6391studyguide1 tcm4-121735 PDF

CONSTRUCTION
MANUAL AND COMPUTER-AIDED

CONSTRUCTION DRAWING
HIGHER
STUDY GUIDE 1
Basic drawing skills
Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1
STUDY GUIDE 1: BASIC DRAWING SKILLS

INTRODUCTION
Outcome 1
Utilise basic drawing skills in the production of drawings.
On completion of this Outcome you should be able to:
correctly select and use a range of drawing instruments and materials
accurately draw lines and shapes to different scales
neatly letter, annotate and dimension drawings
use the graphic conventions commonly adopted in construction drawing.
This Study Guide is designed to help you to develop the basic manual drawing skills
required in construction drawing. The material is suitable for students with little or no
experience of drawing board work. You may, however, already have studied
graphical communication and have acquired certain basic skills. The Guide will
encourage you to practise such skills and extend them to the preparation of
construction drawings to an acceptable industry standard.
Included in the Study Guide are a number of assignment sheets, which will allow you
to gain experience in the correct use of instruments and graphic conventions.
EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

This section illustrates the types of drawing equipment and materials used in
construction drawing. The equipment considered is commonly used in architectural,
civil engineering and building services drawing offices for the manual preparation of
drawings.
Pencils
Pencils are extensively used in drawing and are very familiar to all students. However
there is more to choosing the correct pencil for a drawing task than might first be
realised.
Grades of pencil
Pencils are available ranging from 9H (extremely hard) to 6B (extremely soft).
The type of paper to be drawn on affects the grade of pencil to be used the rougher
the paper the harder the lead which should be used. In drawing offices the main type
of paper for finished drawings is tracing paper but rougher detail paper is often used
for roughing-out the drawing. Different grades of pencil may be used on each type of
paper.
The most important reason for using different grades of pencil is the effect that
hardness can have on the finished drawing.
4H
hard and dense

for accurate layouts
not for finished drawings good for very light construction lines
do not use with a heavy hand as this grooves the paper and may not
erase easily
does not print well
2H
medium-hard
hardest grade feasible for finished drawings
does not erase easily if used heavily
F and H
medium
excellent general purpose lead weight
for layouts, finished drawings and lettering
HB
soft
for dense, bold linework and lettering
requires control for fine work
erases easily
prints well
tends to smear easily
B-range pencils
these tend to smear too easily for use with T-square and set-squares but
can be used to shade areas of the drawing to give effects.
Drawing on tracing paper allows offices to make copies on a photographic process

called Dyeline Printing. In this process the tracing paper is placed over a
photosensitive paper and run through an intense light which burns off the blank areas
and leaves the lines and shaded areas. Different densities of lines and shading show up
on the finished developed print. Many effects can be achieved by using various grades
of pencil, ink, colours, felt pens etc.
Aids to drawing straight lines
T-squares
These are used to draw all horizontal lines and to support the other pieces of
equipment used to draw angled lines. If the T-square is kept in good condition the
lines drawn will always be parallel and horizontal. The detachable T-square can be
used to draw sloping lines over the length of the drawing which can be useful in the
case of perspective drawing or large elevations which may require sloping ground
lines. The fixed T-square or Parallel Action is found on many office drawing boards.
Edge of
Drawing Board
Clear plastic drawing edge (use one side only)
Keep T-square
Tight to edge of
Drawing Board
Do not draw too close to end

of the T-square as it may bend
Typical T-square
Set squares
These are clear plastic triangles with set angles.
There are two types:
1
45 Set squares -
where the angles are 45 degrees and 90 degrees.
30/60 Set squares -
where the angles are 30 degrees, 60 degrees and 90

degrees
200 - 250mm
These squares can be used to create a number of set angles in combination and sitting
on the T-square.
Use of T-squares and set squares to draw lines

Having drawn a few good horizontal lines, pass on to the use of set-squares and the
drawing of vertical and inclined lines Take the 45-degree set-square or the closed
adjustable set-square and with this practise drawing lines, as shown in the figure. One
edge of the set-square rests on the blade of the T-square and is held- in position-where
required by the left-hand, which also holds the T-square firm. Lines are drawn with
the pencil- along the other edges of the set-square in the directions indicated by the
arrows. A number of parallel lines should be drawn bearing in mind the precautions
mentioned above.
Fig 1 Horizontal
Fig 2 Vertical and 45
Fig 3 Vertical 30 and 60
Fig 4 15 and 75
The 60-degree set-square- or the adjustable set-square set to this angle can be used
similarly, as shown for vertical lines and lines at 60 degrees and 30 degrees to the
horizontal.
By a combination of 45-degree and 60-degree set-squares it is possible to draw lines
at 15 degrees and 75 degrees to the horizontal, as shown in the figure. This is worth
trying a few times for practice, as there are three things to manipulate with the left
hand; but it is seldom necessary to use this method, and the advantages of the
adjustable set-square- which can be set to these and any angle in such cases is
obvious.
When a number of lines are to be drawn parallel to an inclined line as may occur inthe setting-out of roofing, etc. the following method could be used. Place a set-square
along the inclined line so that another of its edges is at right-angles to the line. Then
gently-bring up the T-square until it is against this edge of the set-square, hold it
tightly and then, by moving the set-square along the T-square to the required
positions, lines parallel to the first one can be drawn. This method should be practised
with lines at varying angles.
Remember in all cases to keep the pencil well sharpened and held properly against the
ruling edge.
Adjustable Set Square

This is useful for drawing any angle.
Scales
Scales are thin narrow strips of white or yellow plastic, or boxwood or ivory, with
divisions along each edge usually on both sides. These divisions are in various
recognised proportions to actual distances and dimensions, and can therefore be used
for making new drawings to scale or for measuring, by scaling, (as it is termed)
existing drawings.
The two sides of the R.I.B.A. Approved Scale for metric drawings are shown
overleaf. This is the scale now commonly used by architects. There are two lines of
divisions along each edge in. the proportions of 1:10/1:100, 1:20/1:200, 1:5/1:5O,
1:25/1:2500.
Other kinds of scales are available for land survey and town planning drawings.
Typical Scale Rules RIBA Approved
Paper sizes
The advantages of standardised sizes for drawings are that they enable a more
economical use of drawing and tracing paper, sensitised paper and cloth for prints,
etc., to be made, and that the binding together and storing of the drawings becomes
easier.
Standardisation is almost automatic when A sizes are used and sheets of different
size can be folded to a common size for filing in folders, for example Al sheet as
illustrated.
Drawings for transmission by post or for loose storage can be similarly folded. In all
cases the title block appears uppermost for ready reference.
10
LINE DRAWING AND SCALES

This section covers one of the most important aspects of good technical drawing, that
is, the production of good quality lines of the correct weight and to the correct size.
Line weight
Line weight helps to convey meaning to a technical drawing.
Important objects in the drawing can be highlighted by using heavier lines.
In Elevations the objects nearer to the viewer can be shown darker to make them
appear closer.
Grid lines can be drawn faintly so as not to overcrowd the rest of the drawing.
Dimension lines can be drawn in very fine line.
All of the above help to give the drawing a more professional look as well as making
the important parts stand out. There are no hard and fast rules as to the actual weight
of lines to be used in each situation but the draughtsperson is left to apply judgement
as to what would be suitable. In this respect a technical drawing becomes as much a
graphical illustration as purely a factual drawing.
Typical line weights showing pencil used and appropriate situation
Typical architectural elevation
11
Line types
There are a number of situations in a Construction drawing where line weight is not
enough to distinguish between different parts of the drawing.
When different services or utilities, (gas, water, electricity) have to be shown on

the same plan.
When different materials are used
Where hidden lines need to be shown
Where centre lines or grid lines are shown
In these situations it is common to use different line types to distinguish between

them.
Colour is not an option in most cases as the final prints of drawings will usually be in
grey-scale only.
12
Line quality
Line quality refers to:
Crispness and clarity
Blackness and density; and
appropriate weight.
While inked lines vary only in width, pencil lines can vary in both value and width.
Thus a pencil lines weight is controlled by the density of the lead used (affected by
grade of lead, drawing surface, humidity) as well as the pressure with which you
draw.
It is essential that you understand as you draw what each line represents whether it is
an edge, an intersection of two planes or simply a change in material or texture.
All lines should start and end definitely; always touching at their ends, always bearing
a logical relationship to other lines from beginning to end.
13
Drawing to scale
Construction drawing more often than not involves objects of considerable size. This
means that a normal sized drawing board will not be able to accommodate the object
drawn full size.
The draughtsperson must decide the following factors before arriving at a scale to use:
How much detail needs to be shown
What is the actual size of the object to be drawn
What size of paper would be most appropriate
What is the normal convention for the type of drawing being produced.
The following are recommended scales for use with the metric system.
Use
Scale
Ratio
Maps
1:1000000
1:500000
1:200000
1:100000
1:50000
l mm to l000m
l mm to 500m
l mm to 200m
l mm to 100m
l mm to 50m
Town surveys
1:50000
1:20000
1:10000
1:5000
1:2500
1 mm to 50m
l mm to 20m
l mm to l0m
l mm to 5m
1 mm to 2.5 m
14
Use
Scale
Ratio
Survey and layouts
1 :2500
1:2000
1:1250
1:1000
1:500
1 mm to 2.5 m
l mm to 2m
l mm to l25m
l mm to lm
l mm to 0.5m
Site and key plans
1:1250
1:1000
1:500
1 mm to 1.25m
l mm to lm
l mm to 0.5m
Sketch schemes, etc.
1:200
1:100
1 mm to 0.2 m
l mm to 0.lm
Location drawings
1:200
1:100
1:50
1 mm to 0.2 m
l mm to 0.lm
l mm to 0.05m
Component and
assembly detail
drawings
1:20
1:10
1:5
1:1
1 mm to 0.02 m
1 mm to 0.01m
1 mm to 0.005m
Fullsize
15
Complete Assignments Nos. 1 and 2
16

Vertical Lines at 6mm spacing
Draw the lines as shown on A3 paper trying to maintain the spacing throughout and keeping the line density constant.
45 Inclined Lines at 6mm spacing
Horizontal Lines at 6mm spacing
Assignment No 1 Line drawing
17

Assignment No 2 Use of scale rule.
18
LETTERING AND DIMENSIONING

This section covers other, important aspects of good technical drawing adding
notation text or lettering and dimensions to a drawing.
Lettering a drawing
The lines on a drawing are very important indeed but without some text to explain
what the lines are the drawing would be of little use. Text is also used extensively in
Construction drawing to give details of the materials and the types of construction,
often called the Specification.
The process of adding text or notation to a drawing is called Lettering.
For normal drawing board work the usual lettering technique is called Hand Lettering.
This involves very little if any assistance to the draughtsperson but relies only on the
skill and expertise of that person.
There are many aids to lettering but all have their problems and special skills which
must be learned before good results are produced. Some of these aids are mentioned
for information but Hand Lettering is preferred as a good style produces an individual
drawing which has the stamp of the person who drew it. (Some offices do not want
individuality in their drawings and so insist on a particular aid being used on all
drawings).
Stencils
These are available in a variety of sizes and styles but can only be used with ink and
must be used with care. It is very difficult to prevent blotting of the ink and correct
spacing of the letters and words is quite difficult. The correct thickness of pen is
essential to produce acceptable stencilled lettering.
Press-on transfers
These can be used but have great problems in spacing and lining up.
Lettering machines
These are like very small computers which can have the notation typed in then the
machine is placed on the required spot and set to print on to the drawing. These
produce very good lettering but tend to look too clinical. They are also very
expensive.
Typing to film
With this technique the notation is typed on to special clear film by a skilled typist.
The film is then stuck on to the drawing in the required position. This technique is
good as long as the film is very clear and does not cause a darker area round the
notation. There is no doubt that this technique provides a good way of adding large
volumes of type to a drawing such as in a specification.
19
General points on lettering

Size
should be determined on the basis of:
1.
readability from the observers point of view; and
2.
the proportional relationship of the lettering to the overall size and

scale of the drawing.
Weight
is determined by the size and value (ranging from white through a

series of grays to black) of the letters; i.e., if a large-sized typeface is
required for readability from a certain distance, but a low value is
mandatory for a balanced composition then an outline letter should be
used.
Placement
of titles should be determined on the basis of their overall weight or

tonal value and their role in the organisation of the presentation.
20
HAND LETTERING
Complete Assignment No 3
21

Assignment No 3 Lettering
22
Dimensioning
Dimensions are extremely important on drawings as it should never be necessary to
scale sizes from copies of the drawing. The drawing will have been done to accurate
scale but the copying process could distort the sizes and give false readings.
Dimensions should be easy to read but not dominate the lines of the drawing. This is
quite difficult to achieve in practice but with care the minimum of dimensions will
give the maximum information.
The dimension lines should be the faintest possible and should be well enough away
from the objects so as not to interfere with them. The lettering size should be carefully
chosen to be clear but not too prominent.
Some indications of good dimensioning style are given below but the actual layout
will depend on the draughtsperson or the standard office style.
Gap between
extension line
and object
Dimension line
Extension line
Alternative ways to
show termination.
Tick
Extension line should

extend past dim. line
Dim. line should
extend past ext. line
Typical Simple Dimensioning
Complete Assignment Nos. 4 and 5
23

Assignment No 4 Dimensioning of simple shapes.
Fix this sheet to your drawing board and dimension the shapes.
Assume the shapes are drawn at 1:20 scale
24

Assignment No 5 Dimensioning of floor plan.
Floor Plan at 1:100 Scale
Fix this sheet to your drawing board and dimension the drawing :Measure the sizes and dimension the outside perimeter of the building.
Measure the sizes and dimension the top part of the plan along the line
shown.
25
DRAWING SIMPLE GEOMETRIC SHAPES

This section covers the drawing of simple geometric shapes. Drawings consist of
various simple geometric shapes arranged in such a way as to create other complex
shapes. Often these complex shapes are again combined and so a complex drawing is
made up from the very simple shapes such as line, arcs, circles, rectangles and
triangles.
Squares
Squares are simply regular rectangles with all sides equal and all angles right angles.
This means that there are a number of ways in which a square can be drawn. In
construction drawing it is essential that sizes are drawn accurately and so it is
recommended that all sizes should be measured individually. This does not mean that
using compasses, dividers and 450 set square should not be done but that their use
should be carefully controlled.
Draw AB along T-square to correct length

Draw a line up fro B using th right angle
on a set square to same correct length to C
Draw a line back from C the same correct length to D
A line drawn from D with the set square should meet
A at exactly the correct length.
Draw AB along T-square to correct length

Draw a line up fro B using th right angle
on a set square
Draw a line from A using the 45 set square
C is where the 45 line meets the line fom B
Construct point D in the same way using point B to start
C
D
C
Draw a line along the T-square from A
Set the correct length of the sides on compasses
Place the point on A and cut an arc on the line for point B
Draw a line up from B using a set square
Place the compass point on B and cut the line for point C
Continue from C for point D
Draw a line from A using a 45 set square

Measure the correct length fro A to B
Use the 45 set square to set up line B to C
Continue from C to D in the same way
A line at 45 down from D should meet A at exactly the correct length
There are many combinations of ways to draw all shapes and the methods shown
above can be modified to suit conditions.
Rectangles
These are four sided figures with all the internal angles being right angles. They can
be constructed in similar ways to Squares.
26
Rhomboids
These are four sided figures which are parallelograms (opposite sides parallel) but in
this case they do not have any right angles.
C
The lengths of the sides and one angle must be known to draw these shapes.
Draw side A to B using the T-square and measure the length.
Set off the side AD to the known angle and measure the correct length.
From D draw a line parallel to AB (in this case with the T-square).
From B draw a line parallel to AD.
The intersection of the two lines gives point C.
Triangles
These are three sided figures.
Drawing of a triangle requires:
the sizes of the three sides
the sizes of two sides and the included angle
the sizes of the angles and one side.
Special triangles are worth mentioning as they may be encountered in many drawings.
Equilateral triangles
These have three equal sides and three equal angles, each angle being 60 degrees.
Isosceles triangles
These have two equal sides and two equal angles.
Right angled triangles
These have two sides at right angles to each other.
Scalene triangles
These have unequal sides and unequal angles.
27
Drawing Triangles
C
C
Equilateral Triangle
Draw line AB the required length

Set the length AB on compasses
Place the point on A and draw an arc
Do the same with an arc from B
Where they intersect is point C.

Set the length of the equal sides on compasses
Do the same with an arc from B
The 60 set square can also be used by

drawing 60 lines from A and B and using
the intersection for point C
If the equal angles are known then draw lines at

these angles from A and B to get
the intersection for point C
Isosceles Triangle
C
Drwa a line up at right angles to A
Measure the length AC on this line
Join the points to form the triangle.
A
Right angled Triangle

Set the length of the side AC on compasses
Do the same with an arc of length BC from B
B
ScaleneTriangle
Circles
Circles, Arcs (parts of circles) and other related shapes such as Ellipses form
important parts of drawings even though a lot of shapes in construction, especially in
buildings are straight lines.
It is useful to have a knowledge of the terms used in relation to circles and curves.
28
Useful Techniques in all Drawings

It is often necessary to perform some construction work on the drawing before a final
shape can be achieved. The techniques required for these can best be illustrated by the
following exercises which will look at:
Bisecting angles
Filleting
Joining lines and curves (same technique as filleting)
Dividing lines
Drawing ellipses.
Bisecting an angle
Two lines with and unknown angle between
Strike an arc with compasses at any distance through each line.
Strike an arc from each intersection point on the line

to meet each other as shown.
Draw the bisector line as the line from where the

arcs meet to the intersection of the two lines
29
Filleting a curve between two lines
parallel lines
Use the technique above to

bisect the angle.
Draw a line parallel to one of the lines

at a distance equal to the fillet radius.
Extend the new parallel line

to cross the bisector line.
Draw a circle to the required radius

using this crossing as the centre.
The circle should just touch the lines and no more.
Darken in the required parts of the

lines and circle and erase the rest
to leave the fillet and lines.
30
Dividing lines
Draw a line of any length and then

draw a line from one end at any angle.
Measure up the angled line, equal distances

of any length and on any scale.
Join the point which marks the last division
with the end of the first line.
Draw lines parallel to this new line,

from the marks on the angled line
down to the first line.
The first line will now be divided into the
same number of equal divisions
as the angled line.
31
Ellipses
As with most shapes there are a number of ways to draw an ellipse. The method
shown uses the two axes of the ellipse, the Major and Minor, to construct circles then
radiating lines from the centre to get co-ordinates on to the circumference of the
ellipse. The more radiating lines which are used the smoother the ellipse can be drawn
as the drawing will be free-hand.
3 Lines drawn from centre

out to major axis
1 Major Axis
4 Lines drawn vertically
down from major axis
intersection
2 Minor Axis
5 Lines drawn horizontally

across from minor axis
intersection
6 Ellipse is drawn free-hand

to join the points.
The more points the
smoother the ellipse.
Drawing an Ellipse
Complete Assignment No 6
32

Assignment No 6 Simple geometric shapes.
46mm
46
46mm
m
46
76mm
80
66m
mm
46mm
23mm
45
SQUARES
RHOMBOID
70mm
SCALENE
TRIANGLE
160mm
Arc Radius = 25mm
DIVISION OF A LINE
Line divided into 7 sections
100mm
5m
50mm
R4
ELLIPSE
CIRCLE
Draw the shapes shown to the sizes given.
Dimension the shapes as shown and add
the text under each shape.
33
SYMBOLS AND BORDERS

This section covers the graphic conventions used to represent materials and standard
objects in construction drawing. It also covers the means of finishing drawings
through the addition of borders and titles.
Graphical Symbols
These are useful shortcuts to adding information to drawings. Many features are
standard on all drawings and are represented on the drawing by symbols which should
be those recommended in BS 1192.
The symbols generally take up less space on the drawing than the actual object and so
do not tend to obscure other important features. They should be large enough to be
located easily and be recognisable.
34
Typical Electrical Symbols Used on Services Floor Plans
35
Typical Plumbing and Drainage Symbols Used on Services Plans

and Site Layout Plans
Typical Water, Gas, Heating and Ventilating Symbols Used on Services Plans
36
Typical Symbols or Hatching used in construction drawing to distinguish

between materials.
37
Borders
Borders fulfil two functions namely:
1. They frame and enclose the drawing giving it a finished appearance.
2. They provide an area of paper round the edge of the drawing which might become
damaged without affecting the information on the drawing.
BS 1192 recommends that borders are placed in such a way that important
information about the drawing and the project will be visible when the drawing is
folded for storage or posting. This usually means that a title box is incorporated in the
border and is best placed at the right edge of the drawing usually at the bottom of the
paper.
Most professional offices have a standard layout for borders and title blocks which
usually has a space for the office title, name of the project, drawing number, drawing
title, scale, date, responsible person and any other information thought appropriate. It
is also common to have space above the title box to list and date amendments to the
drawing. Many offices have their drawing sheets pre-printed showing all the
information to save drawing it on every time.
The BS recommendation is often not appropriate for student drawings as the paper
size is often limited and such a border and title box takes up too much space.
Extract from BS 1192 showing possible positions for title boxes in borders
38

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CONSTRUCTION

MANUAL AND COMPUTER-AIDED

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1

STUDY GUIDE 1: BASIC DRAWING SKILLS

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1

EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

hard and dense

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1

Drawing on tracing paper allows offices to make copies on a photographic process

Do not draw too close to end

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1

where the angles are 45 degrees and 90 degrees.

30/60 Set squares -

where the angles are 30 degrees, 60 degrees and 90

Use of T-squares and set squares to draw lines

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1

Fig 2 Vertical and 45

Fig 3 Vertical 30 and 60

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1

Adjustable Set Square

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1

Typical Scale Rules RIBA Approved

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1

LINE DRAWING AND SCALES

Typical line weights showing pencil used and appropriate situation

Typical architectural elevation

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1

When different services or utilities, (gas, water, electricity) have to be shown on

In these situations it is common to use different line types to distinguish between

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1

Survey and layouts

Site and key plans

Sketch schemes, etc.

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1

Complete Assignments Nos. 1 and 2

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1

45 Inclined Lines at 6mm spacing

Horizontal Lines at 6mm spacing

STUDY GUIDE 1: BASIC DRAWING SKILLS

Assignment No 1 Line drawing

STUDY GUIDE 1: BASIC DRAWING SKILLS

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1

LETTERING AND DIMENSIONING

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1

General points on lettering

should be determined on the basis of:

readability from the observers point of view; and

the proportional relationship of the lettering to the overall size and

is determined by the size and value (ranging from white through a

of titles should be determined on the basis of their overall weight or

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1

STUDY GUIDE 1: BASIC DRAWING SKILLS

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1

Extension line should

Typical Simple Dimensioning

Complete Assignment Nos. 4 and 5

Construction: Manual and Computer-Aided Construction Drawing (Higher). Study Guide 1