Starting from the Sun, the planets are
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Iupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune (Figure 22.1). Pluto was recently reclassified as a member of
system, states that the Sun and planets formed from a rotating
cloud of interstellar gases [mainly hydrogen and helium) and dust
called the solar nebula. As the solar nebula contracted due to
gravity, most of the material collected in the center to forrn the
hot protosun. The remaining materials formed a thick, attened,
rotating disk, within which matter gradually cooled and condensed into grains and clumps of icy, rocky material. Repeated
collisions resulted in most of the material eventually collecting
into asteroid-sized objects called planetesimals.
tures were highest in the inner solar system and decreased toward
the outer edge of the disk. Therefore, between the present orbits
of Mercury and Mars, the planetesimals were composed of mate-
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637
Orbits of the planets. Positions of the planets are shown to scale along bottom of diagram.
rials with high melting temperaturesmetals and rocky substances. Then, through repeated collisions and accretion (sticking together) these asteroid-sized rocky bodies combined to form
the four protoplanets that eventually became Mercury, Venus,
Earth, and Mars.
The planetesimals that formed beyond the orbit of Mars,
where temperatures are low, contained high percentages of
iceswater, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and methaneas well
as small amounts of rocky and metallic debris. It was mainly from
these planetesimals that the four outer planets eventually
formed. The accumulation of ices accounts, in part, for the large
sizes and low densities of the outer planets. The two most massive planets, Iupiter and Saturn, had surface gravities sufficient to
attract and retain large quantities of hydrogen and helium, the
lightest elements.
It took roughly a billion years after the protoplanets formed
for the planets to gravitationally accumulate most of the interplanetary debris. This was a period of intense bombardment as
the planets cleared their orbits of much of the leftover material.
The scars of this period are still evident on the Moons surface.
Small bodies were ung into planet- crossing orbits, or into interstellar space. The small fraction of interplanetary matter that
escaped this violent period became asteroids, comets, and meteoroids. By comparison, the present-day solar system is a much
quieter place, although many ofthese processes continue today at
a reduced pace.
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TERRESTRIAL PLANETS
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trickled away into space. For example, Earths atmosphere continues to leak hydrogen and helium (the two lightest gases) into
space. This phenomenon occurs near the top of Earths atmosphere where air is so tenuous that nothing stops the fastest moving ions from ying off into space. The speed required to escape
a planets gravity is called escape velocity. Because hydrogen is
the lightest gas, it most easily reaches the space needed to overcome Earths gravity.
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The factors that explain why some bodies have thick
atmospheres, whereas others are airless include solar heating
(temperature) and gravity. Airless worlds are relatively warm and
have weak gravity. Bodies with significant atmospheres have weak
heating and strong gravity.
Planetary Impacts
Planetary impacts have occurred throughout the history of the
solar system. On bodies that have little or no atmosphere, such as
the Moon and Mercury, even the smallest pieces ofinterplanetary
debris (meteorites) can produce microscopic cavities on individual mineral grains. By contrast, large impact craters are the result
of collisions with massive bodies, such as asteroids and comets.
Planetary impacts were considerably more common in the
early history ofthe solar system than they are today, with the heaviest bombardment occurring 3.8-4.1 billion years ago. Following
that period, the rate of cratering diminished dramatically and now
remains essentially constant. Because weathering and erosion
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642
from the rocky mantle of the impactor while its core became part
of the growing Earth. This impact model is consistent with the
Moons low density and internal structure, which consists of a
large mantle and a small iron-rich core.
FlGiJRE 22.7 Telescopic view of the lunar surface from Earth. The major features are
the dark maria and the light, highly cratered highlands. (UCO/Lick Observatory Image)
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Terrestrial Planets
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Mercury absorbs most of the sunlight that strikes it, reecting only 6 percent into space, a characteristic of terrestrial bodies
that have little or no atmosphere. The minuscule amount of gas
present on Mercury may have originated from several sources:
ionized gas emitted from the Sun; ices that vaporized during a
recent comet impact; and/ or outgassing of the planets interior.
Although Mercury is small and scientists expected the
planets interior to have already cooled, the Messenger spacecraft
detected a magnetic field. This nding suggests that Mercury has
a large core that remains hot and uid enough to generate a magnetic field.
Mercury resembles Earths Moon in that it has very low reectivity, no sustained atmosphere, numerous volcanic features, and
Terrestrial Planets
645
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This global view of the surface of Venus is computer-generated from years
of investigations culminating with the Magellan mission. The twisting bright features
that cross the globe are highly fractured ridges and canyons of the eastern Aphrodite
highland. (Courtesy of NASA/JPL)
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FIGURE 2.2 12 Extensive lava ows on Venus This Magellan radar image shows a system of lava
ows that orignated from a volcano named Ammavaru, which lies approximately 300 kilometers (186
miles) west of the scene The lava, which appears bright in this radar image, has rough surfaces,
whereas the darker ows are smooth Upon breaking through the ridge belt (left of center), the lava
collected in a 100 000-square-kilometer pool (Courtesy of NASA)
Mars is a dry, desert world. The reddish color of the Martian landscape
is iron oxide (rust). Large impact craters provide information
about the nature of the Martian surface. For example, if the surface is composed of dry dust and rocky debris, ejecta similar to
that surrounding lunar craters is to be expected. But the ejecta
surrounding some Martian craters has a different appearancethat of a muddy slurry that was splashed from the crater. Planetaiy geologists believe that a layer of permafrost (frozen, icy soil)
lies below portions of the Martian surface and that impacts heated
and melted the ice to produce the uid-like appearance of these
ejecta.
About two-thirds of the surface of Mars consists of heavily
cratered highlands, concentrated mostly in its southern hemisphere (Figure as.-14). The period of extreme cratering occurred
early in the planet's history and ended about 3.8 billion years ago,
as it did in the rest ofthe solar system. Thus, Martian highlands are
similar in age to the lunar highlands.
Based on relatively low crater counts, the northern plains,
which account for the remaining one-third of the planet, are
younger than the highlands (Figure 22.14). The plains relatively
at topography is consistent with vast outpourings of uid basaltic
lavas. Visible on these plains are volcanic cones, some with summit pits and lava ows with wrinkled edges.
Located along the Martian equator is an enormous elevated
region, about the size of North America, called the Tharsis bulge
(Figure 22.14). This feature, about 10 kilometers high, appears to
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Color represents height above (or below) the mean planetary radiuswhite is about 12 kilometers
above average and dark blue 8 kilometers below average. (Courtesy of NASA/JPL)
Terrestrial Planets
647
Liquid
water does not appear to exist anywhere on the Martian surface. However, poleward of about 30 degrees
latitude ice can be found within a meter ofthe surface. In the polar
regions it forms small permanent ice caps along with carbon dioxide ice. In addition, considerable evidence indicates that in the
rst billion years ofthe planets history, liquid water flowed on the
surface, creating stream valleys and related features.
One location where running water was involved in carving valleys can be seen in the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter image in
Figure 22.16. Researchers have proposed that melting ofsubsurface
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ice caused spring-like seeps to emerge along the valley wall, slowly
creating the gulliesa process that may still be active today.
Other channels have stream-like banks and contain numerous teardrop-shaped islands (Figure 22.17). These valleys appear
to have been cut by catastrophic oods with discharge rates that
were more than 1,000 times greater than those ofthe Mississippi
River. Most of these large ood channels emerge from areas of
chaotic topography that appear to have formed when the surface collapsed. The most likely source of water for these oodcreated valleys was the melting of subsurface ice. Ifthe melt water
was trapped beneath a thick layer of permafrost, pressure could
mount until a catastrophic release occurred. As the water
escaped, the overlying surface would collapse, creating the
chaotic terrain.
Not all Martian valleys appear to be the result of water
released in this manner. Some exhibit branching, tree-like patterns that resemble dendritic drainage networks on Earth. In addition, the Opportunily rover investigated structures similar to
features created by water on Earth. These included layered sedimentary rocks, playas (salt ats), and lake beds. Minerals that
form only in the presence ofwater such as hydrated sulfates were
also detected. Small spheres of hematite, dubbed blueberries,
were found that probably precipitated from water to form lake
sediments. Nevertheless, with the exception of the polar regions,
water does not appear to have signicantly altered the topography
of Mars for more than a billion years.
648
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The structure of Jupiter's atmosphere. The areas of light clouds (zones) are regions where gases are ascending and cooling.
Sinking dominates the ow in the darker cloud layers (belts). This convective circulation, along with the rapid rotation of the planet, generates
the high-speed winds observed between the belts and zones.
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The largest storm on the planet is the Great Red Spot. This
enormous, anticylonic storm that is twice the size of Earth has
been known for 300 years. In addition to the Great Red Spot, there
are various white and brown oval-shaped storms (Figure 22.18).
The white ovals are the cold cloud tops ofhuge storms many times
larger than hurricanes on Earth. The brown storm clouds reside
at lower levels in the atmosphere. Lightning in various white oval
storms has been photographed by the Cassini spacecraft, but the
strikes appear to be less frequent than on Earth.
Jupiters Moons Jupiters satellite system, consisting of 63
moons discovered thus far, resembles a miniature solar system.
Galileo discovered the fotu largest satellites, referred to as Galilean
satellites, in 1610 ('.='.;i{,g-'iP.ir">":'
The two largest, Ganymede and
Callisto, are roughly the size of Mercury, whereas the two smaller
ones, Europa and Io, are about the size of Earths Moon. The eight
largest moons appear to have formed around Jupiter as the solar
system condensed.
Jupiter also has many very small satellites (about 20 kilometers in diameter) that revolve in the opposite direction (retrograde
motion) of the largest moons, and have eccentric orbits steeply
inclined to the Jovian equator. These satellites appear to be asteroids or comets that passed near enough to be gravitationally captured by Jupiter, or are remnants ofthe collisions of larger bodies.
The Galilean moons can be observed with binoculars or a small
telescope and are interesting in their own right. Images from
Voyagers 1 and 2 revealed, to the surprise ofmost geoscientists, that
each ofthe four Galilean satellites is a unique world (Figure 22.19).
The Galileo mission also unexpectedly revealed that the composition of each satellite is strikingly different, implying a different evolution for each. For example, Ganymede has a dynamic core that
generates a strong magnetic eld not observed in other satellites.
The innermost ofthe Galilean moons, lo, is perhaps the most
volcanically active body in our solar system. In all, more than 80
active, sulfurous volcanic centers have been discovered.
Umbrella-shaped plumes have been observed rising from Ios surface to heights approaching 200 kilometers (1:.*i;_>;in-;"r: smarts). The
?.i_2.ii.ii Jupiter's four largest moons (from left to right) are called the Galilean moons because they were discovered by Galileo. A. The
innermost moon, Io, is one of only three volcanically active bodies known to exist in the solar system. B. Europa, smallest of the Galilean moons,
has an icy surface that is criss-crossed by many linear features. C. Ganymede, the largest Jovian satellite, exhibits cratered areas, smooth
regions, and areas covered by numerous parallel grooves. D. Callisto, the outermost of the Galilean satellites, is densely cratered, much like
Earth's 1110011. (Courtesy of NASA/NGS Image Collection)
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the ring system was thoroughly investigated by the Galileo mission. By analyzing how these rings scatter light, researchers determined that the rings are composed of fine, dark particles, similar
in size to smoke particles. Furthermore, the faint nature of the
rings indicates that these minute particles are widely dispersed.
The main ring is composed of particles believed to be fragments
blasted from the surfaces of Metis and Adrastea, two small moons
of Jupiter. Impacts on Jupiters moons Amalthea and Thebe are
believed to be the source of the debris from which the outer Gossamer ring formed.
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J1-P; Image taken by the Earth-orbiting Hubble Space Telescope shows Saturns dynamic ring system. The two bright rings,
called A ring (outer) and B ring (inner), are separated by the Cassini division. A second small gap (Encke gap) is also visible as a thin
line in the outer portion of the A ring. (Courtesy of NASA)
NASA/JPL)
on Saturns satellite Enceladus is thought to be the source of material for the E ring.
Studies have shown that the gravitational tugs ofnearby moons
tend to shepherd the ring particles by gravitationally altering their
orbits
i?";I _?._. '@7l'i-'-). For example, the F ring, which is very narrow, appears to be the work of satellites located on either side that
confine the ring by pulling back particles that try to escape.
I/Vhereas the Cassini Division, a clearly visible gap in Figure 22.21,
arises from the gravitational pull of Jupiters moon, Mimas.
Some of the ring particles are believed to be debris ejected
from the moons embedded in them. It is also possible that material is continually recycled between the rings and the ring moons.
The ring moons gradually sweep up particles, which are subsequently ejected by collisions with large chunks of ring material, or
perhaps by energetic collisions with other moons. It seems, then,
that planetary rings are not the timeless features that we once
thoughtrather, they are continually recycled.
The origin of planetary ring systems is still being debated. Perhaps the rings formed simultaneously and from the same material
as the planets and moonscondensing from a attened cloud of
dust and gases that encircled the parent planet. Or, perhaps the rings
Jovian Planets
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huge storm systems the size of the United States. Recent photographs from the Hubble Space Telescope also reveal banded
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Two of Saturns ring moons. A. Pan is a small moon
about 30 kilometers in diameter that orbits in the Encke gap, located
in the A ring. It is responsible for keeping the Encke gap open. B.
Prometheus, a potato-shaped moon, acts as a ring shepard. Its gravity
helps confine the moonlets in Saturn's thin F ring. (Courtesy or NASA/JPL)
formed later, when a moon or large asteroid was gravltationally pulled apart after
straying too close to a planet. Yet another
hypothesis suggests that a foreign body
collided catastrophically with one ofthe
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images. At the top is the Great Dark Spot, accompanied by bright
white clouds. To the south is a bright white area thought to be high
cloud tops. Still farther south is a second dark spot with a bright core.
(Courtesy of NASA/JPL)
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from the partial melting ofice instead of silicate rocks. Tritons icy
magma is a mixture of water-ice, methane, and probably ammonia. When partially melted, this mixture behaves as molten rock
does on Earth. In fact, upon reaching the surface these magmas
can generate quiet outpourings of ice lavas, or occasionally, produce explosive eruptions. An explosive eruptive column can gen-
655
There are countless chunks of debris in the vast spaces separating the eight planets and in the outer reaches of the solar system.
In 2006, the International Astronomical Union organized solar
system objects not classied as planets or moons
into two broad categories: (1) small solar system
The orbits of most asteroids lie between Mars and Jupiter. Also shown
bodies that include asteroids, comets, and are the orbits of a few known near-Earth asteroids.
rneteoroicls and (2) dwarf planets. The newest
grouping, dwarf planets, includes Ceres, the
largest known object in the asteroid belt, and
Pluto, a former planet.
Asteroids and meteoroids are composed of
rocky and/or metallic material with compositions
somewhat like the terrestrial planets. They are
distinguished according to size: Asteroids are
larger than 100 meters in diameter, whereas
meteoroids have diameters less than 100 meters.
Comets, on the other hand, are loose collections
of ices, dust, and small rocky particles that originate in the outer reaches of the solar system.
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FIGURE 22.A World map of major impact structures. Additional structures are being identified
every year. (Data from Griffith Observatory)
Indirect evidence from meteorites suggests that some asteroids might have been heated by a large impact event. A few large
asteroids may have completely melted, causing them to differentiate into a dense iron core and a rocky mantle. In November
2005, the Japanese probe Hayabusa landed on a small nearEarth asteroid named 25143 Itokawa and returned to Earth in
June 2010. However, it remains uncertain if samples were
collected.
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Close-up of surface
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IFHLI-;t. ,*tI%iT~:ii.I fl?-'1..l.-.52 Image of asteroid Eros obtained by the NEARShoemaker probe. Inset shows a close-up of Eross barren rocky
surface. (Courtesy of NASA)
657
Named for Dutch astronomer Ian Oort, the Oort cloud consists of comets that are distributed in all directions from the Sun,
forming a spherical shell around the solar system. Most Oort cloud
comets orbit the Sun at distances greater than 10,000 times the
Earth-Sun distance. The gravitational effect of a distant passing
star may send an occasional Oort cloud comet into a highly eccentric orbit that carries it toward the Sun. However, only a tiny fraction of Oort cloud comets have orbits that bring them into the
inner solar system.
one of the Iovian planets, occasionally alters their orbits sufficiently to send them into our view.
Halleys Comet originated in the Kuiper belt. Its orbital period
averages 76 years, and every one of its 29 appearances since 240
B.C. has been recorded by Chinese astronomerstestimony to
their dedication as astronomical observers and the endurance of
Chinese culture. In 1910, Halleys Comet made a very close
approach to Earth, making for a spectacular display.
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Nearly everyone has seen a meteor, commonly (but inaccurately) called shooting stars. These streaks of light can be
observed in as little as the blink of an eye, or can last as long as
a few seconds. They occur when a small solid particle, a
meteoroid, enters Earths atmosphere from interplanetary space.
Heat, created by friction between the meteoroid and the air, produces the light we see trailing across the sky. Most meteoroids
originate from one of the following three sources: (1) interplanetary debris missed by the gravitational sweep of the planets during formation of the solar system; (2) material that is continually
being ejected from the asteroid belt; or (3) the rocky and/ or
metallic remains of comets that once passed through Earths
orbit. A few meteoroids are probably fragments of the Moon,
Mars, or possibly Mercury, ejected by a violent asteroid impact.
Before Apollo astronauts brought Moon rocks back to Earth,
meteorites were the only extraterrestrial materials that could be
studied in the laboratory.
Meteoroids less than about a meter in diameter generally
vaporize before reaching Earths surface. Some, called micrometeorites, are so tiny and their rate of fall so slow that they drift
to Earth continually as space dust. Researchers estimate that thousands of meteoroids enter Earths atmosphere every day. After
sunset on a clear, dark night, many are bright enough to be seen
with the naked eye anywhere on Earth.
Occasionally, meteor sightings increase dramatically to 60 or
more per hour. These displays, called meteor showers, result when
Earth encounters a swarm of meteoroids traveling in the same
direction at nearly the same speed as Earth. The close association
of these swarms to the orbits of some short-term comets strongly
suggests that they represent material lost by these comets
(Table 22.2). Some swarms, not associated with the orbits of
known comets, are probably the scattered remains of the nucleus
of a long-defunct comet. The notable Perseid meteor shower that
occurs each year around August 12 is likely material ejected from
the comet Swift-Tuttle on previous approaches to the Sun.
Most meteoroids large enough to survive probably originate
among the asteroids, where chance collisions or gravitational
interactions with Iupiter modify their orbits and project them
toward Earth. Earths gravity does the rest.
A few very large meteoroids have blasted craters on Earths
surface that strongly resemble those on our Moon. At least 40 terrestrial craters exhibit features that could only be produced by an
explosive impact of a large asteroid, or perhaps even a comet
nucleus. More than 250 others may be of impact origin. Most
notable is Arizona's Meteor Crater, a huge cavity more than 1 kilo-
Approximate Dates
Quadrantids
Associated comet
__January 4-6
_ Lyrids
__
April 20-23
Eta Aquarids
Comet 1861 I
May 3-5
g7
ta_Aqu_arids _ July 30
i_ g _____ M___
P.i$eid$ -1 . _A?19Si2_
_- _
Draoonids
October 7-10
Orionids
October 20
Taurids
if Hlivember 2513
_Andromedids
I-_Ialley's Comet
_ g
.__Cl}el 1362i1L . .
Comet Giacobini;Zinner
. __E?11eYiELme=n. . .
UH
CometEncke g
November 14-
if
f
g
Comet Biela
Leonids
November 18 D l
Geminids
December 4-1 6
Comet 1866 1
meter wide, 170 meters (560 feet) deep, with an upturned rim that
rises above the surrounding countryside (.il?.iF;y'.l;ftP .T?;?.._i3). More than
30 tons of iron fragments have been found in the immediate area,
but attempts to locate the main body have been unsuccessful.
Based on the amount of erosion observed on the crater rim, the
impact likely occurred within the last 50,000 years.
659
Fi;f;%UiiE 22.33 Meteor Crater, near Winslow, Arizona. This cavity is about 1.2 kilometers (0.75 mile) across and 1'70 meters (560 feet) deep. The
solar system is cluttered with meteoroids and other objects that can strike Earth with explosive force. (Photo by Michael Collier)
Meteor Crater
(cross-section)
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Pluto with its three known moons. Image bl? the
Hubble Space Telescope. (Courtesy of NASA)
Dwarf Planets
Since its discovery in 1930, Pluto has been a mystery to
astronomers who were searching for another planet in order to
explain irregularities in Neptunes orbit. At the time of its discovery, Pluto was thought to be the size of Earthtoo small to significantly alter Neptunes orbit. Later, estimates of Plutos
diameter, adjusted because of improved satellite images, indicated that it was less than half Earths diameter. Then, in 1978,
astronomers realized that Pluto appeared much larger than it
really is because ofthe brightness of its newly discovered satellite,
Charon
Most recently, calculations based on
images obtained by the Hubble Space Telescope show that Plutos
diameter is 2,300 kilometers (1,430 miles), about one-fifth the
diameter of Earth and less than half that of Mercury (long considered the solar system's runt). In fact, seven moons in the solar
system, including Earths, are larger than Pluto.
660
perhaps larger than Pluto, are thought to exist in this belt of icy
worlds beyond Neptunes orbit.
The InternationalAstronomical Union, the group responsible for naming and classifying celestial objects, voted in 2006 to
create a new class of solar system objects called dwarf planets.
These are celestial bodies that orbit the Sun, are essentially spherical due to their own gravity, but are not large enough to sweep
their orbits clear of other debris. By this definition, Pluto is recognized as a dwarf planet and the prototype of this new category
of planetary objects. Other dwarf planets include Eris, a Kuiper
belt object, and Ceres, the largest known asteroid.
Plutos reclassification was not the first such demotion. In
the mid-1800s, astronomy textbooks listed as many as 1 I planets
in our solar system, including the asteroids Vesta, Iuno, Ceres,
and Pallas. Astronomers continued to discover dozens of other
planets, a clear signal that these small bodies represent a class
of objects separate from the planets.
Researchers now recognize that Pluto was unique among the
classical planetscompletely different from the four rocky, innermost planets, as well as the four gaseous giants. The new classification will give a home to the hundreds of additional dwarf
planets astronomers assume exist in the solar system. New Horizons, the first spacecraft designed to explore the outer solar system, was launched in January 2006. Scheduled to y by Pluto in
Iuly 20 15, and later explore the Kuiper belt, New Horizons carries
tremendous potential for aiding researchers in further understanding the solar system.
Dwarf Planets
661
d. Approximately how many Suns would fit side-by-side between Earth and the Sun, a distance of
about 150,000,000 km?
3. The accompanying graph shows the temperature at various distances
Condition jreapemna.-jrempemnn ,
,
_
_
(Farenheit)
(Ketwns)
from the Sun during
the
formation
of
our
solar
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following.
zooo
Mercury
Human
My I 98-6
31
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Water boils j
2I'2
373
l
a. Which planet(s) formed at locations where the temperature in the
I000:
VenusEarth
Mars
solar system was hotter than the boiling point of water?
vins) B ca
b. Which planet(s) formed at locations where the temperature in the
Jupiter
NC)CD
solar system was cooler than the freezing point of water?
Saturn
BQ.
4. The accompanying sketch shows four primary craters (A, B, C, and D).
I
Uranus
(Ke
Temperature
The impact that produced crater A produced two secondary craters
X
Neptune
50
(labeled a) and three rays. Crater D has one secondary crater (labeled
20
d). Rank the four primary craters 'om oldest to youngest and explain
01'
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2.0
5.0
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1
your ranking.
Distance from the Sun (AU)
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5. The accompanying diagram shows two of Uranus moons, Ophelia and Cordelia, which act as
shepherd moons for the Epsilon ring. Explain what would happen to the Epsilon ring if a large
asteroid struck Ophelia, knocking it out of the Uranian system.
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662
6. The accompanying diagram shows a comet traveling toward the Sun at the rst position where
it has both an ion tail and a dust tail. Refer to this diagram to complete the following.
a. For each of the three numbered sites, indicate whether the comet will have no tails, one
tail, or two tails. If one tail or two tails are present, in what direction will they point?
b. Would your answers to the preceding question change if the Suns energy output were to
increase significantly? If so, how would they change?
c. If the solar wind suddenly ceased, how would it affect this comet and its tails?
7. It has been estimated that Halleys Comet has a mass of 100 billion tons. Furthermore, it is estimated to lose about 100 million tons of material when its orbit brings it close to the Sun. With
an orbital period of 76 years, calculate the maximum remaining life span of Halleys Comet.
8. Assume three irregularly shaped planet-like obj ects, each smaller than our Mo on, have just
been discovered orbiting the Sun at a distance of 35 AU. One of your friends argues the objects
should be classified as planets because they are large and orbit the Sun. Another friend argues
that the objects should be classified as dwarf planets, such as Pluto. State whether you agree or
disagree with either or both of your friends. Explain your reasoning.
Mastering Geology
663
Key Terms
asteroids (p. 655)
asteroid belt (p. 655)
coma (p. 657)
comet (p. 656)
cryovolcanism (p. 654)
dwarf planet (p. 655)
escape velocity (p. 640)
impact craters (p. 640)
Iovian planet (p. 637)
Mastering Geology
.
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