Materials and Structures / Mat6riaux et Constructions, Vol.

36, October 2003, pp 548452

Influence of residual stresses in the tensile test of cold

drawn wires
J. M. Atienza and M. Elices
Departamento Ciencia de Materiales, Universidad Polit6cnica de Madrid, E.T.S.I. Caminos, Madrid, Spain.

RESUMF~

ABSTRACT
The aim of this paper is to investigate the influence of
residual stresses, due to cold-drawing, on the shape of the
tensile stress-strain curve and particularly its influence on the
ratio C%.2/~m,~through a numerical and experimental work. It
was found that residual stresses favours the onset of yielding
and the ratio cyo.2/c~m~,~decreases with increasing values of
residual stresses. Because of the deleterious effect of residual
stresses on fatigue and stress corrosion and because such
stresses affect the ratio c~02,"c~...... it is reasonable to put a
lower limit to ~02/O'm~L-~ in the standards. The ratio O'0.2/~ma x
can be increased by relieving residual stresses, a common
procedure after drawing. This fact is also ascertained.

L'objectif de cet article est la recherche num&ique et

exp&imentale de l'influence des contraintes r&iduelles dues au
trdfilage ?~ fi~aid sur la forme de, la courbe contrainted~ormation et, plus partic~li&ement, son influence sur le ratio
r162
Cet article montre que les contraintes r&iduelles
favors
la plastification. Le ratio ~o,:/cr~,~ diminue au fur et 27
mesure clue les contraintes r&iduelles augmentent. ~i cause des
eflbts ndgatifi' des~ contraintes r&iduelles sur la fatigue et la
corrosion des mat&iaux, il est raisonnable de demander une
valeur limite pour Cro,:/c~,,~.Le ratio Cro,:/cL,~.peut Otre augment~
h condition de reldcher les contraintes rOsiduelles, une
procddure normale apr& le tr@Tage.

1. INTRODUCTION

shape of the tensile stress-strain curve and, particularly, its

influence on the ratio O'0.2/~ma x. It is hoped that these results
may shed some light on the figures required by standards and
may help in improving the quality of prestressing wires.

Standards for cold drawn wires for prestressing concrete

[1] require minimum and maximum figures for cr0.j~ma~,
where ~0.2 and C~m,xare respectively the conventional yield
stress (at a 0.20% offset) and the maximum stress, as
measured in a tensile test.
The rationale behind these figures seems to be based on
good practice and on the idealized behaviour of a
prestressing tendon [2, 3]. On the other hand, it is known
that the presence of residual stresses due to cold drawing
can influence ductility and fracture [4], fatigue [5] and
stress corrosion [6]. In addition, residual stress can alter the
shape of the stress-strain curve fi'om a tensile test [7].
Therefore, the presence of damaging residual stresses could
be reflected in the shape, and in the values of some
parameters of the stress strain curve.
The purpose of this contribution is to investigate the
influence of residual stresses, due to cold-drawing, on the

Editoria! note
Prof Manuel Elices is a RILEM Senior Member.

1359-5997/03 ~ RILEM

548

2. EXPERIMENTAL WORK
2.1 Reference bar
The material used in this research was intended to be the
same as the steel wires used for prestressing concrete, i.e.;
eutectoid steel [2], but because it was also intended to
measure the stress distribution across the section by neutron
diffraction - - a s part of another research project-- bars of 20
mm diameter were chosen instead &the usual thinner bars.
The bars were produced by hot rolling and we-re aged until
no significant residual surface stresses appeared (values less
than 50 MPa, fbr longitudinal surfhce stresses measured by

Materials and Structures / Mat~riaux et Constructions, Vol. 36, October 2003

kept straight in samples of 3 m length.

The average stress-strain curve, from a tensile test, is
also shown in Fig. 1. Table 2, compares the
Table I - Average chemical composition of the reference steel
................
main values of the reference and cold drawn
I bars obtained in tensile tests.
C(~176 I Si(%) I Mn(%) I AI(%) [p(%) I s(%) [ ve

X-ray diffraction). The average chemical composition is

given in Table 1.

0.75-01S0 10.'5-0.35 10.60-0190 10.0:-0.06 1<0.025 1<0.0:5 I ba'aoce

3. NUMERICAL WORK

The stress-strain curve, as obtained in a tensile test, is

shown in Fig. 1, together with representative values in
Table 2. (S~(m~x)is the strain under maximum stress, am~0.

3.1 Drawing simulation

1200

The steel bar was modelled as an elastoplastic material

with strain hardening. Isotropic hardening with a yon Mises
criterion was used and, as first approximation, the yield
locus was considered independent of strain rate.
The drawing process was numerically simulated using
the finite element method [8] with the help of ABAQUS
code [9]. A three-dimensional Lagangian formulation was
used for the wire, where plastic deformation was considered
isochoric. Special care was taken in choosing the finite
elements to avoid the well known volumetric locking
problem [8, 10, 11]. The initial Stress-strain function was
the experimental one, for the reference bar shown in Fig. 1.
The die was also modelled using the finite element method;
the material was treated as linear elastic with a modulus of
elasticity of 600 GPa, similar to widia, a common material
for dies. The contact between wire and die was modelled as
Coulomb friction, with a friction coefficient ranging
between 0.2 and 0.01 [12]. A detailed description of
numerical modelling can be seen in [7].
One result --particularly interesting for our purpose-was the steady-state profile of residual stresses. It was
found that cold drawing generates an axisymmetrical
profile of residual stresses (due to an inhomogeneous
plastic deformation through the die). Fig. 3 shows the
longitudinal residual stresses as a function of relative depth
fiR, where r is the distance from the bar centre and R the
bar radius. Tensile stresses appear on the bar surface, and
compressive ones in the innermost part to balance the
external loads.

After drawing
1000

Before drawing
800

600
W
[Z
CO 400

200
o

12

lo

STP,AtN (%)
Fig. 1 - Stress-strain curves of'refErence bar (before drawing)
and cold drawn bar.

Table 2 - Average tensile values of reference and

drawn bars
Sample
...... ~0,z, ( M l ~ a )
Om~,(MPa)
go.~x) (%)
945
8.6
Referencebar
515

Cold drawn bar

940

1115

2.2

2.2 Cold drawn bar

Reference bars, 20 mm diameter, were cold-drawn under
controlled conditions to 18 mm diameter (20% reduction of
area), through a wiredrawing die. Die geometry is shown in
Fig. 2. To avoid stresses due to bending, drawn wires were

Fig. 2 - Die geomet-ryused for drawing (die angle 2ct = 15.36~

Fig. 3 - Longitudinal residual stresses as a function of depth.

549

Atienza, Elices
1500

1500
-.,(~

~'1000
n

Loading
steps

_..@
9-

<

9 -(~
9

_ , . , . " " ~---'~'~T~ 9 - - "

.f
-

,I"

i"

"-- .,~@

I"

~-"

Initial values

Loading

9 9 "~" "" ~ " " " I

CO 500
LU
n~
O3
.

,. ....... J

..............

..... .'~

.-

."

,,"

i'

,e"

1ooo ~-

500 03
LU
n~

/-~"---

09
0 _j

Initial values

.......

<

cn

steps
g

-500

-500

I(.9
Z
O
-1000 . j

s
Z
O-1000
a

-1500

0,0

I~

WITHOUT RESIDUAL STRESSES

,

0,2

0,4
0,6
RELATIVE DEPTH, (r/R)

08

b WITH RESlDUALSTRESSES

/,

1,0 0.0

02

04
0.6
RELATIVE DEPTH, (dR)

0.8

-1500

t.0

Fig. 4 - Longitudinal stresses as a function of relative depth during a tensile test: a.- Bar without residual stresses; b.- Bar with residual
stresses due to cold drawing. Stresses in both figures correspond to the same loading steps.
the procedure outlined in the previous section. The stress-strain
curve of the reference bar was used for computing residual
stresses after drawing, and this profile o f residual stresses was
the initial stress value for computing the stress-strahq curve of
the tensile test.
Fig. 5 shows a comparison of both results ---experimental
and numerical-- of tensile tests of bars vdth residual stresses.
The agreement is very good and this result adds further
confidence to the numerical simulations to be discussed in the
next section. Table 3 gathers the relevant values of the tensile
tests: errs,p was measured as the value where a straight line with
the elastic modulus slope separates from the stress-strain curve,

3.2 Tensile test simulation

The tensile test was modelled using the same procedure as
for drawing; the wire was discretized using finite elements
and the material was treated as elasto-plastic. Boundary
conditions were uniform displacement at the ends of the bar
in order to simulate a tensile test under displacement control.
Two different initial conditions were considered; a bar free of
residual stresses and a bar with residual stresses due to colddrawing; the residual stresses --longitudinal, circumferential
and radial-- previously computed.
In a tensile test for a bar wilhout residual stresses, in
every section the stress distribution is uniform (Fig. 4a);
initially the stress remains within the elastic regime and
finally reaches a yield value. At this point the stress-strain
curve is no longer a straight line.
In a tensile test for a bar with residual stresses, the stress
distribution is not uniform across the section, as is shown in
Fig. 3. During loading, stress increases and the first
yielding appears on the sur&ce because initially the
maximum tensile stresses are there. As load increases,
yielding extends towards the interior o f the bar (Fig. 4b)
and the stress-strain curve starts deviating tYom a straight
line. Notice that this may happen with a low level o f tensile
stresses in the inner part o f the bar or even with
compressive stresses there (Fig. 4b). In practical terms, the
presence o f tensile residual longitudinal stresses decreases
the yield stress - - u s u a l l y measured as or02-- as regards to
values without residual stresses.

1200

1000

~, 8OO

~4
~oo
co
tit

co 400

200

0.5

1.0

1.5

:2,0

S T R A I N (%)

Fig. 5 - Comparison of tensile tests (experimental and

numerical) of bars with residual stresses due to cold drawing.

4. C O M P A R I S O N OF E X P E R I M E N T A L
WORK WITH NUMERICAL
COMPUTATIONS

values of tensile tests performed

on b a r s with residual stresses
Sample
~0.2
iOma~(MPa) ~om~(%)
(Yprop
{
(MPa)
(MPa) !
Experiment
460
940
i 1115
2.2
Numerical
470
947
! 1119
1.8
I
Table

Tensile tests of cold drawn bars, under controlled

conditions, are available and an average value was shown in
Fig. 1. Also, a numerical simulation of a tensile test of a cold
drawn bar with residual stresses' was performed according to

550

3 - Relevant

Materials and Structures I Matdriaux et Constructions, Vol. 36, October 2003

5. INFLUENCE OF RESIDUAL STRESSES

ON THE TENSILE TEST CURVE

Table 4 - R e l e v a n t v a l u e s o f tensile tests

~erformed on bars d r a w n with different dies
~prop

~0.2

~Dlax

(MPa)

~om~(%)

(MPa)
800
445

(MPa)
1123
1125

1.7
1.8

Die

angle
4"
8~

5.1 Die geometry

[ 1040
930

It is well known that the

geometry of the drawing die
~ooc
1200I
influences the values of
10001"-SII'~S (O,'~y4, , l p
residual stresses due to
r~ sac
,, . . . .
2_
#
1
drawing
[2,
13]
and,
vs
l/ *" H~hmsl~uat
800 Itherefore, the stress-strain
curve o f a tensile test will be
B00 b~
affected by the die geometry.
A significant parameter in
~ .~oo
u~ 400~die geometry is the die angle
z
(see sketch in Fig. 2). Its
~ooo
200 F
influence on the values of
Die angle 8"
residual stresses is shown
through
two
numerical
-~000,0
~.0
O. 5
1.0
15
2.~)
0.2
0.4
O.B
0.8
~.0
STRAIN (%)
RELATIVE DEPTH, (dR)
simulations; one with a
standard die angle of 8~ and a
Fig. 6 - Influenceof die geometry,a) Longitudinalresidual stresses due to differencesin die angles;
second one with a die angle of
b)Tensiletests of wires with differentresidual stresses due to drawing through dies with differentdie angles.
4 ~. Smaller die angles should
provide lower values of residual stresses [2, t3].
T a b l e 5 - R e l e v a n t v a l u e s o f tensile tests performed
Profiles of longitudinal residual stresses across the section
on drawn bars after different post-drawing
after drawing with two different dies are shown in Fig. 6a. As
treatments
expected, it is seen that the die with the lower angle (4 ~) induces
Treatment
a~,p(MPa)
ao.2 t Gmax
~cm~ax
lower residual stresses than the die with the higher angle
(MPa)
(MPa)
(%) ......
(8~
simulation of tensile tests with both wires,
As drawn
460
940
1115
2.2
bearing residual stresses due to different dies, are sho~al in Fig.
1%
reduction
647
~
1065
1131
6b, and Table 4 surmnarizes the relevant values. It is clearly seen
rhermomech.
1__2oo
.....
....
990
! 1135
that the wire with higher residual stresses starts yielding early. It
is interesting to notice that a small change in the die angle
values difficult to grasp from the figure. It is seen that when
strongly affects the onset of yielding (ap,~p is halved) and
relieving
residual stresses, the yielding limit (as measured by
conventional yielding (measured as m~a) decreases by 10%.
%,or) increases up to 115%, the conventional yield stress (%.2)
may reach values up to 2(PA higher and the maximum stress
5.2 Post-drawing treatments
remain almost the same.
Residual stresses due to cold drawing are known to be
detrimental to the pertbrmance of prestressing concrete
5.3 o0.2/ar~ax ratio
steel tendons, and different procedures were devised to
In previous sections it was shown that the presence of
eliminate or decrease such stresses before delivering steel
residual
stresses due to cold drawing induces, in a tensile test, a
wires [2]. These changes of residual stress profiles will also
lowering
of c~0.2 and has almost no influence on cr~,.
affect the shape of the stress-strain curve of a tensile test.
Therefore
the
presence of residual stresses will affect the ratio
To show this effect, two procedures for changing the
ao.2/o~, a figure that appears in most standards for steels for
residual stresses were considered; one --purely mechanical-prestressing concrete [1]. More precisely, these standards
consisting in a further drawing with a very small area
reduction (about I%), and another, thermomechanical, based
recommend that cro2/C~r~should be in between 0.85 and 0,95
on a combination of heating and stretching the wire
and some suggest optimum values of about 0.90-0.93.
(commonly known as stabilizing) [2]. Both processes have
Table 6 gathers all the 60.2/~,~,x values from the difl~rent
been numerically simulated: The first one, drawing through a
examples considered, and shows how the presence of
die with 0.01 reduction in area and another by heating at 400~
residual stresses can alter the a0a/c%a, ratio from 0.95 to
under a tensile load of 0.4 am~. (A stress-strain curve obtained
less than 0.85. The lowest values are induced by the highest
expeNnentally at 400~ was used as input data tbr computing
residual stresses.
the second process).
Table 6 - o'0.2/O'max ratio o f the different e x a m p l e s considered
Profiles of residual stresses for both procedures
Different dies
Post-&awing treatments
are compared in Fig. 7a with the corresponding
As
High
Low
"'
1%
Yhermomeehanicai......
profile for as-drawn bars. The figure shows clearly
drawn
residual
residual
reduction
that stress relieving was achieved. Tensile tests
stress
stress
after post-drawing treatments are also shown in
a0.2/ama~
0.84
0.83
0.93
0.94
0.95
Fig. 7b, and "fable 5 summarizes the relevant

551

Atienza, Elices
500

1200
./

1000

o_

c6

j,
0

-" . . . .

,...~

7....'..'.....'. .............

.:
.,"

~, 8oo

I S
-11

<
z

t.,"

600
~ditional 1% reduction

~-500 L
s
Z
0_J

.'*'*'
,,.,j

400

........:.*'~
200

As drawn .,--""
........ .,..:"'"
-lOOO
0,0

t
0.2

/f

....
........

Yhermemeehanical treatment
Additional small reduction (1%)
AS drawn

a
I
I
0,4
0,6
RELATIVE DEPTH, (r/R)

1
0~8

1.0

0
0.0

0,5

1,0

1.5

STRAIN (%)

Fig. 7 - Influence of post-drawingtreatments, a) Longitudinalresidual stresses due to additional small reductionor to a thermomechanicat
treatment; b) Tensile tests of wires with two post-drawingtreatments. In both figures,values for as-drawn wires are included fbr comparison.
6. C O N C L U S I O N S

[2]
[3]

The aim of this contribution, as stated in the introduction,

was to investigate the influence of residual stresses, due to
cold-drawing, on the shape of the tensile stress-strain curve.
It was found that the presence of residual stresses
favours the onset of yielding. Notice that longitudinal
residual stresses due to cold-drawing are tensile on the wire
surface. The higher the residual stresses the lower is the
yield stress in a tensile test. Also, it was found that there is
almost no effect on the maximum stress.
The ratio ~0.2/~rnax decreases with increasing values of
residual stresses. Because of the deleterious effect of
residual stress on fatigue and stress corrosion [5, 6], it is
reasonable to put a lower limit to o0.2/c%~.
The ratio o0.2/crm,~can be increased by relieving residual
stresses, a common procedure after drawing, based on
mechanical and/or thermomechanical treatments. These
techniques may help in placing the ratio G0.2/~m~ within the
figures recommended in the standards.
Although this research was done with bars of 20 mm initial
diameter, it is reasonable to accept that these results also apply
to usual drawn wires with initial diameters of about 8 mm.
Decreasing wire diameter would not change qualitatively the
profile of residual stresses [14, 15] as long as die geometry and
drawing procen~ures are scaled. In fact, surface residual stresses
measured by neutron diffraction on thinner wires [ 14] (diameters
of 1.22 and 0.89 ram) agree quite well with our results.

[4]
[5]

[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

[14]

The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of Spanish

Ministry of Science and Technology. This research was
supported by grants MAT2000-1334 and MAT01-3863-C3-1.
The authors are very grateful for the help of Mr. Javier del Rio
from Bekaert and for the useful comments of Mr. Javier del
Pozo from EMESA-ACERALIA.

[15]

REFERENCES

[1]

Model Code CEB-FIP (1990), ASTM-A421 (1991), EHE-UNE

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Dove,A~., 'Ferrous Wire' (TheWireAssociationInt., Inc,, 1991).

Libby, J.R., 'Modern Prestressed Concrete' (Van Nostrand
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Llorca,J. and S~aachez-Gglvez,V., 'Numerical determinationof
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Hamada, T., Hirouchi, T. and Akiyama, M., 'A numerical
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International (May 2001) 86-92.
Godfrey, H., Richards, F. and Sason, S., 'The benefits of using
wiredrawing dies with smaller included angles and longer
nibs', Wire Journal International (June 2000) 102-113.
van Acker, K., Root, J., van Houtte, P. and Aernoudt, E.,
'Neutron diffraction measurement of the residual stress in the
cementite and ferrite phases of cold-drawn steel wires', Acta
Mater. 44 (1996) 4039-4049.
Nakagiri, A., Yamano, T., Konaka, M., Asakawa, M.,
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Paper received; May 13, 2002,"Paper accepted." September 19, 2002

552