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European Journal o f Personality, Vol.

1, 45-58 (1987)

Endogenous opioid functions and personaiity


ZSUZSANNA KULCSAR, EDE FRECSKA and IZABELLA VARGA
Department of Personality and Clinical Psychology,
Institute of Psychology,
Lo rin d Edtvds University,
Budapest, Hungary

Abstract
According to our proposal the endogenous opioid functions, activated m ainly by
social interactions in early childhood and by stress later in life, serve multiple roles
both in early ontogenesis and in adulthood. First, they m ight insure social cohesion.
Second, they can mediate a special kin d o f homeostatic regulation, and third, they
seem to determine characteristic cognitive functions: prim ary process thinking,
primitive fo rm s o f defense mechanisms and basic conceptual structures guiding
prosocial behavior. We propose that an alternation o f two biological states, one with
and one without the involvem ent o f the endogenous opioid mechanisms, character
izes the norm al course o f life. These two states are supposed to represent different
forms o f homeostatic regulation and different kinds o f cognition. Physical and
psychological health seems to be dependent on the relative part each takes in the life
o f an individual. On the basis o f som e considerations discussed in this paper the
endogenous opioid functions seem to be relevant factors o f hum an cognition. The
conceptual schem e o f psychoanalysis, w orked out on the basis o f empirical data,
could be used to describe the cognitive characteristics which, in our proposal, were
suggested to ensue on the endogenous opioid activity.

INTRODUCTION
Research into the endogenous opioid peptides (E O Ps) in the last few years has
provided findings and theoretical assum ptions which seem to be pertinent to the
psychology of personality. In this p aper a conceptual scheme along with an
interpretation of the relevant findings will be presented.
Requests for reprints should be addressed to 2^uzsanna Kulcs^r, Departm ent of Personality and
Clinical Psychology, Institute of Psychology, Lor^nd Eotvos University, Izabella U. 46, 1064 Budapest,
Hungary.

0890-2070/87/010045-58$07.00
1987 by John W iley & Sons, Ltd.

Received 6 N ovem ber 1986


Accepted 6 December 1986

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Z. Kulcsdr et al.

The well-known finding o f autoanalgesic, or pain-stress-induced analgesic


effects, and a paradoxical state, pain-induced euphoria, served as a starting point
for this scheme on the basis of which a proposal concerning stress-seeking as a
personality trait evolved. A n em pirical test of this proposal, a placebo study
followed. T hen a curious aspect of pain and stress-induced euphoria, namely its
social connotation, led us to the notion of the social activation of the endogenous
opioid systems as discovered and investigated by Panksepp and co-workers (e.g.
Panksepp, H erm an, Vilberg, Bishop and D eEskenazi, 1980; Panksepp, Siviy and
N orm ansell, 1985).
From this approach a theory concerning the role of the opiates in personality
developm ent followed. W ith this theory, findings on the biological consequences of
social deprivation in early childhood could be tentatively interpreted and a picture
of two consecutive levels o f hom eostatic regulation em erged. W ith this conception
of biological regulation we could then turn back to the question of stress-induced
euphoria, and w ork out a hypothesis concerning the developm ental biological
background of stress seeking as a trait.
.
In the following analysis results from animal research have been applied directly
to hum an personality functioning and developm ent. The difficulties with hum an
experim entation and the obvious relevance of the animal findings are the reason for
this approach.

ENDOGENOUS OPIOIDS AND LEARNED HELPLESSNESS.


STRESS INDUCED EUPHORIA
A s is well know n, at the very beginning of opiate research it was found that an
increase o f pain threshold follows several kinds of pain and stress with a broad
species generality. Painful electric shocks, forced cold w ater swims, glucoprivation,
im mobilization and restraint all proved to be capable of activating the endogenous
analgesic m echanisms (W atkins and M ayer, 1982) either opioid o r non-opioid in
nature.*
The interpretation of learned helplessness as an opiate-dependent state was the
first attem pt to connect endogenous opioid functions to complex psychological
phenom ena. M aier and co-workers (M aier and C oon, 1979; M aier, Davies, G rau,
Jackson, M orrison and M oye, 1980; M aier, D rugan and G rau, 1982) were the first
to emphasize controllability as a main factor in the opioid-inducing effect of pain.
They found that long-term decrease in pain responsiveness occurred only if the
initial shocks w ere inescapable (M aier et al., 1980, p. 1173), and suggested that
perhaps the opioid systems are activated when the organism learns that it has no
control over aversive events to which it is being exposed (p. 1181).
Rodgers and H endrie (1984) hypothesize, in a similar vein, that controllability
over the source of aversive stim ulation is a crucial factor of the opiate effect.
According to them , in situations in which control over attack is m inimal and escape
thw arted, anim als are rendered less responsive to painful stim ulation through the
activation of endogenous opioid analgesia m echanisms (pp. 38-39). If the worst
come to the w orst, they state, this same mechanism might insure a less painful
demise.
*In this paper non-opioid autoanalgesic effects will not be discussed.

E O P-s and personality

47

It should be noted that non-controllability is a typical condition in early


childhood.
According to the learned helplessness paradigm , passive endurance of pain is the
most effective strategy for activating the endogenous opioid systems.
A special kind o f hum an experience is supposed to have the sam e biological
roots. Prince (1982) recognized this analogy. H e w rote; U nder som e circumstances
of life stress . . . the threatened individual may suddenly experience a profound
sense of tranquillity . . . a flip-over from terro r to euphoria . . . (p. 418). Prince
designates this response to stress . . . as the om nipotence m aneuver (p. 418),
mainly because of the cognitive concom m itances of the state, which we shall discuss
below. H e suggests that the om nipotence m aneuver might em erge when a critical
level of endogenous euphoriant substances, nam ely endogenous opiates, are
generated (p. 420). Prince points ou t that the m aneuver is widely used in
psychotherapeutic systems, evangelical preaching and in cult initiations (pp. 419
420). C onfrontational psychotherapies are known to expect patients to evoke all
their pains and suffering from the past. In the rath er cruel Prim al Scream therapy
of A rth u r Janov (1970), for exam ple, patients are not only instructed to re-evoke
all their suffering and sorrow w ithout resistance and defense, but they are expected
to scream out their feelings as strongly as they can. T he healing pow er of this
strategy as Janov asserts is alm ost unbelievable. R eports o f m iraculous cures
of even strictly som atic com plaints m ight, how ever, be interpreted in biological
term s if we take into account the finding th at the opiates increase im munocompetence by facilitating natural killer cell activity in the body (M athews, Froelich,
Sibbitt and B ankhurst, 1983).
L et us cite one m ore exam ple o f the therapeutic effect arising from an allaccepting attitude. O ne of C. G. Jungs patients wrote: O ut of evil, m uch good
came to m e. By keeping quiet, repressing nothing, rem aining attentive, and by
accepting reality taking things as they are, and not as I w anted them to be by
doing all this, unusual knowledge has com e to m e, and unusual powers as well, such
as I could never have im agined before. I always thought that when we accepted
things they overpow ered us in som e way o r another. This turned ou t not to be true
at all, and it is only by accepting them th at one can assum e an attitude towards
th em . (Jung, 1962, pp. 126-127).
In an o th er p aper, striking evidence of the protecting effect o f a m ost painful
confrontation was presented. R ees and Lutkins (1967) reported the incredible fact
that while the d eath of a close family m em ber significantly increased the m ortality
of his/her relatives within a 1-year period, those who lost their relatives in their own
homes were half as vulnerable com pared to those whose relative died in a hospital
or in another country.

ENDOGENOUS OPIOIDS AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE


In addition to passive acceptance of pain and suffering, analgesia, calmness or even
euphoria may also result from stressful, strenous physical exercise. A common
experience o f athletes is th at after about 20 min of training a state of painful fatigue
suddenly disappears and gives place to a second w ind which is, in the case of long
distance runners, called runners high. In recent research it has been confirmed

48

Z. Kulcsdr et al.

that the endorphin level increases significantly during long distance running
(A ppenzeller, Standefer, A ppenzeller and A tkinson, 1980; Fraioli, M oretti,
Poolucci, Alicicco, Cresenzi and Fortunio, 1980). Prince (1982) and H enry (1982a)
suppose th at tribal rituals result in euphoria also owing to opiate release. Prince,
for exam ple, suggests th at m uscular activity and trem bling might act as a kind of
endorphin pum p (Prince, 1982, pp. 414).

STRESS SEEKING AS A TRAIT


A lthough in extrem e life situations, in physical and psychic pain, under physical,
em otional o r perhaps intellectual strain special states of increased opiate activity
might invariably occur, it seems to be reasonable to suggest that people differ in
their proneness to en ter into such states. In o ther words, a consistent trait might be
suggested. A readiness for confrontation with potentially painful experiences or
even stress seeking behaviour, opposed to an experience avoiding attitude, would
thus be considered a personality dim ension, and as a biological basis of this
dimension high versus low capacity for a phasic activation of the endogenous opioid
systems might be suggested.
A restricted range of experience, resulting from defensive mechanisms, is
supposed to be a defining characteristic of neurosis (Angyal, 1965). Confrontation,
therefore, as a behavioural and cognitive trait, might be considered an anti
neurotic strategy. W e shall return to this point later. F or practical reasons, let us
call our tentative personality dim ension a factor of confrontation defense. A t
the confrontation end o f this dim ension an increased, while at the defense end a
decreased, arousability of the endogenous opioid systems is postulated.
R eadiness for confrontation is supposed to m ean either physical, em otional or
intellectual, stress-seeking constituting, how ever, a general factor. Intellectual
confrontation seem s to be a highly relevant subfactor, especially for creativity
research. T he Freudian concept of sublim ation from this perspective, would
represent an intellectual adventure in which gratification, in the course of an artistic
or scientific production, can be reached through painful effort. T here is no
empirical evidence, how ever, for this view to be discussed in the present paper.
U nfortunately, no psychom etric device is available that would m easure the
readiness to enter into various kinds of stressful situations. H ow ever, Zuckerm ans
Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS; Z uckerm an, 1979) addresses a som ewhat similar
issue, the Thrill and A dventure Seeking (TA S) subscale in particular. This subscale
is m eant to m easure directly the proneness to physical risk taking.

SENSATION SEEKING AND PLACEBO RESPONSIVITY


As a first attem pt at testing our hypothesis concerning stress seeking and opioid
activity we m ade a prelim inary study (Kulcsar, Frecska, Simon and Szabd, 1985)
using sensation seeking scores as an independent and placebo reactivity as a
dependent variable. T he main argum ent for choosing placebo reactivity was that
placebo analgesia had been proved to be m ediated by opioid analgesic mechanisms.
Namely, it was shown in several experim ents that in consistent placebo-responders

E O P-s and personality

49

the opiate antagonist naloxone dim inished the analgesic effect of placebo
(G revert, A lbert and G oldstein, 1985, p. 129).
O n th e basis o f the above considerations we supposed an increased placebo
responsibity as a function o f sensation seeking, especially thrill and adventure
seeking scores.
We worked with 57 tonsillectomy patients (41 females and 16 males) betw een the
ages 16 and 45. SSS was adm inistered the day before surgery. Post-surgical pain
was evaluated by the patients on a visual analog scale once every 10 min for 2 h
starting from the first occurrence of pain after the effect of the local anaesthesia
wore off. Placebo (5 ml saline solution i.m .) was given in a single blind fashion at a
point when the subject first requested an analgesic. O n a subsequent request, any
time after the first, active m edication was provided. T hree groups of subjects with
distinct pain reaction types w ere identified: (a) placebo responders (criterion: a
minimum of 10 mm pain score reduction within 20 min of placebo adm inistration),
(b) nonresponders, and (c) no-m edication. This latter group consisted of subjects
who did not require analgesic during the tim e of observation. G roups of subjects
with high and low TA S and Dis (disinhibition) scores w ere form ed by m edian split
and the distribution of the four personality groups am ong the three pain reaction
types was determ ined. A dditionally, m ean personality scores in the three pain
reaction type groups w ere com pared by one-way analyses of variance. According to
our results (see Figure 1) high TA S (H T ) scorers w ere over-represented in the
responder and no-m edication groups and low TA S (LT) scorers constituted the
m ajority of the nonresponders (j^ = 11.4; p < 0.01). M oreover, TAS and SSS
total scores differed significantly in the three pain reaction groups (p < 0.01 and

Nonresponders (NR)

Responders (R)

10
8

E
0>

a>

.Q
E

4
.g
E
3C

*
groups

groups
No Medication (NM)

c<u
HTHD = High TAS, High Dis

0)

wm

HTLD = High TAS. Low Dis

I'-'-i

LTLD = Low Tas, Low Dis

3C

1 LTHD = Low Tas, High Dis

groups
Figure 1.

Distribution of the personality groups in the three pain reaction types

50

Z. Kulcsdr et al.

NM
NR

EH)

F=5.701
p < .01
pain reaction types
Figure 2.

TAS mean scores in the three pain reaction types

p < 0.05 resp.; Figure 2). Placebo responders and no-m edication subjects gave
higher scores as com pared to the nonresponders. The similarity, in term s of
personality scores, of placebo responder and no-m edication groups was substantial.
The only difference betw een them was that subjects in the latter group indicated
significantly less pain during the observations (see Figure 3). As an interpretation
we might suggest that in the case of subjects who did not require m edication, the
endogenous analgesic system (m ore probably but not surely opioid in nature) can
be even m ore easily activated than those of placebo responders, who need a
conditioned stim ulus (placebo) to have their auto-analgesic system work.

100

NM
NR

(O

80

60

40

20
F=21.99
p<.01
pain reaction types
Figure 3.

Peak pain mean scores in the three reaction types

EO P-s and personality

51

To sum up: our results were in line with the expectations. Sensation seeking
proved to be a rath er good predictor of endogenous analgesic effects, at least in a
state of post-operative pain.
It is interesting to note that the personality characteristics suggested in our
analysis to describe the placebo responders vs nonresponders o r, in term s of our
proposed personality dim ension, confronters and defenders, quite closely match
the description given by Lasagna and his co-workers (Lasagna, M osteller, von
Felsinger and B eecher, 1954) concerning these two groups of subjects. Namely,
they described high placebo responders as being sociable with greater instinctual
needs and em otionality and less defensiveness, while nonresponders were
described as being rigid, which may well be an expression of their defense
mechanisms in a stressful situation (Lasagna, et al., 1954, p. 775). T he parallel is
all the m ore notew orthy because in 1954 endogenous analgesic m echanisms had not
been discovered and no predictions could be m ade concerning the behavioural
correlates of their action.

SOCIAL CONNOTATIONS O F PAIN INDUCED EUPHORIA


L et us now turn back to a particular feature o f the hum an experience described in
the circum stances o f severe life threat. In this situation o r, to cite Prince, . . . in
the darkest depth of misery and depression (Prince, 1982, p. 419) a sudden
euphoric state might occur, as we saw, generated m ost probably by the opiates. The
cognitive content of this m ysterious experience deserves a special attention.
According to Noyes (1972), who investigated 215 cases of near death experiences,
people in this extrem e situation feel, in m ost cases, a sense of the presence of a
protective o th er (Prince, 1982, p. 418), a dissolution of loneliness, they feel
accepted. These experiences, as m entioned before, might take a religious form.
B ut in nearly every case a social connotation is present.
The question arises, as to how identity or affiliation, i.e. social connotations are
connected to the pain-induced euphoria. W hat might be the reason for the
association betw een social m otivation and the phasic activation of the opioid
system?

ENDOGENOUS OPIOIDS AND ATTACHMENT


The answer to this question might be found in the highly relevant research of
Panksepp and his co-workers (Panksepp, 1986; Panksepp et al., 1980, 1985), who
presented both direct and indirect evidence showing that the brain opioid systems,
at least in the early ontogenesis, are activated by social stim ulation.
The main evidence of social m otivation is as Panksepp states distress
following separation and com fort after reunion.
Both of these aspects of the social m otive w ere proved to be m odulated by the
endogenous opioid systems. It was found th at distress vocalization (D V ), i.e.
crying, the m ost obvious behavioural reaction to separation in all m ammals and
birds, can be inhibited by low doses o f m orphine and accentuated by the antiopiate
naloxone. O piate agonists and antagonists w ere proved to exert the most

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prom inent effect on separation distress, as com pared to a wide range of other
substances including a variety of agonists and antagonists for cholinergic,
noradrenergic, dopam inergic and serotonergic receptor systems as well as such
m ajor psychopharm aceuticals as benzodiazepines, sedatives, antipsychotics, and
antidepressants (Panksepp er a /., 1985, p. 17).
A n abundance of further evidence shows that the opiates are involved in social
behaviour.
Investigating the autoradiographic m ap of [^H jdiprenorphine binding in the rat
brain, Panksepp and Bishop (1981) found a global brain opioid activation in the
presence of social stimuli, namely in the norm al course o f play (Panksepp et al.,
1985, p. 17).
T he finding th at, after a few days of social isolation, hyperalgesia and reduced
m orphine sensitivity occur in the rat also indicates that social stim ulation has a
facilitatory effect on the endogenous opioid system. A lexander, Combs and
H adaw ay (1978), m oreover, reported th at social isolation increases voluntary
opiate consum ption.
Summarizing the results, Panksepp arrived at the conclusion that social
interaction is reinforced by an endogenous opiate rew ard. T he reduction of
gregariousness after low doses of opiates is also in line with the hypothesis. On the
o th er hand, there are interesting data showing that the opiate antagonist naloxone
disrupts contact com fort. It was found, for exam ple, that young puppies after
naloxone treatm ent w ere eager to interact with hum ans but do n o t settle down for
sustained periods of petting (Panksepp et al., 1980, p. 479). In th e case of chicks a
simple following response to hum ans was not attenuated by naloxone, however,
social proxim ity could not prevent distress vocalization afte r this treatm ent
(Panksepp et al., 1985). L et us cite another, final example. A sim ple m easure of
contact com fort is a tendency of young chickens to rapidly fall asleep in the cupped
hands of a hum an (Panksepp et al., 1980, p. 479). A fter naloxone treatm ent the
sleep latency significantly increased in this situation.
O n the basis of these results, we propose that social connotations become
conditioned to the activation of the endogenous opioid system s in the early
ontogenesis, so that later in life w henever the systems are activated by stress and
pain, social connotations will arise together with the paradoxically occurring
euphoric states.

ENDOGENOUS OPIOIDS AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPM ENT


Social activation of the endogenous opiate systems in early childhood, however,
should have another, m ore basic consequence. A n idealized image of the
om nipotent m other might be form ed on the basis of this special constellation. The
image of an om nipotent or good m other is one of the main assum ptions of the
psychoanalytically-oriented theories of personality developm ent, and it is con
sidered to be an im portant factor of socialization and cognitive developm ent
(K ernberg, 1981; Klein, 1962).
We cannot bu t agree with this assum ption. It is tem pting to suggest, m oreover,
that either a decreased responsivity of the endogenous opiate systems to social stimuli
or an insufficient m aternal care might result in a deficient socialization, with a dis

E O P s and personality

53

ordered internationalization of parental figures. In a recent paper, we suggested that


psychopathy might be a consequence of both of these deficiencies (Kulcsar, 1986). In
our hypothesis imresponsiveness in general social relation as a defining characteristic
of psychopathy (Cleckley, 1976) was interpreted as resulting from a decreased
opioid reactivity in social interactions. A tonic overactivity of the opioid
m echanisms was proposed as a basis o f this deficiency, taking into account, in the
first place, the low stress-reactivity of psychopaths. Some aspects of other
psychopathological syndrom es, borderline for exam ple, might also be interpreted
as resulting from disordered opioid regulation. The m ost outstanding cognitive
characteristic of the borderline cases is splitting. Splitting m eans organizing
experience mostly in term s of either positive or negative em otional tone, thus living
in a black and w hite world. A deficient reality testing in these cases is
characteristic and this m ight result from a regression to a lower level of biological
regulation. In early ontogenesis, positive em otional tone might be connected to the
experience w hen the m other is present, w hereas negative em otional tone may be
associated with the absence of the m other, due to a state o f high vs low opioid
activity, respectively.
In order to be m ore explicit in this topic, however, we have to turn to the general
problem of the biological function of the opiates, and of biological regulation.

THE DEVELOPM ENT O F BIOLOGICAL REGULATION


In his most recent theoretical analysis Panksepp (1986) suggests that the global
function of opioid system is to counteract stress (p. 95), where stress is defined as
any m ajor p erturbation of physiological hom eostasis (p. 95). A s we learnt from
the work of H ofer and his group (H ofer, 1981, 1984) and from the research of
Cam pbell and his co-workers (M abry and Cam pbell, 1978; R andall and Cam pbell,
1980) early infancy is characterized by a lack of autonom ous hom eostatic functions.
H ofer reported convincing evidence from social deprivation studies showing that
the functions o f cardiovascular, gastrointestinal and horm onal systems in early
infancy is highly dependent on m aternal presence. B ehavioural arousal was also
proved to be socially regulated. It is reasonable to suggest th at this m aternal
regulatory function is m ediated, at least in p art, by the opioid mechanisms. Two
examples of this possible opiate regulation might be m entioned.
The first is connected to growth horm one regulation. H ofer (1981) reported a
decreased growth horm one secretion after m aternal deprivation in young rats.
Grow th horm one is known to be under opioid control (Shaar, Frederickson,
D iniger and Jackson, 1977; Spiegel, K ourides and P asternak, 1982). T he deficient
growth horm one secretion after social isolation might thus be a consequence of a
lack of social activation of the infants opiate systems. T he o th er exam ple is
somewhat m ore com plex. It is known that the cholinergic and serotonergic systems
of the rat brain becom e fully functional rath er late, at about the tim e of weaning
(M abry and C am pbell, 1978). These neurotransm itter systems are involved in the
inhibitory control of behaviour. Lack of this control in the early ontogenesis,
together with a high w orking capacity of the catecholam ine systems in the early life,
might explain the finding o f R andall and Cam pbell (1980) according to which

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behavioural activity reaches an extrem ely high level before weaning in rats if tested
in social isolation. H ow ever, this hyperactivity does not appear in the nest, even if
the catecholam ine systems are pharmacologically stim ulated. T he possibility that in
the vicinity of the m other the socially-induced opiates exert a control over
behaviour, is quite obvious.
A simple general pattern of the developm ent of regulatory functions seems to
em erge from the above. Namely, two forms and two levels of hom eostatic
regulation m ight be visualized. A t the first, a crucial role of socially-induced
regulatory effects seems to be characteristic, while at the second, a more
autonom ous hom eostatic regulation is reached. H ofer (1984) pointed out,
how ever, th at social regulation o f biological functions, even of biological rhythms,
is present in adulthood as well, and the idea of relationships as regulators offers a
biological explanation, e.g. for the syndrom e of bereavem ent. It might be
suggested th at psychopathological sym ptoms, for example splitting as a cognitive
characteristic of borderline patients, reflect a m ore intensive participation of
prim ary regulatory effects and thus the opioid mechanisms in homeostatic
regulation. Psychosom atic diseases, characterized by disturbed hom eostatic regula
tion at the biological, and by strong dependency at the psychological level might
also represent states o f prim ary, or socially-induced regulation.
In this approach, m oreover, stress and pain, resulting in a perturbation of
hom eostasis, as Panksepp points out, might be considered as regressive states, but
in this case the stress-induced opioid regulation is self-controlled, instead of being
socially m ediated.
W e w onder if stress seeking or risk taking as a trait occurs in the background of a
perturbed hom eostatic regulation and serves as a self-healing device. O ur
confronters, perhaps, are auto-addicts dependent on their own opioid functions.
This hypothesis seems to be supported by those findings according to which the
biological correlates of sensation seeking are factors of psychiatric vulnerabilty
(H aier, Buchsbaum , M urphy, G ottesm an and Coursey, 1980).

CONCLUSIONS COGNITIVE CHARACTERISTICS RELATED


TO OPIOID FUNCTIONS
On the basis of the results and theoretical considerations concerning social
activation of the endogenous opioid functions especially in early childhood
the possible role of the E O Ps in personality developm ent and in adult personality
have been delineated. T he E O Ps were proposed to serve as m ediators in the
hom eostatic regulation characterizing early infancy, nam ely in the form of
regulation attained via social interaction. A second, m ore autonom ous kind of
hom eostatic regulation with less o r no involvem ent of the E O P systems was also
proposed with dependency and autonom y as the m ost direct psychological/
m otivational aspects o f the two consecutive developm ental stages.
In addition to the m otivational aspects, the developm ental stages might also be
characterized by special kinds of cognitive functions determ ined by the given
biological background. In the first regulatory stage, characterized by the m o th erinfant union, the psychological differentiation of the ego has not been attained. In
this transitional stage of the ego developm ent, primitive projection as a cognitive

E O P-s and personality

55

mechanism should invariably occur.


D epending on the presence o r absence of the m other, i.e. on the presence or
absence of socially induced HOP activity, cognitive structuring along positive or
negative em otional tone, as suggested by Klein, K ernberg, and o th er psycho
analysts, seems to be compelling in the early stage of developm ent, while the stage
of a m ore autonom ous hom eostatic regulation might favour a m ore efficient reality
testing.
The im age of an om nipotent, good m other should thus be introjected as a
result of the positive em otional state induced by the presence of the m other due to
opiate activation.
Defensive m echanism s, like splitting, prim itive idealization, early forms of
projection, om nipotence and devaluation (K ernberg, 1981), characterizing border
line personality disorders and psychotic regression, might derive from the prim ary
stage of hom eostatic regulation but norm al personality developm ent might also
m ake use of the cognitive consequences of this stage; the introjected image of an
idealized, om nipotent m other might act as a central cognitive structure, establish
ing confidence and prosocial behaviours, i.e. serving as a basis for socialization.
Prim ary-and secondary process thinking (F reud, 1953) seems also to fit in with
the notion of socially dependent and m ore autonom ous biological regulation
although th e relation betw een prim ary process thinking and prim itive defense
mechanisms has not been w orked out.
Turning now to th e role of E O P s might play in adult personality functions the
possible involvem ent o f the opiates in social interactions should be m entioned first.
In addition to this, stress seeking as a trait was also supposed to depend on opioid
functions. According to o u r conceptual scheme stress-induced opioid activity might
reinstate the early form of hom eostatic regulation, i.e. it might result in a shift from
the autonom ous to the prim ary regulatory m ode. W ith this shift disturbed
hom eostatic regulation m ight be resettled. Stress-seeking, therefore, is suggested
to characterize subjects with some degree of regulatory dysfunctions, i.e. with
psychiatric or psychosom atic vulnerability.
In the state o f stress-induced opioid activity characteristic cognitive functions are
proposed to occur, resem bling those of the early childhood. In addition to the
sense of the presence of a protective o th er (Prince, 1982, p. 418) prim ary process
thinking is supposed to occur. Thus, stress induced euphoria is suggested to go
together with both biological and psychological regression, resem bling the one
described by Kris (1952) as regression in the service of the ego. As is well known,
this latter was considered as a crucial phase of creative thinking, so that a tentative
proposal might be form ulated, according to which stress seeking and confronta
tion as a trait is considered a characteristic of creative subjects. C reative artists and
thinkers are know n to confront pain and suffering which seems to be a prerequisite
of productive w ork. F reu d s idea of sublim ation is the last aspect o f the
cognitive consequences we connected to the E O P activity. F reuds statem ent,
according to which sublim ation has libidinal sources, finds some support in our
analysis, since the state in question, i.e. regression in the service of the ego is
proposed to be accom panied by the reinstatem ent of the prim ary regulatory
mechanisms, i.e. a reinstatem ent o f the paradisial state of the dual union with the
m other. In this why, sublim ation can be considered to represent a substitute for
libidinal gratification.

56

Z. Kulcsdr et al.
A FINAL NOTE

M ost recent data reported by K ehoe and Blass (1986) according to which short
term social isolation of 10-day-old rats can induce an opioid dependent analgesic
effect, queries the idea of the social activation of the E O F systems in the early life.
The controversy over the results presented by Panksepp and co-workers and by
K ehoe and Blass can not be solved on the basis of the data available at present. It
might be proposed, how ever, that the opioids activated by stress and those induced
by social stim ulation in early ontogenesis are different either in their biochemical
characteristics o r in their site of action. Since the original findings of Panksepp and
his group fit extrem ely well with the theoretical assum ptions concerning human
psychological developm ent, it is tem pting to suggest that there is some biological
substrate, o r som e complex neurophysiological/biochemical mechanism to underlie
the well-defined stages of biological and psychological developm ent.

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R tsim t
Selon notre th6orie, les fonctions endogfenes opioides, activ6es principalement par les
interactions sociales dans la prime enfance et le stress dans la vie ult6rieure, jouent des r61es
multiple tant dans la prime ontogenese qu^i Iage adulte. Elies peuvent en premier lieu
assurer la cohesion sociale. Deuxifemement, elles peuvent mddiatiser une sorte speciale de
regulation homeostatique et, troisifemement, elles semblent determiner des fonctions
cognitives caract6ristiques; processus de pensee primaire, formes primitives de mecanismes
de defense et structures conceptuelles de base guidant le comportement prosocial. Nous
proposons une alternance de deux etats biologiques Iun avec et Iautre sans Iinclusion des
mecanismes endogenes opioides qui caracterisent le cours normal de la vie. Ces deux etats
sont supposes refieter differentes formes de regulation homeostatique et differentes sortes
de cognitions. La sante physique et psychologique semble etre dependante du poids relatif
qua chaque etat dans la vie dun individu. Cest sur la base de quelques considerations
discutees dans cet article que Ton peut supposer que les fonctions endogfenes opioids sont des
facteurs dimportance de la cognition humaine. Le schema conceptuel de la psychanalyse,
developpe sur la base de donnees empiriques, a pue etre utilise pour decrire les
caracteristiques cognitives qui, selon notre theorie, proviennent de Iactivite endogene
opioide.
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
Wir vermuten, daU die endogenen opioiden Funktionen welche hauptsachlich durch soziale
Interaktionen in der friihen Kindheit sowie durch Stress im spateren Leven aktiviert werden,
vielfaltige Funktionen in der fruhen Ontogenese und im Erwachsenenalter erfullen. Erstens
mogen sie die soziale Kohasion sichern, zweitens konnen sie eine bestimmte Art der
homoostatischen Regulation vermitteln und drittens bestimmen sie offenbar charakteristische kognitive Funktionen: Primares ProzeBdenken, primitive Formen von Abwehrmechanismen und grundlegende konzeptuelle Strukturen, welche prosoziales Verhalten
steuern. Wir schlagen vor, daB eine Abwechselung zweier biologischer Zustande, einer mit
und einer ohne EinschluB des endogenen opioiden Mechanismus, den normalen Lebenslauf
charakterisiert. Es wird angenommen, daB diese zwei Zustande verschiedene Formen
homdostatischer Regulation und Kognition reprasentieren. Physische und psychische
Gesundheit scheinen abhangig zu sein von dem relativen Anteil, welchen jeder Mechanis
mus im Leben eines Individuums iibernimmt. Aus einigen Griinden, welche in diesem
Papier diskutiert werden, scheinen die endogenen opioiden Funktionen relevante Faktoren
der menschlichen Kognition zu sein. Das konzeptuelle Schema der Psychoanalyse, welches
auf empirischer Grundlage erarbeitet wurde, konnte zur Beschreibung der kognitiven
Charakteristika benutzt werden, welche unserer Sicht zufolge vorgeschlagen wurden, um
der endogenen opioiden Aktivitat Rechnung zu tragen.

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