Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Loads/Forces on Aircraft
Ground Loads and Forces
Expected Aerodynamic Loads
Unexpected Aerodynamic Loads
V-n diagram or Flight Envelope
Load factor, n
Limit load factor n1
Proof load factor 1.25n1
Ultimate load factor 1.5n1
Gust load factors
Level Flight case, n=1
Steady Pull up from dive, n=f(r,q)
Correctly Banked turn, n=f(r,f)
K gVeU g C L
n 1
498 W
S
Altitude
(Feet)
@ VB
20k-50k
38
0-20000
66
Ug [fps]
@ VC
@ VD
25
12.5
50
25
Bending
Twisting
Internal Pressure
Axial
Wing
Bending
Twisting
Other Analyses
Joints/Connections
Stress Concentrations
Fracture Mechanics
Fatigue
Reviews of Mechanics
I xx
zs
SQ
I xx t
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
Stress
Analysis
Normal/Bending stress
Torsional Shear stress
Transverse Shear stress
Stiffness
Analysis
Stability
Analysis
Vibration
Analysis
Natural Frequencies
Modes of vibration
5
Stresses
>Normal stresses
>Shear stresses
Material
properties
SY
Strains
>Normal strains
>Shear strains
Deformation
>Extension/Contraction
>Bending/Shear Deflection
>Twisting/Warping
Failure
>Yielding/Fracture
>Buckling
>Vibration
SX
MX
MY
Stiffness
Strength
Stability
Vibration
fuselage
ion
compress
wing
My
Sx
LIFT
tension
Sy
Sx
T
Mx
centroidal
Mx
My
Sy
centroidal
Sx
Sy
translations+rotation
Mx
Twist center
x
Centroidal position
> geometric center of the section.
> position of Cartesian axes.
> by default, internal forces/moments
act through this position.
Centroid of a plane figure is the average
position of all the points in the shape. If a
physical object has uniform density, then its
center of mass is the same as the centroid of
its shape.
rotation
The twist center is a point of the section, which is not subjected to any
displacement under twist/torsion.
y translations
Sy
translations+rotation
Sx
Shear center
Sx
Sy
10
12
13
1. A thin-walled section has a thickness much smaller than its other geometric dimensions.
2. A closed thin-walled section (sometimes referred to as a tube) is one which the locus of point
defining the centre of the walls is a closed curve. The area enclosed by a tube wall is called a
cell.
3. An open thin-walled section has no enclosed cells. Examples are channels, angles, I-beams,
and wide-flange sections.
4. Other thin-walled sections may consist of cells with protruding fins; a hybrid of open and
closed sections.
open section
single cell,
closed section
multi-cell section
hybrid section
14
Sign Conventions
Positive distributed forces and moments are indicated and they act at the
centroid of the section.
Sy
O
My
x
dA
Mx
Mz
Sx
Nz
15
A positive torque is a
moment that acts on the
cross-section in a righthand-rule sense about the
outer normal to the crosssection
Consequently, a positive
angle of twist is a rotation
of the cross-section in a
right-hand-rule
sense
about the outer normal.
The
sign
convention
defined here is again not
related to a particular
direction of coordinates.
16
17
Sy
o
My
x
zy
dA
y
Mz
Mx
Sx
Nz
zx
18
Forces 0
N z z dA
S x zx dA
S y zy dA
Moment Resultant
Internal moments
Moments 0
M x y dA
z
zy
M x z y dA
zx
M y z x dA
xy
yz
zy
zx
z
19
P
P
dz
Point
dz
dz
Element
z
z+dz
P
P
dz
dz
dz
d
20
Equations of equilibrium
y
dy
dz
y#
dx
x
z
x x dx
x
zx# zx zx dz
z
#
x
xz
zy#
xy
yx
yx
#
yx
yx#
xy#
#
yz
yz
yx
y
#
zx
#
z
xz#
x#
dy
SFx=0,
x yx zx
X 0
x
y
z
y
y
xy
x
yz
zy
z
Y 0
xz Z 0
z
y
x
Equilibrium of moments yields:
xy yx
xz zx
yz zy
21
u
x
x
Shear strains
v
y
y
xy
xz
yz
w
z
z
u v
y x
u w
z x
w v
y z
z
w
2
yz
y
w
2
zy
22
1
x x y z
E
xy
1
y y x z
E
1
z z y x
E
x
xz
yz
y
x
x
xy
G
xz
G
yz
G
z
z
23
E
vE
x y z
x
1 v
1 v 1 2v
E
vE
x y z
y
y
1 v
1 v 1 2v
E
vE
x y z
z
z
1 v
1 v 1 2v
xy G xy
xz G xz
yz G yz
E
x y
2
1 v
E
y x
y
2
1 v
1
x y
E
1
y y x
E
v
z x y
E
xy G xy
24
Px
A
E
D
L
PL
D
AE
My
I
E
y
D max
PL3
K
EI
Pressure Vessel
pr
H
t
pr
L
2t
1
X X Y
E
D X LX X
Shear Stress
Bending
Twisting
VQ
It
G
PL
DK
GA
y
Failure Criteria
Principal stresses
Max Shear stress
xy
Tr
T
J 2 AO t
TL
GJ
G
L rf
x
25
y
zy
Y
R
Mx
zy
pr
y
t
T
2 Aot
pr N M x y
2t A
I xx
zy
1, 2 ave R
max
max
zy
z y
zy2
R
2
z y
2
2qp
ave
ave
z y
1 2
2
y
zy2
R 2 z
2
2 zy
tan 2q p
z y26
2
principal
UTS
n
Limiting/ultimate stress
Allowable/Working/Design stress
1 3
2 3
1 2
YIELD
n
YIELD
n
YIELD
n
1 2 1 3 2 3
2
2 YIELD
n
27
dq
I xx y 2 dA
A
d 2
bd
12
I yy x dA
A
d 2
b2
y 2bdy
I xx y 2 dA
A
I xx
d 4
64
y 2bdy
y 2 2 cos q dy
d 2
2
d 2
d
d
2 2
2
db 3
12
d 2
x d dx
b 2
d 2
d4
and
J I xx I yy
cos 2 q sin 2 q dq
I yy
or
d 4
64
J r 2 dA
A
28
t
dq
I xx y 2 dA 2 R sin q tRdq
ds
dA tds
ds Rd q
y
sin q
R
2 R 3t sin 2 q dq
2 R 3t 1 cos 2q dq
0
2
dA tRd q
R 3t 1 cos 2q dq
y R sin q
R t q sin 2q
2
I xx R 3t
wall thickness, t
o
I oxx y 2 dA
ds
y
H/2
dA tds
H/2
y
s
H /2 L/2
I 0 xx
H 2 2
y 2 dA L / 2 s t ds
L
L/ 2
3
H s
t
L 3 L / 2
2
H
s
L
H
L
I xx I 0 xx Ad 2
L/2
L3
t
12
29
I N I C Ab 2
I xx I C Ab 2
3
i 1
2
3
bt 3f
d twd w
I xx 2
bt f
12
2 12
I xy 0
dA
or
I xy 0
I xy xy dA i
N
i 1
I xy 0
30
t
h
No approximation
I NA
bt 3
th 3
2
2
btd
12
12
With approximation
I NA
th 3
2btd
12
2
th
h
b
2
6
Approximate/Accurate
0.1
0.2
t/b
0.3
0.4
thin-walled structures
31
0.5
1
WE Tq
2
TORSION
D
q
r
T
WE
1
PD
2
TENSION
32
deformation, du=X dx
du/2
X
dz
dx
dy
du/2
The elemental work done or the elastic strain energy stored in the element is:
1
dU x dydz
x dx
2
1
x x dxdydz
2
1
1 x2
dxdydz or E x2 dxdydz
2
2 E
33
xy
deformation, du= dy
1
dU xy dxdz dy
2
1
xy dxdydz
2
1 2
1
xy
dy
dz
dx
dy
y
xy
x
34
3D stress
y
dU
1
x x y y z z xy xy xz xz yz yz dxdydz
2
1
U x x y y xy xy dxdydz
2
1
x x y
E
1
y y x
E
xy
x2 y2 2 x y xy2
1
dxdydz
U
2
E
E
E
G
xy
zy
xy
yz
xy
2D stress
yx
35
E
L
x2 y2 2 x y xy2
1 L x2
1
Strain energy in bar : U
dxdydz 0
2 E
2 E
E
E
G
The stress in bar is uniform :
P
A
A L x2
A
dx
Strain energy in bar : U
2 0 E
2E
P2L
P
dx 2 EA
A
2
Adx
1
PD
2
36
Radius, r
2
x2 y2 2 x y xy2
1 L xy
1
Strain energy in bar : U
dxdydz 0 A
2
2
E
E
G
G
E
xy
Tr
2
1 L xy
Strain energy in bar : U
2 0 A G
1 L T 2r 2
1
dAdx
dAdx
0 A GJ 2
2
2GJ
1
WE T q
2
dAdx
T 2L
T dx
2GJ
2
37