2.

006 Equation Sheet (Fall 2013)

Vector Operators
Cartesian Coordinates (x, y, z)

i
j
k
x
y
z
Ax Ay Az
A

x y z

2 2 2

x2 y 2 z 2

A Ay Ax Az Ay Ax
i
k
A z

v
Dt
t

Cylindrical Coordinates (r, , z)

r

z
r
r
z
1 (rAr ) 1 A Az
A

r r
r
z

1 1 2 2
r

r r r r 2 2 z 2

1 Az A Ar Az
r
A

z
r

1 (rA ) Ar

r r

Spherical Coordinates (r, , )

1
1

r

r
r
r sin

1 ( r 2 Ar )
1 (sin A )
1 A

2
r
r
r sin

r sin

1 2
1


1
2
2
r

sin
r r r r 2 sin
r 2 sin 2 2
2

Mach number: Ma velocity / (speed of sound)

Constitutive relationships(for specific variables, i.e. per unit mass)
Model
Incompr.
liquid

Specific energy

u2 u1 c(T2 T1 )

Specific enthalpy (h=u+Pv)

1
h2 h1 c(T2 T1 ) ( P2 P1 )

Ideal
Gas

u2 u1 cv (T2 T1 )

h2 h1 c p (T2 T1 )

Solid

u2 u1 c(T2 T1 )

Ideal Gas law: PV = mRT or

P =RT,

Specific entropy
T
s2 s1 c ln 2
T1
T
v
s2 s1 cv ln 2 R ln 2
T1
v1
T
P
s 2 s1 c p ln 2 R ln 2
T1
P1
P
v
s2 s1 cv ln 2 c p ln 2
P1
v1
T
s2 s1 c ln 2
T1

Ideal gas specific heats: cp = cv + R

Cycles
1. Efficiency of Heat Engine in general:

W
Q H

2. Coefficient of Performance for Heat Pump: COP

3. Coefficient of Performance for Refrigerator: COP

= (if reversible) 1

QH
W

= (if reversible)

TL
TH

TH
TH TL

TL
QL
= (if reversible)
TH TL
W

Efficiency and Related Definitions

W actual
W

Positive work machine

Negative work machine

W
reversible
W

reversible

Diffuser

v v
v v
v v

v v

Nozzle

Heat engine

actual
2
2
in
out reversible
2
2
in
out actual

2
out

2
out

2
in actual

2
in reversible

(At same pressures)

(At same pressures)

W net
Q in
2

Ideal Carnot engine

COP
NWR

Carnot 1

TC
TH

Q desired
W net
W net
W

gross positive

Dimensionless numbers

UL

Reynolds number:

Re L

Prandtl number:

Pr

Rayleigh number:

Ra

Grashof number:

Gr

Froude number:

Fr

V
gL

Wave drag coefficient:

CD , w

F
1
U 2 A
2

Coefficient of friction:

Cf

c p
k
g (T ) L3

g (T ) L3

1
U 2
2

Conservation Relations for Closed Systems

First law, closed systems:
E Q W
Q
Second law, closed systems: S
S gen
T

Conservation Relations for Open Systems (using for velocity)

Mass conservation
d
(integral form):
dV CS r .n dA 0
dt CV
dM CV
(summation form):
min m out
dt
in
out


. (. ) 0
t

(differential form):

D
0
Dt

or

Energy conservation (First Law)

d
2
2
(integral form): u
gz dV Q Wshaft h
gz r .n dA
dt CV
2
2

CS

dECV
2
2
Q Wshaft min h
gz mout h
gz
dt
2
2
in

in out

out

(summation form):

Second Law
Q
d
sdV s r .n dA S gen

dt CV
i T i
CS

(integral form):

Q
dSCV
ms in ms out S gen
dt
i T i
in
out

(summation form):

Linear momentum conservation

In an inertial frame:
(integral form):

ext

PndA dA gdV
CS

CS

CV

d
dV (r .n )dA
CS
dt CV

dPCV
min in mout out Fext
dt
d
In a non-inertial frame:
F CV arf dV dt CV dV CS (r .n)dA

(summation form):

Angular momentum conservation

d
(integral form):
T dt CV (r )dV CS (r )(r .n)dA
(summation form):

dLCV
min ( r )in mout ( r )out Text
dt

Bernoulli Equation (using for velocity)

2

P2 P1 22 12
ds

g ( z2 z1 ) 0 .
1 t

In terms of potential:

P

gz const
t
2
2

Potential / Irrotational Flows: Three-dimensional velocities in terms of potential: v

x
y
y
x
Two-dimensional velocities in terms of stream function:
1

r

r
r
Viscous Flow (incompressible, constant-viscosity fluid) (using for velocity)
Cartesian co-ordinates:
Mass conservation (continuity equation):

x y z

0
x
y
z

Navier-Stokes equations:
2 2 2

P
x x x y x z x g x 2x 2x 2x
x
y
z
x
y
z
t
x
2y 2y 2y
y
y
y
y
P

x
y
z
gy 2 2 2

x
x
y
z
y
y
z
t

2z 2z 2z
z
z
z
z
P

x
y
z
gz 2 2 2

x
y
z
z
y
z
t
x
Newtonian viscous shear stresses:


xy yx x y
xz zx x z
x
x
z
y

Cylindrical co-ordinates
Mass conservation:

y z

z
y

yz zy

1
1

rr
z 0
r r
r
z

Navier-Stokes equations:

1
2

P
1 2
2 2
r r r r z r g r
rr 2 2r 2 2r
r
r
r
z
r
r
z
r
t
r r r
2
2
1
r

1 P

1 2 r

z
g
2
r 2 2 2

r
r
r
z
r
r
z
t
r
r r r

1 z 1 2z 2z
z

P
z
r z
z z
gz
2
r
2
2
r
r
z
z
z
t
r r r r
Newtonian viscous shear stresses:
1 r

1 z


r r r
z z
rz zr r z

r
r
z
z
r r r

Viscous flow in Pipes(using for velocity)

P
P

2
2
L 2
2

z f
K
Total Head Loss:
2g
2g
D 2g
2g
g
in g
out
where = 2 for laminar flow, 1.06 for turbulent flow, or 1 for uniform flow
Friction factor for fully developed laminar flow in circular pipes:
Friction factor for fully developed turbulent flow:
Reynolds Number for pipe flow:

Re

ave D
or

6.9 / d 1.11
f 1.8log10

Red 3.7

D
Re ave
v

L ave 2
D 2
2
1 r / R
P f

Darcys Law for a single pipe flow:

Velocity profile for laminar flow:

f 64 / Red

v / vmax

Velocity profile for turbulent flow: v / vmax (1 r / R)

1/ n

6< n <10

Pipe Entrance Lengths:

Le
L
0.05Re D (or e 0.06 Re D )
Laminar:
Di
Di
Le
L
4.4 Re D1/6 (or e 1.36 Re D1/4 )
Turbulent (smooth walls):
Di
Di

Boundary Layers
Boundary layers on a smooth flat plate:
Laminar (103<Rex<106)
Laminar,
von Karman
(quadratic profile)
BL thickness

Displacement
thickness

*
x

Turbulent (106<Rex)

Laminar, exact
(Blasius
similarity
solution)

5.5
Re x

1.83
Re x

15

Turbulent
1/7th power law

5
Re x

1.72
Re x

0.664

Re x

0.16
Re1/7
x

0.020
Re1/7
x

0.016
Re1/7
x

Momentum
thickness

Local skin
friction
coefficient

C f ,x

0.73
Re x

C f ,x

0.664
Re x

C f ,x

Drag
coefficient

CD , x

1.46
Re x

CD , x

1.328
Re x

CD , x

CD,L 2 C f ,L

CD,L 2 C f ,L

CD , L

0.027
Re1/7
x

0.031
Re1/7
x
7
C f ,L
6

For general flat plate boundary layer flow (laminar or turbulent):

d
Wall shear stress: w U 02
dx

u u
u
*
Momentum thickness: (1 )
Displacement thickness: (1 ) dy
dy
U0
U0 U0
0
0
Friction coefficient: C f

Law of the Wall:

U 02 / 2

u
1 y u*
ln
B
u*

where u * w , 0.41 and B 5

Heat Transfer
Conduction: Fouriers law: q kT
Conduction resistance of a slab:

Rcond L / (kA)

Resistance (to radial heat transfer) of a cylindrical pipe:

Rcyl

ln(rout / rin )
2 kL

Resistance (to radial heat transfer) of a spherical shell:

1 1
1
Rsphere

4 k rin rout
Convection: Newtons law of cooling:
Convection resistance:
Radiation:

Q hAs (Ts T )

Rconv 1/ (hc A)

heat flux from a small grey object (1) to a large isothermal environment (2):
Q12 / A 1 (T14 T24 ) where =5.67 x 10-8 W/(m2K4) and 1 the emissivity of
(1)
Radiation resistance: Rrad 1/ hr A where hr 41 Tm3 when T1 T2

q
T
2T gen
t
c
where k / c and qgen is the heat generation rate by dissipation per unit mass

Heat diffusion equation:

Biot number: Bi

Tsol Rsol

sometimes can be estimated as (hLc ) / k with Lc V / As

T fl
R fl

Lumped Parameter Model (for Bi<<1)

T T (Ti T ) exp( t / ) where C Rext ,
Solution:

Rext is resistance for all external heat fluxes. For convection only: ( Vc) / (hAs )
1D Slab (general case, valid for Bi1, but also for Bi >>1):
Temperature at any point x from the center of a slab of thickness 2L, at uniform initial temperature
Ti, at a time t after surface of the slab is exposed to a fluid with temperature Ts and heat transfer
coefficient h:
t

n2 2
T T
x

cn e L cos(n )
Ti T n 1
L
4sin n
Where n tan n Bi hL / k and cn
2n sin 2n
t
Fourier number: Fo 2
L
Semi-Infinite Solids:
Temperature at a point at a distance x from the surface of a semi-infinite solid (at uniform initial
temperature Ti) at a time t, after surface temperature is raised to Ts at t = 0:
8

T Ti
x
erfc

Ts Ti
4 t
2
Error Function erf ( z )

t
e dt and Complementary Error Function erfc(z) = 1 erf (z)
2

Heat flux at the surface of the semi-infinite solid:

k (Ts Ti )

Fin equations

d 2
General equation: 2 m2 ( x) 0 General solution: ( x) Ae mx Bemx
dx
Tip condition(x=L)
Convection heat
transfer:
d
h ( L) k
dx x L
Adiabatic:
d
0
dx x L

h
sinh m ( L x )
mk
h
cosh mL
sinh mL
mk

cosh m ( L x )

h
cosh mL
mk
M
h
cosh mL
sinh mL
mk

cosh m ( L x )
cosh mL

Infinite fin
L : ( L) 0

b (0) Tb T ;

sinh mL

M tanh mL

L
sinh mx sinh m ( L x )
b

Prescribed
temperature:
( L) L

T T ;

Fin heat transfer rate

Qf

Temperature distribution / b

sinh mL

L
cosh mL
b
M
sinh mL

e mx

m2 hP / kAc ;

M b hPkAc

Hyperbolic operators
Function : f(x)

Definition

Derivative:

sinh( x)

e x e x
2

cosh( x)

cosh( x)

e x e x
2

sinh( x)

tanh( x)

e x e x
e x e x

1 tanh 2 ( x)

d
f ( x)
dx

Thermal Entrance Lengths in Pipe Flows

Le,th
0.0334 Re Pr
Laminar, Twall constant:
Di
Le,th
0.043 Re Pr
Laminar, q constant:
Di
Turbulent

Le,th

Di

1.359 Re1 / 4

Bulk Temperature in Internal Pipe Flows:

Tb,out Tb,in

Constant heat flux:

Constant surface temperature:

T Tb ,out
T Tb ,in

Aq
m c p

UA
exp
m c
p

Heat Exchangers
Log Mean Temperature Difference:
Q b UATLM

TLM

T2 T1
T
ln 2
T1

Parallel Flow:
T1 Th,in Tc ,in

T2 Th,out Tc ,out

Effectiveness-NTU Method:
C m c P
C H Th,in Th,out CC Tc ,out Tc ,in
Q

C min
*
C
Q max C min Th,in Tc ,in C min Th,in Tc ,in
C max

Counter Flow
T1 Th,in Tc ,out

T2 Th,out Tc ,in

NTU

UA
C min

(complete -NTU correlations are in property data tables)

10

Thermodynamics
Pure Substance
x

In a saturated state, quality: x

mg
m f mg

h hf

, h h f xh fg
h fg
These relationships can be applied to specific volume, specific internal energy, specific
enthalpy and specific entropy

Boiling Heat Transfer

Nucleate Boiling

Characteristic Length: Lc
g f g

1/2

g f g
Heat Flux: q f h fg

1/2

c p , f Tsurface Tsat

Csf h fg Pr fn

Critical Heat Flux (see table 13.4 for K)

qcrit Kh fg g g2 f g

1/4

L*

L
Lc

R*

R
Lc

Boiling Parameter Tables

11

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