DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING
THE UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD
MEC6406 ENGINEERING COMPOSITE
MATERIALS
ASSIGNMENT 2
LIGHTWEIGHT CARBON FIBRE
REINFORCED COMPOSITE (CFRP)
BICYCLE FRAME

PABLO JARAMILLO
REGISTRATION NUMBER 150118402

Contents
1.

Introduction.............................................................................................................................2

2.

Methodology............................................................................................................................3
Material selection process............................................................................................................3
Manufacturing Selection Process.................................................................................................4
Logic Thickness and Stack-up Estimations.................................................................................4
Layup Head tube.......................................................................................................................5
Cost Analysis...............................................................................................................................5

3.

Results and Discussion............................................................................................................6

Materials Selection.......................................................................................................................6
Manufacturing Process.................................................................................................................6
Layup-Head tube..........................................................................................................................8
Cost analysis................................................................................................................................9

4.

Conclusion...............................................................................................................................9

5.

References................................................................................................................................9

1. Introduction

Figure 1. CFRP Trek road bike and section [1]

Carbon fiber reinforced plastics CFRP is a

composite material that has been used in bicycles
frames since 1960 because they offer an enhanced
specific stiffness and strength than the usual frames
made of aluminium of steel [1]. Since then, its
design and manufacturing has evolved due to the
development of finite element analysis and
specialized computational software related to
composite materials.

The design of composite components is defined by Barbero[2] as a complex process since both
material and component are manufactured at the same time. Furthermore, even though the
properties of a composite structure are a function of the constituents properties, special attention
has to be put in the manufacturing process because the expected properties of the component are
also strongly dependent on it [3].
The aim of this project is to select the most appropriate constituent materials and processing for a
CFRP bicycle frame. This includes fibre and matrix type, fibre architecture, tooling and joining if
required for 10 ultra-light race bikes and 2000 frames per year for the enthusiast bike market.
The design requirements and objectives of an ultra-light carbon fibre bicycle are summarized by
Nelson [1]: light weight and lateral stiffness are considered as main objectives, and Strength,
geometry and interface as requirements. On the other hand, for the bike market, the design
objective is to minimize the cost reaching high volume production rates and an acceptable high
quality final product.

2. Methodology
2

Material selection process

As it is mentioned by Ashby [4], selecting a material for a specific component requires a
compromise between several design objectives which govern its performance. In addition, Jones
[5] highlight that three factors are considered in the selection of composite materials: composite
material itself, fibres, and matrix.
For these reasons, tables 1, 2, 3, 4 and Error: Reference source not found summarize some
literature that has been gathered from scientific and commercial sources with their respective
reference which will aid this selection through a deep comparison of the material properties and
its advantages and disadvantages to reach the design objectives. Since all types of carbon fibers
have more or less the same density, it leads to a direct comparison of stiffness and strength
between them.
Table 1 Fiber Classification, advantages-disadvantages and
Denomination
Modulus Strength Advantages/
[GPa]
[MPa]
disadvantages
Standard
200-250
>2500
Strong and Stiff, least
modulus (SM)
expensive
Intermediate
250-350
>3500
Strongest fibre
modulus (IM)
High
modulus 350-450
>2500
Brittle
(HM)
Ultrahigh
above
>2500
Stiffest carbon fibre, most
modulus (UHM)
450
expensive, and brittle

Bike applications [6], [7]

Bike application
Full tubes, tube junctions, high stress areas
High strain areas and strength critical regions such as
downtube and parts of the head tube.
Used in areas that require extra lateral rigidity such as
down tube or seat tube
Low impact zones combined with IM Carbon Fibre.

Table 2 Mechanical Properties for some Carbon fiber Manufacturers [6]

Manufacturer, Name and
Precursor

Carbon
fiber
type

Modulus
[GPa]

Tensile
strength
[GPa]

TORAYCA T300 (PAN)

SM

230

3.53

HEXCEL AS2 (PAN)

SM

227

2.756

TORAYCA T1000 (PAN)

IM

294

7.06

HEXCEL IM7 (PAN)

IM

276

5.31

THORNELL P55 (PITCH)

HM

379

1.9

TORAYCA M50 (PAN)

UHM

490

2.45

HEXCEL UHM (PAN)

UHM

441

3.445

THORNELL P100(PITCH)

UHM

758

2.41

Figure 2. Carbon Fiber Material Chart [29]

Table 3 Matrix features [8], [9]
Advantages
High strength and modulus, low level
of volatiles, excellent adhesion, low
shrinkage, good chemical resistance,
ease of processing.
higher thermal stability, dimensional
stability, and creep resistance, low
cost, fast processing, tougher
high glass transition temperature,
high elongation in high temperature
services

Disadvantages
Epoxies
Brittleness
and
reduction
of
properties in the presence of
moisture, slower processing than
polyester, higher cost.
Polyester
rapid cure

Processes

Curing

autoclave
molding,
filament
winding, press molding, vacuum
bag molding, resin transfer
molding, and pultrusion

room
temperature to
180 C

wet lay-up, press (vacuum bag)

molding,
injection
molding,
filament winding, pultrusion, and
autoclave

room
temperature to
180 C

Bismaleimide
higher cost than epoxies, limited
suppliers
No room temperature curing

autoclave, injection molding, resin

transfer molding, and SMC

>260 C Freestanding post

cure
is
required

thermoplastics

Low process time, high toughness,

high temperature environment, high
production rates

low use temperature, low solvent

resistant,

high process
temperature

Table 4 Mechanical Properties of Unidirectional (UD) Prepregs systems [6],[10]

UD Prepreg
Longitudina Longitudina
Long.
system
l modulus
l tensile
Compressive
[GPa]
strength
strength
[MPa]
[MPa]
AS4-3501-6
142
1830
1096
T300-914-C
138
1500
900
T800-3900-2
155.8
2698
1691
IM7-8552
171.4
2326.2
1200.1
T700-G-G34
141
2551
1516
T800-GS
165.48
2620
1379
M46J
265
2240

The fibre architecture is also an important step that has to be selected for the material of a
composite since it has a real influence in how the composite is made [11]. Filaments, strands or
tows, woven fabrics (plain, twill, satin, etc.), UD Prepreg Tapes, among others can be used for
specific or several manufacturing techniques.
Manufacturing Selection Process
The selection of the manufacturing process is usually governed by production rates and cost
requirements as it is suggested by Barbero [6]. He also mentions that there are some factors that
should be considered when comparing different techniques. For example, limiting parameters
such as fibre volume ration and fiber orientation impose some constrains in the process, as well,
limit or part size and complexity which is reflected in the resin system used. Table 5
Manufacturing processes and their attributes [6], [11][13]; L=Low, M=Medium, H=High
shows some processes attributes that will aid to the selection of the most suitable process for
both cases. Relative manufacturing costs were obtained from Strongs work [11]. These consider
support, labour, tooling/Equipment, and Materials.
Table 5 Manufacturing processes and their attributes [6], [11][13]; L=Low, M=Medium, H=High
Process
Performance Surface
Dimensional Shape
Productio
Relative
Size
roughness Accuracy
Complexity n Run
Cost
Bulk
Molding
L/M
H
H
M
H
VH
H
Compound
Sheet
Molding
M/H
H
H
M
H
VH
H
Compound
Vacuum Bag
L/M
M
M
L/M
L
L
L
Resin
Transfer
H
H
H
H
M/H
L/M
L/H
Infusion
Hand lay Up
L
L
L
H
L
L
L/H
Automated lay up
H
H
H
M
M
L/M/H
M
Prepreg Lay up
H
H
H
H
L
H
L/M/H
Autoclave
H
H
H
M/H
L
H
L
Filament Winding
H
H
H
M
H
M/L
M/H
pultrusion
H
H
H
L/M
H
L
M/H

Logic Thickness and Stack-up Estimations

An analysis of stresses, strains, and failure is always useful in the design optimization process of
composite materials in order to find proper stack-up sequences and thickness. However, this is
out of scope for the purpose of this study. quasi-isotropic stacks of eight or twelve plies of 0.15

mm and 0.3 mm approximately in 0/+-45/90 orientations were used in previous CFRP frames[1],
[14].
For these reason, plies of UD lamina with a thickness of 0.2 mm were used to demonstrate the
layup process of a Head Tube. [0/90/+45/-45]s laminate, [0/90/45/-45] laminate, and a ply of
woven fabric with a thickness of 0.2 mm was used in the main tubes, fillets, and in all the
component were used respectively. The layup in the fillets was done in order to increase the
resistance as they are the weak regions with high stress concentrations. The woven fabric was
used just for aesthetics reasons.
Layup Head tube
The Layup analysis was performed in
Laminate tools which simulate the
drapability of unidirectional and woven plies
on molds. High strain areas were eliminated by
making splits, or by dividing the plies into
small plies that cover the region as it is shown
in Error: Reference source not found and 4.
The high strain areas were reduced as much as
possible. A yellow colour as it indicates in the Figure Split in the ply to avoid high strain areas
Error: Reference source not found is considered as acceptable.
Seven main UD plies in 0/90/+45/-45 directions were used, and just one ply with a fabric as it is
shown in Figure 1 Head tubes Plies and its application. This gives a total of 41 one plies. This
was done in order to minimize the labour time in the real Layup process.

Figure 1 Head tubes Plies and its application

Cost Analysis
Baders work [15] was used as a referenced in the cost analysis of both processes. The total costs
of each one are divided in material, tooling, labour and equipment costs. These depend on the
feedstock utilization, parts per tooling, total labour time, and capital equipment and the
production rate for each case (10 or 2000). The cost shown in Table 6 were obtained from online
material composite and tooling distributors[16][18], literature[15] and estimations.
Table 6 Processing costs

Material cost (GBP/Kg) Prepreg, consumables

tooling cost Mold
Labour (GBP)
Capital Equipment (GBP) Machines

Case 1
168.55
2000
50
100000

Case 2
102.04
100
5
100000
5

3. Results and Discussion

Materials Selection

Case 1: 10 ultra-light race bikes

Table 7 Material Selection case 1

FIBRE TYPE
MATRIX TYPE
FIBRE
ARCHITECTURE

Intermediate Modulus, High Strength Carbon Fiber

Toughened-low temperature Epoxy Resin
Unidirectional Epoxy/Carbon Prepreg Tape
Twill woven prepreg for the aesthetics

Table 7 Material Selection case 1 shows the final selection of materials for the first
manufacturing case. Even though prepregs are the most expensive raw material in the market,
they offer the best mechanical properties with the lightest weight in comparison with fabric
weights. The type of fiber that will be used is an intermediate modulus and high strength fiber
since it offers a general good performance rather than stiffer fibers which tends to be very
brittle[7]. Epoxy, phenolic and Bismaleimide matrices are generally used in prepregs[13].
However, since bicycles do not operate under high temperature operation, an epoxy resin system
is selected. In addition, epoxies are used due to its excellent mechanical performance, good
environmental resistance and ease of processing. In addition, a low temperature cure system is
mainly used in sport applications. Manufacturers of carbon/epoxy prepregs include: Toray[19],
Hexcel[20], CYTEC[21], among others.

Case 2: 2000 frames per year for the enthusiast bike market

Table 8 Material Selection case 2

FIBRE
MATRIX
FIBRE
ARCHITECTURE

High strength and Intermediate Modulus

Epoxy Resin for filament winding
12K tows for the tubes
Unidirectional Carbon Epoxy Prepregs in joints

In this case, the manufacturing process was determinant to selecting the raw material that will be
used. Because it is filament winding as it is discussed in the next section, 12k (12000 filaments)
High strength and Intermediate Modulus Carbon fibers tows are selected [22]. Moreover, even
though all types of resins can be used in this process[11], epoxy is again chosen as the ideal
matrix due to its superior final composite mechanical properties. Epoxy resin manufacturers such
as Epic Resins [23], Air products [24], Axon Technologies [25], and Hexion [26] have
special epoxy resin systems which offer long pot life to wound the mandrel, low viscosity to wetout the fibers, and fast curing at room temperature, oven or autoclave [11]. Finally, UD Carbon
Epoxy Prepregs are used in the overwrapping of the joints that will be bonded in order to offer an
excellent quality in the frame.
Manufacturing Process

Case 1: 10 ultra-light race bikes

According to Nelson [1],better results have been achieved by a multiple component construction
for the frame than creating just one monocoque frame. All the components are bonded together,
thus, increasing the cost of the final frame since more tooling parts are required, and decreasing
the production rate. Prepreg Layup in a hot press closed mold was selected as the most
suitable process for an ultra-light bike race. This particular process offers the best quality,
6

repeatability and precision [27]. In addition, closed mold allows creating complex shapes which
increase the aerodynamic and performance of the bike.
The general process and considerations for this technique are given in Table 9.
Table 9 Manufacturing Process case 1

Steps
Cutting

Description
UD prepreg layers for each component are cut
according to the design parameters preestablished.

Hand lay up

The layers are wrapped in a inflated latex

balloon called bladder according to the
specifications given in the Layup design

Release
Agent
consolidation

and

Curing

The mold is covered with a release agent to

facilitate the extraction of the component after
curing and to prevent from sticking which can
damage permanently the mold. Then component
is put into the half mold and is closed by the
second half. Finally, the internal bladder is
inflated to consolidate the raw material into the
mold.
Hot press is used to accelerate the curing
according
to
prepregs
manufacturer
recommendations.

Mold Release

After the curing, the mold is opened and the

component is released.

Refinement
Bonding and Assembly

Any excess of resin in the component is trim

All components are bonded together by the use
of an adhesive and then put in an oven to cure
the adhesive. Then, the component goes to the
final stages. Some machining operations may be
required for joining or dimension accuracy.

Final Inspection, Testing and

Painting

Any excess of adhesive is removed from the

joints and final weight check. Mechanical test
assures the integrity of the component for final
use. Finally, the frame is painted.

Considerations
Robotic cutting machine with
CAD CAM interaction Software.
This offers a very precise cut of
layers than cutting with scissors.
Flexible core with a connection
to be inflated by internal air
pressure. This helps to reduce
weak rich resin areas in edges
and corners.
Aluminium or steel mold with
clamps and connections that
allow the bladder to be inflated.
However, for low production
rates, aluminium is preferred

Hot press machine assures that all

the component will be heated
uniformly so any region of the
component remains uncured.
Inspection of the mold to find
possible defects that may affect
repeatability in the next parts.
Polisher required
Epoxy adhesive is used in the
joints since they offer the best
joint strength after heat treatment
in an oven.
A structure is needed to assembly
all the components into one
piece.
Polisher, test and painting
facilities are required

Case 2: 2000 frames per year for the enthusiast bike market

Figure Representation joints in carbon fiber tube-to-tube construction, [http://www.adventuresofgreg.com/H

The enthusiast bike market implies high production rates, repeatability, good quality, control,
and, may have a more simple structural design. Through an analysis of the characteristics and
7

features of each manufacturing technique in Table 5 Manufacturing processes and their attributes
[6], [11][13]; L=Low, M=Medium, H=High and a review of the literature, Resin Transfer
Molding, Filament winding [11], [28], and pultrusion in a tube-to-tube or bonded tube
construction seem to be the more suitable process for high production rates involving a costeffective manufacturing techniques. This construction is similar to the manufacturing process for
a metal bicycle frame. Pre-molded carbon fiber tubes are machined and then bonded together.
For example, figure shows how carbon fiber tubes were machined and then positioned previous
bonding process. In this case the joints are bonded by overwrapping layers of carbon fiber in the
joints by the use of mini molds. Then the frame is put into an oven, or the mini molds are heated
individually to cure the joints. Then final removal of resin excess is trimmed leading to final
inspection, testing, and painting operations.
Table 10 summarizes the features of these three processes in order to make a more refinement
comparison and selection of the more suitable process. As it can be seen, even though pultrusion
is the cheapest technique, it has very low performance when carbon fibers are used. Thus, this
process cannot be considered. On the other hand, filament winding and RTM have similar
characteristics. However, because of reduction in the manufacturing costs, filament winding was
chose as the best technique to create the pre-molded tubes. Some considerations regarding
machine, tooling, and curing for this specific part are summarized in
.Manufacturing costs are also obtained from Strongs work.
Table 10 Comparison of manufacturing parameters [11]

Variable
Production scale limit (number of
parts)
Size Limit (volume of geometric
envelope

RTM
>100000

Filament Winding
<100000

Pultrusion
High volume

Approx. 20

Approximately 300

2.5 cm to 4.6 m in
diameter

Variable cross
Section
Excellent

Variable
Section
Excellent

Manufacturing Costs comparison

(1=more expensive, 2=expensive, 3=
cheapest)
Shape complexity
Performance

cross

Constant
cross
Section
Low in Carbon Fibres

Table 11 Manufacturing considerations case 2 [11]

Mandrel
or Tool
Filament
winding
machine
Curing
Machinin
g

Aluminium or Steel with smooth, polished surface and a circular cross section according to
the design requirements. Tooling needs to be strong and tough since the part is removed by
mechanical extraction.
Must be able to develop and helical pattern for an open-to-open mandrel.
The size is specified by the length of the mandrel that can be accommodated. A long tube
can be manufactured, cured and then cut in many parts as required.
Room temperature or Oven can be used. In both curing cases, the parts have to hang
vertically. For better mechanical performance, and a faster production rate, an oven should
be used.
Milling or Drilling machines are required to create the shape for a net bond between tubes
and interfaces with the equipment as gear, seats, handlebar, etc.

Layup-Head tube
As it can be seen in Error: Reference source not found, the general thickness of the component is
1.8 mm except for the region of the fillets and its surroundings. A thickness of 2.86 (yellow in
8

figure) is reached next to the fillets while in the filets the thickness is 3.9. There are some light
blue and green areas with a thickness of 3.5 mm and 3.2 mm respectively.
In addition, the fillet regions have a thicker
thickness in order to avoid failure in high
stress regions. In addition, the next region to
the fillets in the main tubes is thicker than the
overall component. This is due to the
overlapping of plies which will also help in
the ply load transition. If there is no overlap
in in the fillets with the main tubes, there will
Figure Layup Thickness Distribution
be a matrix line or channel that separates the
plies leading to possible failure since no reinforcement is present. In addition, as it was mention,
just seven main plies were used than using more and small plies in very specific locations of the
component which will increase the time that is needed for the layup. More and little plies will
need the support of laser projecting curves which also increase the cost of the component.
Furthermore, creating a better mesh in Laminate Tools will increase the accuracy of the layup
and draping analysis as a future recommendation.
Cost analysis

Figure Cost analysis

Error: Reference source not found shows

the cost analysis for both processes. As it
can be seen, the main differences are
related to the investment equipment
(Robotic Cutting and Hot press vs
Filament winding) and the material cost.
This also depends on the production rates
since
manufacturing
2000
bikes
correspond to a very high production rate
instead of the 10 bikes for case 1.

4. Conclusion
As it was described in the introduction, the design of composite components represents a more
difficult challenge than metals since both material and component are built at the same time.
Materials and Manufacturing process for two cases with different target markets were analysed.
Through a comparison of its properties, advantages and disadvantages, UD Intermediate
modulus and high strength Carbon/epoxy Prepreg plies and a closed heated mold was selected as
the best options for high performance race bikes. On the other hand, Filament winding with the
same type of fiber and epoxy resin plus machining and bonding operations was selected for the
enthusiast bike market with a high production rate. In addition, a general thickness of ~1.8mm
was achieved through an analysis of the drapability of UD plies and a woven fabric with a total
of 41 plies. The cost analysis confirms that a cost effective processing route has been achieved
for the enthusiast bike market.

5. References
[1]
[2]

R. Nelson, Bike frame races carbon consumer goods forward, Reinf. Plast., vol. 47, no. 7, pp.
3640, Jul. 2003.
E. J. Barbero, Introduction to Composite Materials Design, First Edit., New York, New York,
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[7]

[8]
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[13]

[14]
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Diameter

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11