A Concise History of Malayalam Literature

ASHORTHISTORYOFMALAYALAMLITERATURE
ASHORTHISTORY
OF
MALAYALAMLITERATURE
Dr.K.AyyappaPaniker
AShortHistoryof
MalayalamLiterature
Dr.K.AyyappaPaniker
Information&PublicRelationsDepartment
KeralaState
April2006
Firstedition:November,1977
Secondedition:November1978
Thirdedition:January1982
Fourthedition:June1987
Fifthedition:January1998
EditorinChief
JijiThomsonIAS
PrincipalSecretary
Information&PublicRelations
GeneralEditor
K.C.Venu
Director
Information&PublicRelations

CoordinatingEditor
S.MahadevanThampi
DeputyEditorinChief
M.Josephath
Editor
P.Kunhabdulla
Asst.Editors
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No.of.Copies:2000
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FOREWORD
Literatureofanethnicgroupreflectsthesocial,cultural
andpoliticalmilieuandwholesomelifeofthatsocietytheylivein.
Anditistheresponsibilityofthegovernmenttoundertake
appropriatemeasurestomakeavailableanaccountofthis
literaturetoboththecommonreadersandthosewhoaspireto
analyseandtransformtheselevelsofgrowthtootherareasof
humandevelopment.Strictlyfollowingthisprinciple,wedecided
toreprintthebook,AShortHistoryofMalayalamLiterature
asitssixthedition,whichwasfirstpublishedin1977.Thebook
triestopresentthelengthyhistoryofMalayalamliteratureina
preciseform.Sothatthereadercouldgetthefactsinanutshell,
withoutconsumingmuchofhisvaluabletime.
Theauthor,Sri.K.AyyappaPanicker,acompetent
authorityintheliteraryfield,hasaddedthecontemporary
footprintsalsointhelatestedition.Wethankhimforhisearnest
endeavourinthisregard.
Thesixtheditionofthebookitselfisitsrelevance.Hence
wesubmitthisneweditiontothepeoplewholoveletters.
Thiruvananthapuram
08May2006
K.C.Venu,
Director,
Information&
PublicRelationsDepartment
AUTHOR'SNOTETOTHENEWEDITION
AShortHistoryofMalayalamLiteraturewasfirstpublished
in1977ontheoccasionoftheFirstWorldMalayalamConference
heldatTrivandrum.Sincethenithashadmanyreprints,butnonew
editionassuch.Thepresenteditionretainstheoriginaltextwith
minorcorrectionsandadditions.Anappendixhasbeenspecially
addedtocoverthemaindevelopmentsintheperiodafter
Independence.
Writingoncontemporariesisadifficultandriskyenterprise.
Theomissionswillbeglaring,theerrorswillbenumberous,andthe
opinionsexpressedmaynotpleaseeveryone.Thelistofauthorsor
textsmentionedmaynotbeexhaustive.Butthewriterinallhumility
maycravetheindulgenceofallthosewhoknowbetterandprayfor
theirgoodwill.
Thiruvananthapuram
12October2005.
Dr.K.AyyappaPaniker
AUTHOR'SNOTETOTHEFIFTHEDITION
Inthisbrieflayman'saccountoftheevolutionofMalayalam
literatureoverthepastonethousandyears,noattempthasbeen
madetobeexhaustive.Someauthorsandworkshadtobeleftout
forwantofspaceandseveralauthorsbrieflymentionedheredeserve
tobediscussedingreaterdetail.Thecontemporaryperiodhasnot
beenfullycovered,theauthorfeltthat,amongotherthings,itwas
noteasytoseetheworksofthisperiodinperspectiveandtherefore
toevaluatethemobjectively.Thesedrawbacksareperhaps
unavoidableinaventureofverylimitedscopelikethepresentone.
Theauthor'smainefforthasbeentodiscoverthecentraltradition
ofourliteraturethroughthemajorworksofdifferentperiods.He
centainlywelcomessuggestions,forchangeoraddition,from
interestedreaders,sothatthenecessarymodificationscanbemade
inthenextedition.Healsowishestothanktheauthorsofthebooks
consultedwhicharelistedattheend.
Thiruvananthapuram
291297

Dr.K.AyyappaPaniker
No.ContentsPage
1.ThepoetryoftheEarth12
2.Ramacharitam19
3.Thebeginningofprose21
4.Manipravalam22
5.EarlyManipravalamworks22
6.TheEarlychampoos23
7.SandesaKavyas24
8.TheNiranamPoets25
9.Thelaterchampoos26
10.Chandrotsavam28
11.Cherusseri'sKrishnagatha28
12.Thegrowthofprose30
13.ThunchathuEzhuthachan31
14.PoonthanamNambudiri35
15.Theperformingarts36
16.Attakkatha37
17.KottayamThampuran39
18.UnnayiWarrier40
19.Princesandpoets42
20.RamapurathuWarrier43
21.KunchanNambiar44
22.AfterNambiar47
23.TheVenmanischool49
24.TheModernAge51
25.KeralaVarmaValiyaKoyithampuran53
26.Thegrowthofliterarycriticism54
No.ContentsPage
27.Theplethoraofplays55
28.A.R.RajarajaVarma56
29.K.C.KesavaPillai56
30.TheEssay57
31.TheRiseoftheNovel58
32.O.ChanduMenon59
33.Thereligiousawakening62
34.C.V.RamanPillai63
35.Theromanticmovement65
36.N.KumaranAsan66
37.UlloorParameswaraIyer68
38.VallatholNarayanaMenon71

39.LiteraryCriticism:Westerninfluence74
40.Dramaandthestage76
41.Poetry:ThesecondgenerationofRomantics80
42.FictionintheForeground85
43.Literarycriticism90
44.AfterIndependence94
45.Poetry95
46.Drama104
47.Fiction:TheNovel107
48.Fiction:Theshortstory113
49.LiteraryCriticism117
50.GeneralLiterature121
51.TheNewcentury123
52.ASelectBibliography124
Malayalam,themothertongueofnearlythirtymillionMalayalis,ninety
percentofwhomliveinKeralaStateinthesouthwestcornerof
India,belongstotheDravidianfamilyoflanguages.Likethespeakers,the
languagealsohasbeenreceptivetoinfluencesformabroadandtolerantof
elementsaddedfromoutside.Malayalamliteraturetooreflectsthisspiritof
accommodationandhasoverthecenturiesdevelopedatraditionwhich,
evenwhilerootedinthelocality,istrulyuniversalintaste.Itisremarkably
freefromtheprovincialismsandparochialprejudicesthathavebedevilled
theliteratureofcertainotherareas.ToitsbasicDravidianstockhavebeen
addedelementsborrowedoradoptedfromnonDravidianliteraturessuch
asSanskrit,Arabic,French,PortugueseandEnglish.Theearliestofthese
associationswasinevitablywithTamil.Sanskrit,however,accountsforthe
largestofthe"foreign"influences,followedcloselyinrecenttimesbyEnglish.
Thebroadbasedcosmopolitanismhasindeedbecomeadistinctivefeature
ofMalayalamliterature.
Accordingtothemostdependableevidencenowavailabletous,
Malayalamliteratureisatleastathousandyearsold.Thelanguagemust
certainlybeolderbutlinguisticresearchhasyettodiscoverunmistakable
evidencetoproveitsantiquity.Historicalaccuracyhasoftenbeenaproblem
sincetherecordsinmostcasesshownoreferencetotheexactdateofthe
composition.Legendsandfolklorehaveoftentakentheplaceofhistorical
AShortHistoryofMalayalamLiteratim
factsandchronologyhasbeenconsciouslyorunconsciouslytamperedwith.
Modernresearchonscientificlines,however,hasgonealongwaytoexplain
theoriginandearlydevelopmentofthelanguage.
AcomprehensiveliteraryhistoryofKeralashouldtakeintoaccount
theworksproducedintheregionnotonlyinMalayalamlanguage,butalsoin
Tamil,beginningwiththefourthcenturyB.C.andcontinuingtotheendofthe
firstmillenniumA.D.ItshouldalsotracetheevolutionoftheworksinSanskrit
producedbywritersinKerala.ThecontributionofKeralatoTamilliterature
whichincludesChilappathikaramproducedinthe2ndcenturyA.D.should
perhapsfinditsproperplaceinthehistoryofTamilliteraturejustasKerala's
contributiontoSanskrit,whichincludestheworksofSankaracharyaand
KulasekharaAlwaroftheearly9thcenturyA.D.,shouldcomewithina
historyofSanskritliterature.ThecontributionofKeralawriterstoEnglish
andHindiinrecentyears,inthesameway,ispartoftheliteraturesinthose
languages.Sincethisbookisprimarilydevotedtotheevolutionofliterature
inMalayalam,thepoliticalhistoryandthehistoryofthelanguageaswellas
theliteraturewritteninotherlanguagesarenotdiscussedhereindetail.
ThePoetryoftheEarth
Itisdifficulttoprovidedocumentaryevidencefortheexistenceof
theearliestliteraryworkswritteninMalayalam.Thefolksongsandballads
ofpopularoriginhavebeenorallytransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration,
buttheformsinwhichtheysurvivetodaymustbequitedifferentfromtheir
originalforms.Anysweepinggeneralizationsbasedontheirpresentday
formsareboundtobewrong.However,itwouldnotbewrongtothinkthat
insomeofthematleastonecanfindevidenceoftheearliestspringsof
poeticinspirationinMalayalam.Alargenumberofthesefolksongsare
associatedwithvariouskindsofreligiousritualsdatingbacktoprimitive
DravidianandPreAryantimes.Amongtheseareperhapsthesongsrecited
byPulluvarsatthefestivalsinserpentgrovesandbyPanarswhenthey
usedtogofromhousetohousewakingthepeopleupintheearlyhoursof
themorning.TheintrusionofAryanfaithevenintotheseprimitiverituals
hasledtotheirtotaltransformationintheme,dictionandimagery.Thesecular
12
AShortHistoryofMalayalamLiterature
songsforpopularentertainmentandforagriculturaloperationshaveprobably
survivedwithoutseriousdamage.Thesearemarkedbyasimplicityof
structureandcommitmenttotheproblemsofeverydaylife.Someofthem
relatetothetragedyandpathosofthepoorerclassesothersaremarkedby
asparklingsenseofhumour.Oneofthemostwidelypopularofthesetragic
songsisintheformofacomplaintvoicedbythefarmlabourerwhoisdetained
bythelandlordforlonghourstodoallkindsofchoresinthemanorialhousehold.
Thetimeisgone,thetimeisgone,
Thewaterfowl
Ishoppingaway
Behindthescrewpine.
WhenIwentthere
Therewasneitherthisnorthat.
WhenIwentthere
Theymademedothefencewhichwasnotthere.
WhenIwentthere
Theymademedigthepondwhichwasnotthere.
WhenIwentthere
Theymademethatchtheunthatchedroof.
Forhalfapintoftoddy
Theydrivemetodeath,
Forhalfatendercoconut
Theydrivemetodeath.
Thetimeisgone,thetimeisgone
thewaterfowl
ishoppingaway
behindthescrewpine.
Anotherofthesefolksongspresentsayounggirlwhoisableto
outwittheyoungmanwhoslylyapproachesherassheiswalkingacrossa
paddyfield.Itisintheformofadialogue.Theyoungmanaskshertomove
closertohimandtakecoverunderhisumbrella,butsheparrieshisrequests
withwittyevasions.
13
Whoisgoingtherealongthecauseway
Withbanglesonthearms?
Oh,itisonlytheslavegirl
Ofmylordofthefarm.

Throwawaythosebanglesgirl,
Andcomeunderthisumbrella.
Thisumbrellaisjustforaday,
Butmybanglesareforallmylife.
Whoisgoingtherealongthecauseway
Withpalmleafrollsintheears?
Ofmylordofthefarm.
Throwawaythepalmleafrolls,girl,
Butthesepalmleafrollsareforallmylife.
Whoistheregoingalongthecauseway
Withsilverankletsonthefeet?
Ofmylordofthefarm.
Throwawaythesilveranklets,girl,
Buttheseankletsareforallmylife.
Amongthevocationalsongsaremanywhichrenderanactual
accountofagriculturaloperations,especiallytheplantingofseedlingsand
harvesting.ThefollowingsongissungbyPulayaswhoearntheirlivingby
workingalltheyearroundonthesoil:
Therainshaveallcomedown,
Thelittlefieldsarenowwet,
14
Theploughingandtillingover,
Thelittleseedlingshavebeenscattered,
Omala,Chenthila,Mala,
LittleKannamma,Kali,Karumpi
Chatha,Chadayaandall
ThePulayawomenhavecome.
Theyhavecomeandlinedup
Andportionedouttheseedlings.
Tomoveupthelineinunison
Theygetreadyandbenddown.
Kanna,thePulayagirlthen,
ShecallsouttoOmalaandsays
"Youmustsingasong
Beforeyoufinishtheplantingandgo".
Thencomesaparrotgirl
Sheperchesonthetreeandchirps.
ThelittlePulayagirlOmala
Looksupatitandsays:
"O,parrotgirl,nowtellme
Whyyouhavecomehereatall."
Interspersedwithbeautifulchoricrefrainsmadeupofmeaningless
vocablesconstitutingVaytharimetres,thesefolksongshavepreservedfor
centuriesthepristinemusicaltraditionsofKerala.TheChristiansand
Muslims,alongwithBrahminsandotherupperclasses,havealsohadtheir
religiousandsocialsongs.Examplesarethedooropeningsongofthe
Christiansassociatedwithmarriagecelebrations,coaxingthebridegroom
toopenthedoorofthebridalchamber,thefamousMappilasongsand
balladswiththeirlyricalliltandfervour,theSanghakalisongsofthe
Brahmintheatre,thesongsaboutKali,usedforThiyattuandMudiyettu,
theboatsongsorVanchipattusungbychoralgroupstoaccompanyspirited
boatraceactivitiesandsongsusedforKalamezhuthu,Thiraandother
kindsofritualisticworship.
15
Amongtheballadsofalaterperiod,wehavethefamousVatakkan
Pattukal(balladsofthenorth)andThekkanPattukal(balladsofthesouth).
Theycoverawidevarietyofthemesrangingfromthehistoricalexploitsof
thelegendaryheroesofnonreligiousfolkmythologytosongsoflamentation
andmourning.Theballadsofthenortharenarrativesfullofdramatictension:
themaincharactersbelongtotheNayarorEzhavacommunities,andare
distinguishedfortheirvalour,militaryskillandsenseofhonour.Familyfeuds
oftenprovidethebackgroundorforegroundofthesestoriesinverse.Odenan,
Aromal,Unniyarcha,Komappan,Chandu,Kelu,AlikuttyandKannanarea
fewoftheunforgettablecharacterswhofigureintheseballads.Aromal
andOdenanarethemostcolourfulofthesefolkheroes.TheTachcholi
balladwhichrevealsthegreatnessofOdenanisasagaofheroism,violence,
revenge,loveandcourage.LogancallsOdenan"theRobinHoodofNorth
Malabar"."Inthepopularballad,heisstatedtohavebeentreacherously
shot,butwhethermortallyornotisuncertain,byaMappillaonreturningto
searchforadaggerhehadaccidentallydroppedinaduelinwhichhehad
discomfittedhisenemy".Theopeningofthepoemrevealssomeofthe
generalcharacteristicsoftheseballadsandconjuresupthemedievalworld
offamilyfeudsandsuperstitions.(TranslationbyLogan).
TohissquireOdayottidathilKandasseri(Chappan)
saidTacholiMeppayilKunhiOdennan,
"FortheLokanarKavilKavut,
Whichdayofceremonyhascomeanddawned
Wetothattemplemustgo".
TachcholiMeppayilKunhiOdenan
Hisapparelheputon,
Hisswordandshieldhetookinhisrightandleft
InfrontwalkedKandasseri,
IntherearthenoblemanKunhiOdenan
Togetherproceededincompany
SaiddearKunhiOdenan
TohiswifeKavileChathothKunhichiru:
"TillIgoandcome
Don'tyougodownthegatesteps
16
DocaresschildAmbadi,
Givehimmilkwhenthirsty

Andricewhenhungry".
SoTacholiMeppayilKunhiOdenan
TookleaveofKavileChathoth.
WhenOdenanreachedLokanarKavu,hefoundtheplacealready
"fencedwithmenonallfoursides".Hetookhisseatunderthebaniantree.
MathilurKurikkalandhistwentytwodisciplesarrivedtherethen.Kurikkal
wasnotpleasedtoseeOdenanseatedthere.Afteranexchangeofrancour
andinsult,thetwomencametochallengeeachother.
Whendescendingthesteps,
TheKurikkalshoutedloudandchallenged:
"Mygoodfellow,TacholiKunhiOdena!
IfthetenthandeleventhofKumbhamshallcome,
IfGodwillsparemylife,
IpledgemywordtobeatPonniyat.
Thereunderthebaniantree
Insinglecombatcouldwetestoursupremacy.
Thatdayletusmeetagain!"
ThustheKurikkaldeclaredthewar,
Inthemidstofthetenthousand,
Andproceededbackonhisway.
Thesightseerstrembled
Atthisthrowingdownandtakingupthegauntlet.
Astillnessprevailedlikethatafteraheavyrain.
Apanicspread
Overallassembled.

Odenanacceptedthechallengeandinspiteofwarningswentto
theappointedplaceontheappointedday.Thepoeticexcellenceofthis
balladconsistsnotonlyinthenarrativevigourbutalsointheacutenessof
observationdisplayedbytheanonymouswriter.Odenan'sdinnerisdescribed
withscrupulousattentiontodetail:
17
Akadaliplantainleafwasspread
HissisterTachcholiUnichira
Servedhimthedinner.
Finelilywhiterice,
Alargequantityofpureghee,
Andelevenkindsofvegetablecurries.
Hefedhimselfsumptuouslyonallthese
Andwashedhishandsandmouthafterit.
Hethensatinthesouthverandah.
KandasseriChappan,hissquire,
Servedhimbeteltochew.
ThedescriptionofOdenan'sappearanceashesetoutisevenbetter
thanthis
HeworeGodofserpent'sheadearringinears,
Combeddownhishair,

Andworeaflowerofgoldoverthecrown,
Asilkclothroundtheloins,
Agoldgirdleoverit,
Goldringsinfourfingers,
Abraceletworkedinwithscenes
FromRamayanamandBharatam
Highuponhisrightarm,
Agoldhandledswordinhisrighthand,
Andatigerfightingshieldinhislefthand.
Whencomingoutthusdressed,helooked
Likemeltedgoldoftenandahalftouch!
Liketherisingsunintheeast!
Likethesettingmooninthewest!
Amongtheballadsofthesouth,oneofthemostpowerfulisthe
IravikkuttipillaiBattle,alsocalled'TheBattleofKaniyamkulam".The
dialoguebetweenthedistinguishedwarriorIravikuttipillaiandhiswife,the
latteraskingherhusbandnottoproceedtobattlebecauseshehadseenbad
dreamsaboutitsdireconsequences,isparticularlytouching.Anotherequally
18
arrestingpassageisthedescriptionofhowthewomencelebratedthe
occasionofthehero'sgloriousmarchtothebattlefieldinfullarray.The
southernsongshaveagreateradmixtureofTamilwords.RamakathaPattu,
whichisperhapsthemostelaborateandmostmagnificentofthesesouthern
poems,isnotaballadbutagenuinefolkepic.AyyappilliAsan,theauthorof
thismassiveepiconthethemeofRamayana,isbelievedtohavelivedinthe
15thcenturyA.D.Butthelanguageandliterarystylepointtoafolkbias.
BornnearKovalamtothesouthofThiruvananthapuram,Asanwasamaster
ofTamiltoohislanguagethusremainsveryclosetoTamil.Thereare
numerouspassagesinRamakathaPattuwhichhaveahighlylyricalquality
andanunmatcheddelicacyofimagination.
ThefolkpoetryofKeralaisstillanunspentforce.Ithasalways
showngreatervigourandvitalitythanthepoetryoftheelite.Themetrical
richnessofMalayalamfolkpoetry,too,isimmense.Itreflectsthe
fundamentallymusicalapproachtopoetrythatmanifestsitselfinMalayalam
literature.Apredominantandallpervasivesenseofrhythmseemstobeso
characteristicafeatureofKeralaculture.Itmightevenbesaidthatthe
perennialappealofthePattuschoolofpoetryismainlyduetothe
inexhaustiblemelodicpotentialityofitsmetricalstructure.Thevitalityof
thefolktraditioninhistoricaltimesisdemonstratedbytheMappilaPattukal
(Moplahsongs)whichhavenotonlyenrichedthemetricalresourcesofthe
languagebutputspecialemphasisonviraandsringara(theheroicandthe
erotic).TheArabiMalayalamlanguageusedintheseMoplahsongs
establishesthequaintbeautyoftheirmelodies.Inthesamewaythe
IdanadanPattu,aballadwithaPulayahero,addstothevarietyoffolk
poetryinMalayalam.
Ramacharitam
Theevidenceforthebeginningofconsciousliterarycreationin
MalayalamistobefoundinRamacharitam,writteninthe12thcenturyand
believedtobetheoldestextantclassicinMalayalam(somescholarshave
assignedittothe14thcentury).Thelanguagerepresentedhereisanearly
formofMalayalamwhichappearstobealmostindistinguishablefromTamil,
19
exceptperhapsforalinguist.Ramacharitamistheearliestofthemany
poeticversionsofthestoryofRamayanathathaveappearedinMalayalam.
Theworkisthusimportantfromthelinguisticaswellastheliterarypointof
view.UlloorParameswaraIyer,whowasthefirsttobringtolightlong
excerptsfromthispoem,holdstheviewthatitwaswrittenbySriVira
RamaVarmawhoruledoverTravancorefrom1195to1208.Scholarsdiffer
onwhetherthelanguageofRamacharitamrepresentstheliterarydialect
orthespokendialectofMalayalamofthatperiod.
Ramacharitamisalsotakentobethegreatestworkbelongingto
thePattuschool.Cheeraman,theauthor,ashisnameisgiveninthepoem
itself,hasadaptedtosuitaDravidiansensibility,astorywhichisunmistakably
ofAryanorigin.TheworkretellsthestoryofRamayanaandtheauthor
triestofollowValmikiinallessentialdetails.However,itwouldnotbean
exaggerationtosaythatonecouldreadtheworkasanoriginaland
independentpoeminwhichthestoryistoldwithremarkableease,maturity
andperfectcraftsmanship.Itrisesfarabovethelevelofordinaryfolkpoetry
initsliterarysophistication.Eventhestanzasofinvocationinsectionone
showgreatskillnotonlyincondensingawholeseriesofeventsinone
contextbutalsoinintoningtheemotionorbhavainaconcentratedform.
Hereisapassage,forexample.
Sodifficultitisformetonarrate
howthesonofVayuhuggedgriefforanight
seekingMaithili,thelongeyedone,
crossingthebillowyseawithperfectskill,
asthemonkeyswentaboutinalldirections
attheordersoftheirkingwhohadbecomefriends
withRama,whilehewaswanderingalongtheroute
onwhich,beforetherainymonthscame,
theRakshasachiefhaddisappearedwithSita.
ThefocusisonHanumanandthecontextisclearlyspecifiedso
thatthereferencetothenightofgriefspellsoutthecentralbhava.Italso
marksoutthepartoftheRamayanastorywhichisgoingtobenarratedin
thepresentwork.Inthe1814versesgroupedinto164sectionsthepoet

20
triestotellinadramaticstylethewarbetweenRamaandRavana.Thus,
althoughtheworkiscalledRamacharitam,itdealswithonlytheBattle
Canto(YudhaKanda)ofRamayana.TheearlierepisodesinRama'slife
aretoldbymeansofretrospectivenarration.Thescenesofbattleare
describedwithverveandvigour.Physicalprowessisfullyappreciatedby
thepoet.Somescholarshavearguedthatthispoemwascomposedinorder
toinspirethesoldiersinthedischargeoftheirduty.Butthereareother
emotionsalsoinvokedinthepoem.Bhaktiorpietyisdominantinmany
passagessincetheauthorpresentsRamaasanincarnationofVishnu.In
this,asinmanyotheraspects,itislikelythattheauthorwasinfluencedby
writerslikeKambar.Thereisnodoubtthatinthedepictionofboththe
heroicandthepatheticortragic,thepoetshowsextremedelicacyoftouch
andpropriety.HereisMandodari'slamentasRavana,herlord,lieskilledin
battle.
OKing,lyingasleeponthisbattleground
inroyalregalia,kindlyrise,
asweoftheweakersex,andI,yourbondmaid,
whousedtomakeyouutterelixirlikewords,
weep,whilespeakingbravewordstoendurethis,
sothatourlotuseyesfillwithtearsblurringthesight.
TheBeginningofProse
Thereisnoliteraryworkinprose,matchinginqualitywith
Ramacharitamofthesameperiod.Theearliestpiecesofproseinexistence
areofadocumentarynature,withnotouchofimagination.TheAttoor
copperplateofViraUdayaMarthandaVarmaofVenaddated1251is,
accordingtoUlloor,theearliestdocument,whollyinMalayalamproper.But
BhashaKautaliyam,aMalayalamtranslationofKautalya'sArthaSastra,
iscontemporaneouswithRamacharithamandillustratestheuseofprose
forimaginativepurposesaswell.Thewriterrevealsaremarkablesenseof
style.Thealternationbetweenshortandlongsentencesproducesasense
ofrhythmwithoutdestroyingthestraightforwardnessofthewriting.Here
isapassagedescribingrainfall
21
HereinaftertypesofcloudsthatraininSushamayear
aredescribed.Therearethreetypesofcloudsthatrain
continuouslyforsevendays.Thereareeightytypesofclouds
whichshowerminutedrops.Sixtyarethetypesofcloudsthat
appearbutdonorainatall.Allthesekindsofrainwillbegood
forallseedsandplants.
Manipravalam
WhilethePattuSchoolflourishedamongcertainsectionsofthe
society,theliteratureoftheelitewascomposedinthecuriousmixtureof
SanskritandMalayalamwhichisreferredtoasManipravalam,mani
meaningruby(Malayalam)andpravalammeaningcoral(Sanskrit)
Lilathilakam,aworkongrammarandrhetoric,writteninthelastquarter
ofthe14thcenturydiscussestherelationshipbetweenManipravalamand
pattuaspoeticforms.Itlaysspecialemphasisonthetypesofwordsthat
blendharmoniously.ItpointsoutthattherulesofSanskritprosodyshould
befollowedinManipravalampoetry.Thisparticularschoolofpoetrywas
patronizedbytheupperclasses,especiallytheNambudiris.Itisalsotobe
rememberedthatthecompositionofthisdialectalsoreflectsthewayAryan
andDravidianculturesweremovingtowardsasynthesis.Dramatic
performancesgiveninKoothampalams,knownbythenamesofKoothu
andKoodiyattom,oftenusedSanskritandMalayalam.InKoodiyattom,
theclown(vidooshaka)isallowedtouseMalayalamwhiletheherorecites
slokasinSanskrit.Tholan,alegendarycourtpoetintheperiodofthe
Kulasekharakings,isbelievedtohavestartedthispractice.Thelanguage
ofKramadeepikasandAttaprakarams,whichlaydowntherulesand
regulationsforthesedramaticperformances,isconsiderablyinfluencedby
thecompositeliterarydialectofManipravalam.
EarlyManipravalamWorks
TheearliestoftheseworksintheManipravalamschoolisVaisika
Tantramwritteninthe13thcentury.Itisfairlytypicaloftheworksthat
appealedtotheupperclassreadingpublicofthosedays.Itcontainsabout
200quatrainsinSanskritmetresandisintheformofprofessionaladvice
22
giventoaprostituteorcourtesanbyhermother.Theseinstructionsareofa
practicalnaturecalculatedtopleasethepamperedtastesofaleisuredclass.
Buteachquatraniscomposedwithcareanddueweightisgiventothe
rulesofrhetoric.Forinstancethemothertellsthedaughter,whoistoget
readyforthefamilyvocationasacourtesan,that"oldageisaseatobe
crossedbymeansofthewealthearnedduringone'syouth".Severalquatrains
ofthistypearequotedinLilathilakambywayofillustrationfortheseveral
rulesofgrammarandrhetoric.Anexamplemaybequotedhere.
Allbreezesarenotbreezes.Therealbreezeistheone
Thatbathesinthenearbyriver,dancesamongthegrowing
coconuttrees,
CaressestheuniquelybeautifulbodyofmistressRohini
Andcomesinkindnesstothrillmebyblowingoverme.
PerhapsthemostrepresentativeoftheseearlyManipravalamworks
arethetalesofcourtesans(AchiCharitams)andtheMessagePoems
(SandesaKavyas).
TheEarlyChampoos
ZJnniyachiCharitam,UnnichirutheviCharitamandUnniyadi
Charitamareexamplesoftheformertypewhichisknownbythename
champoo,writtenincloseimitationofthechampoosinSanskrit.ThePadya
or"verse"portionisinSanskritmetresandtheGadyaor"prose"portionis
mostlyinDravidianmetres.UnniyachiistheheroineofUnniyachi
CharitamandthepoemisconcernedwithaGandharva'sloveforher.
Thereareplentyofpassagesofornatedescriptionofeithertheheroine's
charmsorthesplendourofthetownormarketplacevisitedbyher.The
authorshipisunknown.InUnnichirutheviCharitham,itisIndra,theKing
oftheGods,whoissmittenbyapassionfortheheroineanddescendson
theearthtovisither.Inthecourseoftheelaboratedescriptionofthings
seenbyIndra,wegetpassageswhichthrowlightonthemannersand
moralsoftheupperclasssocietyofitstime.Onlyaportionoftheworkis
23
nowavailabletous.UnniyadiCharitam,whichalsoexistsinafragmented
form,issupposedtobewrittenbyDamodaraChakkiar.Againstthe
backdropofacomplicatedstoryinvolvinggenerationsofGandharvas,
thereemergesthestoryofUnniyadi,theheroine.Themoongodhappens
tohearwonderfulmusicwaftedintotheskyandsendshisatttendant
Suvakantofindoutitssource.Thepoemcontainsthedescriptionofall
thatSuvakanseesontheearth,especiallyinplaceslikeThrissur,
MahodayapuramandKayamkulam.
SandesaKavyas
ItisnaturalthatManipravalamlookedtoSanskritformodelsof
literaryworks.TheSandesaKavyasareanimportantpoeticgenreinSanskrit,
andonthemodelofKalidasa'sMeghadootandLakshmidasa's
Sukasandesa,anumberofmessagepoemscametobewrittenfirstin
ManipravalamandlaterinpureMalayalam.Thebestofthesesandesas
isperhapsUnnuneelisandesamwritteninthe14thcentury.Unnuneeliis
theheroine,andsheandherloverliveinKaduthuruthi.Onenightasthey
areasleep,afairy{Yakshi)carrieshimawayandgoessouth.Hewakesup
bythetimetheyreachThiruvananthapuramandfreeshimselffromthe
holdofthefairy.HevisitsSriPadmanabhaTempleandmeetingAditya
Varma,ajuniorprinceofKollamthere,engageshimasamessengerto
carryhisnewstohisbelovedinKaduthuruthi.Inpartone,asusual,thepoet
describestheroutetoKaduthuruthi,forthebenefitofthemessengeras
wellasthereaders.Inparttwotheactualmessageisdescribedandentrusted
tothemessenger.Thepoemisatreasurehouseofinformationrelatingto
theconditionsoflifeinKeralainthefourteenthcentury.Inaddition,it
containsseveralquatrainsofunexceptionablebeauty,bothinthoughtand
inverbalfelicity.Intwohundredandfortystanzas,withbreathtaking
eroticismandexquisiteimagery,thismessagepoemreachesthehigh
watermarkofearlyManipravalampoetry.Itcombinesextreme
sophisticationandcomplexityinitspoeticcraftwithremarkablenaturalness
andauthenticityinitsthemeandthought.
24
TheNiranamPoets
WhiletheManipravalapoetryflourishedasadiversionfromthe
mainstream,thetraditionsetupbyCheeramanofRamacharitamandthe
moreenlightenedamongtheanonymousfolkpoetswasresumedand
replenishedbythreewriterscommonlyreferredtoasNiranampoets.The
Bhaktischoolwasthusrevived,andintheplaceoftheexcessivesensuality
anderoticismoftheManipravalapoets,theseriousnessofthepoetic
vocationwasreassertedbythem.Itisbelievedthattheyallbelongedtothe
sameKannassafamilyandthatMadhavaPanikkarandSankaraPanikkar
weretheunclesofRamaPanikkar,theyoungestofthethree.Theylived
between1350and1450A.D.andmadevaluablecontributiontothePattu
school.MadhavaPanikkarwroteacondensedMalayalamtranslationof
BhagavadGita,perhapsthefirsttranslationoftheclassicintoanymodern
Indianlanguage.SankaraPanikkars'smainworkisBharatamala,amasterly
condensationofMahabharatam,isalsothefirstmajorworkofitskindin
Malayalam.ThegreatestofthethreeisofcourseRamaPanikkar,the
authorofRamayanam,Bharatam,BhagavatamandSivarathri
Mahatmyam.KannassaRamayanamandKannassaBharatamarethe
mostimportantoftheseNiranamworks.RamaPanikkar'sRamayanamis
animportantlinkbetweenCherraman'sRamacharitam,AyyappilliAsan's
RamakathapattuandEzhuthachan'sAdhyatmaRamayanam.Theybear
eloquenttestimonytothecontinuingpopularityoftheRamayanastoryin
Kerala.TogethertheyconstitutethestrongbulwarkoftheBhaktimovement
whichenabletheMalayalistowithstandandresisttheonslaughtofforeign
cultures.TheDravidianizationofAryanmythologyandphilosophywastheir
jointachievement,cominginthewakeoftheheroiceffortofSankaracharya,
whowroteonlyinSanskrit.ThecentralnativetraditionofMalayalampoetry
hasitsmostsignificantwatershedintheworksoftheNiranampoets.Their
successledtothegradualreplacementoftheManipravalacultof
worldlinessandsensualrevelrybyanindigenouspoeticsofhighseriousness.
OnestepforwardfromtheNiranampoetswilltakeastoCherusseriand
hisKrishnagatha,twostepstogetherwilllandusinthecompanyofKerala's
greatestpoetThunchathuEzhuthachan.ThecentralityofNiranamRama
Panikkarisofvitalconcerntoanyconscientiousliteraryhistorianof
25
Malayalam.Thesubordinationofthedescriptiveandthenarrativeelements
tothecontrollingthemeisafeatureofRamaPanikkar'spoeticstyle.The
killingofThatakaintheBalakandaofKaunassaRamayanamisdisposed
ofinoneversewhichhelpstopreservethedramatictensionoftheaction.
Cameshelikeagiganticbluecloud,
shoutingwithfrighteningfury,
Wearinggarlandsofblooddrippingintestines
beatinghercrescentwhitetusks,
Buttheleaderofmankindwokeuptoanger
andsmashinghermagicwitchcraft
Witharrowsshot,salutedtherishi
andkilledherathiscommand.
Lakshmana'sfuriousthreattoTarawhenSugrivafailedtoexpedite
thequestforSitaisanothereloquentexample.
Tara,yourhusbanddoesnotconsider
whatisgoodandwhatisbadwithoutdelay
Hehadsaid,withtheapproachofsummer
hewouldsearchforDeviwithoutfail.
Wewaitedsolonguponthatword
andthenhehasforgottenallthat
Blindandstupidwithdrunkenness,
knowingneitherdayornight.
UlloorhassaidthatRamaPanikkarholdsthesamepositionin
MalayalamliteraturethatSpenserhasinEnglishliterature.Hiscommand
overcomplexrhythms,hisattentiontosensuous,concretedetails,hispower
ofphrasingandperfectcontrolovermythologicalmaterialseemtolend
supporttothisview.
TheLaterChampoos
The15thcenturyA.D.sawtwoparalleledmovementsin
Malayalamliterature:onespearheadedbytheManipravalaworks
26
especiallytheChampoos,mixingverseandprose,andcontinuingthetrend
oftheearlierChampoosatleastinpart,andtheotheremanatingfromthe
pattuschoolandadumbratedinCherusseri'smagnumopus,the
Krishnagatha(SongofKrishna).AstheelitistManipravalaChampoo
schoolisgoingtodisappearlaterinthenextcentury,itmaybediscussed
first.ThelanguageofthelaterChampoosreadsmorelikemodernMalayalam
thanthatoftheearlierChampoosandSandesakavyas.Perhaps,itcan
alsobesaidthatthereisanimprovementinpoeticqualityandcraftsmanship
too.ThegreatestManipravalaChampoosofthe15thcenturyisPunam
Nambudiri'sRamayanam,acloserivaltoMahishamangalam'softhe17th
century.ItisbelievedthatPunamwasresponsibleforusingPuranicthemes
andepisodesinChampoosforthefirsttime,unlikethe14thcentury
Champooswhichweretalesofthecourtesans.
ThelaterChampooscametobeusedfordramaticoralnarration
byperformingartistsintheirKoothuandPatakam.Theirdiction,liketheir
themes,seemstobemorerefinedthanthatoftheearlierChampoos,
showingaselfconsciouseffortonthepartoftheirauthors.Ramayanam
Champooconsistsof20Prabandhasviz.,Ravana'sbirth,Rama's
incarnation,thekillingofThataka,thedeliveranceofAhalya,themarriage
ofSita,thetriumphoverParasurama,thefoiledcoronation,thekillingof
Khara,thetreatywithSugriva,thekillingofBali,theentryintothegarden,
thesceneofthering,theentryintoLanka,thekillingofRavana,theordeal
byfire,theentryintoAyodhya,thecoronation,therepudiationofSita,The
AswamedhaandtheSwargarohana.
ArecurringfeatureofsomeoftheseChampoosisthatseveral
passagesarecommontomanyofthem.Itwouldappearasthoughthe
performingartists,theChakyarsortheNambiars,appropriatedpassages
fromotherChampoosandintroducedthemintoanygivenChampoochosen
forpresentation.AremarkablefeatureofRamayanamChampooisthe
senseofhumourthatsparklesinmanypassages.Punamalsowrotea
BharatamChampoo.Therearealsomanyothers,theauthorshipofwhich
isascribedtohim.
27
Mahishamangalam(orMazhamangalam)NarayananNambudiriis
theauthorofsomeofthebestChampoosofalltime.Themostwidely
knownoftheseisNaishadhamfollowedbyRajaratnavaliyamandKodia
Viraham.LikePunam,Mahishamangalamalsorevelsinhumour.Thisaspect
oftheworkmusthaveespeciallyappealedtotheperformingartistswho
usedthetextforpublicperformance.Itmaybethissenseofthecomicthat
eventuallypercolatedintotheThullalpoemsofKunchanNambiar,centuries
later.
Chandrotsavam
Chandrotsavam,alongnarrativepoemwritteninManipravala
onthemodeloftheKavyasinSanskrit,shouldalsobementionedhere.The
authorshipisunknown.Ashyintrusionofromanticsensibilitymaybedetected
inpartsofthispoem.Therearealsolineswhichseemtostrikeanironic
note.Somescholarsconsideritaworkofsatire.Hyperboliewasaregular
featureofChampooliterature,buttoourtastetoday,itmightlooklike
consciousexaggerationtoprovokeridiculeandlaughter.
ThestoryofManipravalapoetrywillremainincomplete,unless
theMuktakasorsinglequatrainsarealsotouchedupon.Someofthemare
exquisitewordpictures.Somehavealyricalperfectionrarelyequalledby
laterlyricists.
Cherusseri'sKrishnagatha
IftheChampoosrepresentstheaesthetictastesofthescholarly
andsophisticatedreadership,theaveragereaderswithoutmuchgrounding
inSanskrithadtheirfavouritepoemsandpoetsinthesocalledPattuschool.
ThefolkpoemsaswellasRamacharitamandNiranamworkshelpedto
preservetheproletariantastes.ThepoeticsofthePattuschoolfindafurther
confirmationinthecelebratedandpopularSongofKrishna(Krishnagatha)
byCherusseriNambudiri.WiththewritingofKrishnagatha,thevalidityof
theuseofspokenMalayalamforliterarypurposesreceivesitsultimate
28
justification.UnlikethelanguageofRamacharitamandtheworksofthe
Niranampoets,thelanguageofKrishnagathamarkstheculminationofa
stageofevolution.Cherusseriexcelsbythesimplicityandlimpidnessofhis
dictionandimagery.KrishnagathaisanepicinMalayalamwrittenina
popularDravidianmetrewhichhasevolvedfromafolkmetre.Itdoesnot
havethetightnessandcharacteristicsofeitherRamacharitamorKannassa
Ramayanam.Therearealsolocaltouchesinanabundantmeasure.
Sweetnessandlight,ratherthanvigourorhighseriousness,isCherusseri's
forte.Itarisespartlyfromhislocalizingdevices.Thereisalsoanentrancing
freshnessabouthisdescriptionofdomesticlife.Thenaturalnessandease
ofhisflowinglinesalsoaccountsforCherusseri'spopularity.

CherusseribelongedtoKolathunadinnorthernKerala.The
consensusamongscholarsisthathelivedandwroteinthe15thcentury
A.D.Thereissomedisputeabouttheauthor'snameandhisidentity.Some
scholarsareofopinionthathewasthesameasthePunamNambudiriof
theChampoos.ThedifferencebetweenthestyleofKrishnagathaandthat
ofanyoftheChampoosshouldpointtotheimpossibilityofthisidentification.
Evenacasualreadingoftheworkwillconvinceoneoftheuniquenessofits
style.Laterpoetshavelearnedalotfromhim,butnoonecansuccessfully
imitatehim.ThedistinctiveCherusseristampisdeeplymarkedonevery
lineofhispoem.Hisuseoffiguresofspeech,hispleasantdictionandhis
masteryoverthemetricalstructure(especiallythepauseandthecaesura)
areborneoutbyalmostanypartofthepoem.Hereisanexample,a
descriptionofPoothana'sarrivalinAmpadiwiththeintentionofcausing
babyKrishna'sdeaththroughmilkpoisoning.
Asshesawtheplacefromadistance
Shewentcloseandshylysneakedin
Evenasthepythonstealthilygoes
Closetotheperchofthekingofbirds.
Shestoodthereforawhile
Watchingthedarling'scharmingface,
Asthoughshewaitedinimpatience
Whythelordofdeathhadnotcome.
29
Shewentforwardandstoodtouching
Thatflowersoftbody,softerthantenderleaves,
Asiftouchingrealfire
Takingitforajewel.

Thenshepickedupthedarlingchild
Liketakingaserpentforarope.
Inthisstringofsimilesthepoetshowsbothinsightandwitthe
figuresanticipateherfuturecourse.Hereisaneloquentpictureofthepitiful
positioninwhichsheputsherselfunknowingly.Bhakthi,Vatsalyam(love
ofchildrenetc.)Karuna,Sringarathesearethedominentmoodsin
Cherusseri'spoetry.
TheGrowthofProse
Theevolutionofproseliteratureintheearlycenturieswasavery
slowprocess.InthewakeofBhashakautaliyamseveraltranslationsbegan
toappearinthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturies.Theproseof
AttaprakaramswasmeanttoaidtheChakiyarsinlearningtheartof
Koodiyattom,Doothavakyam(14thcenturyA.D.)isoneoftheearliestof
thesefreerenderingswhichrevealsakindofstylethatissuitedforelaborate
oralnarration.Thelong,rolling,sonoroussentencesareinterspersedwith
piecesofdialoguewhichcontainspokenforms.FifteenthcenturyMalayalam
proseisrepresentedbyBrahmandaPuranam,asummaryoftheoriginal
inSanskrit.TheprosehereismorefreefromSanskritinfluencethanin
Doothavakyam.Thesyntaxislesscumbersomeandtheunitsarepresented
inthesequentialorderwithoutresortingtospecificcoordinationorsub
ordination.Thereare,however,numerousTamilandSanskritexpressions
scatteredhereandthere.Thesegiveastylizedeffecttotheprose.Alarge
numberofproseworksappearedduringthisperiod,mostofwhichare
eithernarrativebasedonpuranasandreligiousworksinSanskritor
commentariesonsimilarworks.Withthestartingofthefirstprintingpresses
intheSixteenthcenturybyChristianmissionaries,proseliteraturereceived
agreatboost.
30
ThunchathuEzhuthachan

Malayalamliteraturepassedthoughatremendousprocessof
developmentinthe15thand16thcenturies.Cherusseri'sKrishnagatha
borewitnesstotheevolutionofmodernMalayalamlanguageasaproper
mediumforseriouspoeticcommunication.Alongsidethis,thereflourished
numerousSanskritpoetswhowereveryactiveduringthisperiod.The
greatestofthemwasMelpathurNarayanaBhattathiri,theauthorof
Narayaneeyam.TheManipravalapoetswerenolessactive,asisshown
byaseriesofChampoosandKavyasandsinglequatrainsproducedinthe
period,thegreatestmonumentofwhichisperhapstheNaishadham
Champoo.Butthemostsignificantdevelopmentofthetimetookplacein
thefieldofMalayalampoetry.
ThunchathuEzhuthachan,thegreatestMalayalampoetofalltime,
wrotehistwogreatepicsAdhyatmaRamayanamandSrimahabharatam
andtwoshorterpieces,IrupathinaluVrittamandHarinamaKirtanam
andtherebyrevolutionizedMalayalamlanguageandliteratureatonce.He
isrightlyregardedasthemakerofmodernMalayalamandthefatherof
Malayalampoetry.ThestudyofMalayalamshouldproperlybeginwiththe
acquisitionoftheskilltoreadEzhuthachan'sRamayanamwithfluency.It
wasinhisworksthattheSanskritandDravidianstreamsinourlanguageas
wellasliteratureachievedapropersynthesis.
TheevolutionofmodernMalayalambecomescompletewithhis
judiciousfusionofthedisparateelements.Inhisdictionthereisnoviolation
ofeuphony.Ezhuthachan'smindandearwenttogetherintheselections
andorderingofphonologicalandmorophologicalunits.TheKilippattuform
headoptedinRamayanamandBharatammaybeapointertohisrecognition
oftheimportanceofsoundeffectinpoetry.Itenabledhimtocombine
fluencywithelegance,spontaneitywithcomplexity,naturalnesswithdepth
ofmeaningandsimplicitywithhighseriousness.Hischoiceofclassical
DravidianmetresinpreferencetoboththeclassicalAryanmetresandthe
Dravidianbasedfolkmetresrevealshisconcernforstrikingabalancein
mostofhisendeavours.EzhuthachanisthegreatestspokesmanoftheBhakti
31
movementinMalayalambutheismorethanawriterofdevotionalhymns.
Itispossibletothinkofhimprimarilyasapoetimbuedwithasenseof
mission,butnotwillingtofritterawayhisenergiesonnegativeprojectslike
castigatinganysectionorcommunity.
EzhuthachanisthegreatestsynthesizerKeralahaseverseen.A
nonBrahminhimself,whostudiedtheVedasandUpanishadswithoutprior
priestlysanction,hewasyetdevotedtotherealBrahminsandalways
revealedasublimesenseofhumility.Criticshavesometimes,intheir
overenthusiasmandadmirationforthepoet,pointedoutthatwheneverhe
hastomentionRamaorKrishna,hegoesintorapturesandproducesa
stringoftheLord'snames.Ifthisisshownasaninabilityonthepartofthe
poettodecidewhatisproperandwhatisimproperinagivensituation,it
wouldonlymeandenigratingEzhuthachanasapoet.Ezhuthachanisa
masterofauchityaorthequalityofdecoruminwriting.Itcouldeasilybe
seenthattheintrusionofhispersonalbhaktiisnotattheexpenseofaesthetic
propriety.TheveryfactthathechoseAdhyatmaRamayanaandnotValmiki
Ramayanaashismodel,showsthatdevotionaleffusionsareautomatically
justifiedinhistellingofthestoryofRama.BhaktibecomestheSthayibhava
anditwouldhavebeenimproperifhenarratedthestorymerelyasan
accountofeventswithoutanytranscendentalsignificance.
ThatEzhuthachanisnotameretranslatorisgrantedbyallcritics
andscholars.InfacthefollowstheearlierKeralawritersinfreelyelaborating
orcondensingtheoriginalashethinksproper.Thecelebrationofthisfreedom
gainedinpoeticcreationiswhatenlivensandennoblesthehymnsinterspersed
inhisworks.Thereseemstobeanothersuperstitionamongsomecritics
thathisBharatamismorepoeticthanRamayanam.Thisagainarisesfrom
themisconceptionthatdevotionisananachronisminpoetry.InEzhuthachan's
timetherewasnodissociationofreligioussensibilityanddevotionand
spiritualitycouldalwaysgotogether.HisBharatamisalaterwork,amore
matureworkbutitsartisticgreatnessdoesnotdependontheexclusionof
bhaktiinit.AsamatteroffacthisBharatamisasmuchimbuedwith
religiousdevotionashisRamayanam.Thedifferencesareperfectly
consistentwiththechangeofsubjectmatterandtheperiodofcomposition.
32
ThebhaktivadicriticswhopraiseRamayanampurelyasadevotionalwork
areunconsciouslybelittlingEzhuthachan.Hisgreatnessasapoetconsists
intheappropriatenessoftheformhechoseandthelanguageheusedfor
whathewantedtopresenttothepeopleofhistimeaswellasoflatertimes.
ThetransitionfromCherrusseritoEzhuthachanmarksthetriumph
ofmodernismovermedievalism.Thisisverymuchinevidenceinthe
selfrestraintwithwhichEzhuthachanresortstotheuseoffiguresofspeech.
ThereisanurbanityandrefinementinhisportrayalofRavanaand
Duryodhana.Hewasabletoachievetheperfectintegrationoftheliterary
andthespiritualonewasnotsacrificedforthesakeoftheother,forhe
knew,thatwouldspoilboth.ThisliberalismenabledEzhuthachantoexcel
hispredecessorsinthepresentationofthedifferentrasasandbhavas.
Somepassageswillillustratethiswonderfulversatility.HereisGandhari's
lamentonthebattlefieldofKurukshetra.
"Mychild,myson,Duryodhana!
Whyhaveyouthrownaway
Yourgoldencrownandjewels
AndthepompandprideofthekingoftheGods
Andalltheshowofsplendourandprowess
Thusdesertingmeandyourdearfather
Allsosuddenly?Myheartbreaksatthissight.
Areyou,whousedtoletinasilkenbed,
Nowlyinglifelessinapoolofblood?
Marutiingreatangerhassmashed
Yourlegandkilledyouthus
Icannotbeartoseethis,alas!"
SoGandhariranandfellandrolledaround
Thenfaintedandwokeupandagain
Criedingreatgriefandbegantosay...
HeismosteloquentwhenhecomestopraiseRamaorKrishna.
ThevisualpowerofthefollowingdescriptionofKrishnainthethickofthe
battleisindeedmarvellous.
33
Thecolourfulpeacockfeathersfixedinarow
Andbroughttogetherandtieduponthetop
Withtheheavytressessolikedarkclouds,
Thejewelleddiademwithitsglitterandglow,
Thedanglinglittlecurlsontheforehead,
Thetinyparticlesofdustonthem,
Thetilaktoomoistwithsweat,
Thebeautyofthebrowsthatkeepmoving
Tocreate,protectanddestroytheworld,
Theeyesthatreflectthechangingsentiments
Withpityandcompassionforthelowlyand
Angertowardsthecruelandthewily,
Loveforthelovely,wonderatthesquabble,
Laughterforthestupid,terrorforthefoes,
Thecheeksthatreflectthejewelledearrings,
Thelotusface,thenosewithbeadsofsweat,
Theglowingsmileandthelovelylips,
Garlandsswayingonthebreast
Madeoftulsiandlotusandtenderleaves,
StringsofrubiesandKaustubhajewel
Aroundtheneck,thewhipinhand
Thebreastsmearedwithkumkum,
Thebrightyellowclothes,theanklets,
Thetwinlotusfeet,asinmyheart,
SosawIclearlyinthechariottomyjoy.
ThechoiceofthemetresineachofthesixcantosofAdhyatma
RamayanamisitselfanunmistakableindicationofEzhuthachan'snative
senseoftheculturalmooringsofhispeople.KekaforBalakandam,Kakali
forAyodhya,KekaagainforAranyafollowedbyKakaliforKishkindha,
withasuddenchangeovertoKalakanchiinSundarakandaandreturnto
KakalifortheYudhakanda.Thechangesinthetempoareclearlymarked
inthesevariations.Thepurelynarrativeportionshaveanevenflowwhich
isneverallowedtodrag.Theslowmotionunfoldingofbeautyatclose
34
quartersisoftenrenderedinappropriatemetricalpatternasintheleisurely
descriptionofthechildhoodofRamaandhisthreebrothers.Hanuman's
leaptoLankaandhisdangerouspranksthere,arerenderedinpassages
markedbyaquickertempo.TheintimacyonefeelsinreadingEzhuthachan
isaccountedforbytheefficienthandlingofthelinguisticresources.
Withhisabsolutesincerity,hisadeptskillintheuseoflanguage,his
totaldedicationtopoetryandreligion,hisdisarminghumility,Ezhuthachan
wasabletocreateandestablishonceandforallalanguage,aliterature,a
cultureandapeople.Inlatertimes,whenevertherewasadeviationor
distortionintheculturaltrend,thereturntothecentralnativetraditionwas
facilitatedbyatruerecognitionandfreshrealizationofwhatEzhuthachan
haddoneandhadstoodfor.Heisthusamagnificentsymboloragreat
culturalmonument.
PoonthanamNambudiri
ItthereeverwasanotherwriterwhocouldbeEzhuthachan'sequal
inbhakti,ifnotinpoeticpower,itwasPoonthanamNambudiri,a
contemporaryofMelpathurBhattathiriandpossiblyofEzhuthachanhimself.
HischiefpoemsinMalayalamareBhashaKarnamritam,Kumaraharanam
orSantanagopalamPanaandJnanappana.Thefirstoftheseisa
devotionalworkintendedtocreateKrishnabhaktiinthereaders.The
secondisatouchingnarrativeinverysimpleandstraightforwardlanguage
andfastmovingverse.IttellsthestoryofaBrahminfatherwholostallhis
childrenandsoughtthehelpofthePandavaprinceArjuna.Arjunaproudly
offeredtohelphimpreservehisnextchildalive,buthewasunabletokeep
hisword.TheBrahminabusesArjunatohisgreatanguishandinhiswounded
pridehedecidestocommitsuicidebyleapingintoflames.Krishnaoutof
loveforArjuna,intervenesatthelastmomentandtakeshimtoVaikunta
fromwheretheyrecoverallthelostchildrenoftheBrahmin.Krishna's
infiniteloveforhisdevoteesisthusthecentraltheme,butthepoemalso
makesitsappealbecauseofitsdowntoearthrealismandunmistakable
touchofauthenticity.
35
JnanappanaortheSongofDivineWisdomisaveritablestorehouse
oftranscendentalknowledgewhichisfirmlyrootedintheexperiencesof
thisworld.Inalanguage,absolutelyfreefromregionalismanddialectal
influences,unadornedwithexcessiverhetoricalfeatures,throughaseriesof
concretepicturestakenfromcontemporarylife,thepoetisabletodrivehome
hisperceptionoftheshortlivednatureoftheephemeralaspectsoflife.His
religiousmeditationsflowunclutteredandunencumberedwithirrelevantmatter.
IstherescarcityoftheLord'sname?
Orhasfearofhelldeclined?
Istherelifewithoutuseoftongues?
Haveweescapedfrommortality?
Alas,alas,withoutreflection
Weroastandeatourlifeinvain.
Afterhowmanylifetimesoflabour
Wehappenedtobebornherebyluck!
Howmanylifetimesspentinwater,
Howmanylifetimeslivedliketrees,
Howmanylifetimesasbeasts,ascattle
Erewecouldbebornasmen?
Aftersomuchhardlabour
Wefellintoourmother'swomb,
Tenmonthshavebeenspentinthewomb,
Tenortwelveyearsspentasachildtoo
Andtherestofthetimenotknowingourselves
Wespentinselfcentredvainglory.
Alargenumberofhymnsandprayersongswhicharestillpopular
havebeenattributedtoPoonthanam.
ThePerformingArts
Thesixteenthcenturyalsosawthewritingofsomedramaticworks
inManipravalamandpureMalayalam,Bharatavakyam,oftendescribed
asachoralnarration,isaworkinManipravalamwhichwasusedforstage
performance.Theauthorshipisuncertain,buttheworkseemstohavebeen
36
stagedseveraltimes.Itisacomedywithalargedoseoffarceinit.Itmay
beregardedasthefirstroopakaminwhichMalayalamiscombinedwith
Sanskrittopresentinavisualform,astorybasedonKeralasociety,centring
roundafewcharacterssuchasaNambudiri(Apphan).hisNayarwife,his
manager(Ilayathu)andthechildren'stutor(Pisharoti).
Margamkaliwastheformofritualandentertainmentamongthe
SyrianChristianscorrespondingtotheSanghakalioftheBrahmins.
Margamkalippattuisthesongforthisperformancedepictingthestoryof
St.Thomas,theApostle.ThiswasoneofthenumerouspiecesofChristian
literaturethatmusthavegainedcurrencyinthe16thand17thcenturies.
Attakkatha
ThemaindevelopmentintheculturalfieldinKeralainthe17th
centurywasthegrowthofanewformofvisualartcalledAttamor
Kathakali,whichbroughtintobeinganewgenreofpoetrycalledAttakkatha
consistingofthelibrettousedforaKathakaliperformance.Gitagovinda,
aworkinSanskritbytheOriyapoetofthe12thcentury,Jayadevaprovided
inspirationtoManavedaRajaofKozhikodetosetupatroupetoperforma
dancedramadepictingthelifeofKrishnaineightparts.ThisKrisnanattam
wasthemodelbeforetheprinceofKottarakkarawhoinventedRamanattom
toputonstagethestoryofRamayanaalsoineightparts.Koodiyattom
wasclassicalSanskritdramapatronizedbytheeliteclass,Padayanior
Kolamthullalwaspopularamongthelowerclasses.Inbetweenthere
flourishedvariousformsofritualisticdramalikeMudiyettu,Thiyyattu,
KalamEzhuthuPattu,TeyyamandThira.Thenewartdevelopedby
KottarakkaraTampuranappearedtocombinethefeaturesofboth.The
evolutionofKathakalimusthavebeenaslowprocessanddidnotreacha
finalstageinthetimeofKottarakkaraTampuran.TheliteratureofKathakali
alsocametodevelopitsspecialfeaturesoverthecenturies.
TheRamayanaplaysofKottarakkaraTampuranarenot
distinguishedbyliteraryexcellence.However,hisfarsightednessisclearly
revealedinthestructurehesetupforthisnewgenre.Thenarrative
37
frameworkofanattakathaconsistsofquatrainsinSanskritmetreswhere
thedictionalsoisheavilySanskritised,thedialoguepart,however,ismade
upofpadaswhichcanbesettoragaandtalaandhavetoberenderedby
meansofgesturesandbodymovementsbytheactorswhilebeingsungby
themusiciansfrombehind.Thetwopartstructureisperhapsmodelledon
theChampoos.TojudgeanAttakathasolelyonthebasisofliterarycriteria
wouldbeunjust.Itisacompositeartandthewordsofthetextareonlya
pretextforthevisualrepresentation.Eventheselectionandarrangement
ofwordsandlineswillbeguidedbyconsiderationsofstageproduction.The
wordsmustyieldtorepresentationthroughgestures,theymustlend
themselvestomusicalrenderingandifpossiblerespondinsympathytothe
instrumentalmusicthataccompaniestheirrecitation.Thestoriesareusually
wellknowntotheaudience,beingmostlytakenfromthePuranas.The
successoftheperformancedependsonthedegreeofsynchronization
achievedbytheactors,vocalists,instrumentalistsandotherhelpers.The
styleofproductionhasadefinitebearingontheliteratureofKathakali.
Kottarakara'sattakkathasarebetteronthestagethaninthelibrary,a
silentreadingmayevenirritatethereader.However,therearepassagesin
someoftheseplays,whichcouldbeappreciatedasliterature,ifonecould
simultaneouslyvisualizethegesturalrenderingalso.ThelastwordsofBali
toRamainBalivadham,afterthemonkeykingismortallywoundedin
battle,arequitepowerful.
KingRaghava,pleaselistentomywords
Findingitdifficulttokillmeinastraightfight
Youhadtohideyourselfandcheatme.
Thatisnogood.Ifyoumetmestraight
Iwouldhavekilledyou,braveone!erenow.
InmyheartIthinkyouwerebornamiss
AlthoughyouarethesonofgoodDasaratha.
Bravepeopledonotresorttocheating
Youdidthistomebecauseyouareaverysmallman.
Tarahadwarnedme,butrejectingherwarning
Icameheretofightandgotkilledbyyou.
Isamonkey'sflesheatable?
38
Theskin,too,isuseless,,jewelamongmen!
Iwholiveintheforestneverdid
Anythinguntowardinyourcity.
ThismaysoundconventionaloutsidethecontextofaKathakali,
buttheconverntionalitymaynotbefeltwhenactionaccompaniesthewords.
NeverthelessithastobeconcededthatKottarakaraTampuranwasmore
ofadramatistthanapoet,moreofaconnoisseurthananartist.
KottayamTampuran
ThegreatestfilliptothegrowthofAttakkathaasaliteraryform
andKathakaliasaperformingartcamefromKotttayamTampuran,a
princeintheroyalfamilyofNorthernKottayamwhoisbelievedtohave
livedinthelate17thcentury.HismainAttakkathasareBakavadham,
KalyanaSaunghandhikam,KirmiravadhamandKalakeyavadham.Their
successledtothephenomenalpopularityofthisformofliterarycomposition.
KottayamwasamoregiftedpoetandscholarthanKottarakara,andinhis
handsAttakkathaattainedapositionofrespectability.Hisquartrainsare
invariablyinSanskrit,butthepadasareinMalayalam.Severalofhispadas
areextremelypopularnotonlywiththeKathakaliaudiencebutevenwith
thegeneralpublic.Theyarealsogoodaspoetry.Thedialoguebetween
HanumanandBhimainKalyanaSaugandhikamortheonebetween
UrvasiandArjunainKalakeyavadhamwillbearoutthispoint:
Hanuman(pretendingtobeanoldmonkey,notrevealinghisidentity
asBhima'selderbrother):
Whoisitthathascometomyside,
Tellme,braveone,whoisit?
ToooldandtiredamI
HowcanIreceiveyouproperly?
Iamtoolazyalso,OgreatKing.
Togreetyouandspeaktoyouproperly.
39
Bhima(notknowingthattheoldmonkeyishiselderbrother
HanumanwhoisgoingtotestBhimaplayfully).
Whoisthisfool,tellme,wickedfellow,
Getawayfrommypath.
Haveyounot,oldmonkey,heardofme
Thebravesonofthewindgod.
Whydoyou,fornoreason,blockmypath?
Iwillkillyou,nodoubt,and
Sendyoutothegodofdeath.
Hanuman:OKing,pleasedonotbeangry,
Pleasebekind,Osupremeamongmen
Kindheartedone,equaltothelordofthesea!
Bhima:KnowyouthatIamthebrotherofMaruti
Whosmashedwithhishandatonce
Aksha,sonoftheRakshasaChief(Ravana)
Hanuman:Youmayremovemytailandclearthepath
Andthenyoumayproceedsoon,Olotuseyedone!
Bhima:Thenyouwillseemypowers
Inthebattlefield,nodoubt,today,
Youwillbeputtogriefquitesoon,
Ifyouarebraveandfightagainstme.
ThedramaticironyanticipatingboastfulBhima'scollapsemakes
thepassagereallyinteresting.
UnnayiWarrier
Theendofthe17thcenturyandtheearlyquarterofthe18thcentury
sawtheenrichmentofKathakaliliteraturebytheproductionofUnnayi
Warner'sNalacharitaminfourparts,thegreatestattakkathaofalltime.
UnnayiWarrierwasapoetofexceptionalskill.Hissenseofdrama,command
40
overlanguage,knowledgeofdanceandmusicandinsightintohuman
psychologyenabledhimtopresentthestoryofNalaandDamayanthiina
compactform,observingauchityatothemaximumextentpossible.He
alsostickstotheconceptofadominantrasasupportedbyotherdependent
rasas.Thedramaticunravellingoftheupsanddownsinthecareerofa
noblekingandhisbelovedconsortismagnificentlyachievedbyWarrier.
Varietyinsituationandcharacterizationareprovidedbytheintroductionof
characterslikeKali,Pushkara,Rituparna,Karkotaka,Kattalaandeventhe
Hamsam(Swan).Evenminorcharactersarepresentedasfulfledgedhuman
beings.NalacharithamisthehighwatermarkofKathakaliliteraturemainly
becauseofitsprofoundhumaninterest.Thecentralplotisconcernedwith
thefallofanobleandgoodmanbroughtaboutbyhisaccidentalinvolvement
inagameofdiceandbytheinterventionofevilforceslikeKali.Heis
rescuedattheend,byhissteadfastnessandadherencetomoralvalues.
TheheroineisunconsciouslyresponsibleforthejealousyofKali,butatthe
enditishergoodnessandherintelligencethatcometotheking'said.King
Nalaandhisqueen,Damayanti,havebecomeimmortalcharactersillustrating
throughtheirsufferingsthevicissitudesofhumanfortunes.
AmongthemanyspecialfeaturesofNalacharitam,isthehappy
blendingofpoetry,abhinaya(acting)andnritya(dance).Oneofthemost
felicitouspassagesfromthispointofviewisthescenebetweenDamayanti
andtheSwanmessenger.TheclevernessoftheSwanindrawingDamayanti
awayfromhermaidsissuperbdramaticmaterial.Hefollowsitupwithan
equallycleverwayofrevealinghisidentitytoher.Oncehercuriosityis
aroused,itiseasyfortheSwantofindouthowmuchsheisinterestedin
Nala.WithhisencouraNishadhaKundinamtotakethegoodnewstoKing
Nala.Inthethirdday'splaywehaveatouchingsoliloquyspokenbyNala,
nowseparatedfromhiswife,sleeplessinhisgrief,inthesaddestmoment
ofhislife:
Inthelonelyvastforest,alas,
Omoonfacedone,whatdoyoudo,wakingupinpain?
Who(isthere)butthewolfforhelp?or,
Haveyoureachedhome,timidone?
41
WhencanIseeyourmoonbrightface?
Whenembraceyourbodycovetedbythegods?
Beloved,whatdidyougettherewhenyouwerehungry,
AsIlayinstuporbornofillusion?
OGod!myblessedone,Icannotbeartothinkofyou
Oparrottonguedone,andthewildforestfullof
howlingJackals.
UnnayiWarrierseemstohavebeeninfluencedbythepatternof
classicaldramainSanskrit.Thishashelpedhimtotightenthestructure
insteadofleavingittobelooselyheldtogetherasinmostattakkathas.The
introductionofNaradaasakindofcelestialSutradharatocontrolanddirect
thecourseoftheplayprovidesameaningfulframeworktothewhole
structure.Hispoeticgifthasencouragedhimtotakefreedomintheuseof
language.Withthesameboldnesshehaskeptoutasfaraspossiblethe
merelyconventionalpassages,oftenfoundinattakkathasbutirrelevantto
plotandcharacter.Nalacharitamhasanorganicunityrarelyfoundin
attakkathas.Ofallthewritersofattakkathas,UnnayiWarrieraloneseems
tohavehadthetotalityofhisworkinperspectivemostoftheothers
concentratedonthedetailsandforgotaboutthewhole.Hewasalsomore
seriousmindedthantheotherssincethereisabasicallymoraloutlook
controllingandunderscoringthedestiniesofthecharacterspresentedby
him.Hemusthavemeditateddeeplyonthepresenceofevilintheworld
andhastriedtoaccountforitinthecourseofhiswork.
PrincesandPoets
TheGoldenAgeofKathakalisawtwopoetsintheroyalfamily.
KartikaTirunalRamaVarmaMaharaja(17241798)wasascholarinmany
languagesandagreatpatronoflearningandthefinearts.HisSanskrit
work,Balaramabharatamisuniqueinthatittriestocodifyhisownideas
ofdance,musicanddrama.Hismaincontributionstoliteratureareseven
attakkathas:Rajasooyam,Subhadraharanam,Bakavadham,Gandharva
Vijayam,PanchaliSwayamvaram,KalyanaSougandhikamand
42
NarakasuravadhomPartI.AnexpertinNatyaSastraandapatronof
Kathakali,KartikaTirunalisperhapsthegreatestofourrulerauthors.
KartikaTirunal'snephewAswatiTirunalIlayaTampuran(1756
1794)ischieflyrememberedforhisfiveattakkathas:Narakasuravadham
PartII,RugminiSwayamwaram,PootanaMoksham,Ambarisha
CharitamandPoundrakaVadham.AswatiTirunalwasgiftedwithgenuine
poetictalent.SomeofthepadasinPootanaMokshamlike"noteventhe
kingofserpentscandescribethegloryofAmpady":haveadelicate
workmanshipaboutthem.Itisapitythatthispoetdiedattheearlyageof
thirtyeight.

RamapurathuWarrier(17031753)
InthecourtofMaharajaMartandaVarma,themakeroftheformer
StateofTravancoreandhissuccessorKartikaTirunalRamaVarma,there
flourishedanumberofpoetsdistinguishedinseveralways.Ramapurathu
Warrier,theauthorofKuchelaVrittomVanchippattu,wasoneofthem.
TheVanchippattuorBoatsongisapoeticformoffolkorigin.Kuchela
Vrittamisthemostfamousboatsonginthelanguage.Composedentirelyin
theDravidianmetrenathonnata,itisapopularclassicthatretellsthestory
ofkuchela,theindigentdevoteeandonetimeclassmateofSriKrishna,
goingtoDwarakatopayhomagetohim.ThepovertyoftheoldBrahmin
andhisfamilyisdescribedwithextremeauthenticity.Therealistictouch
shownbythepoetinpresentingthisPuranicstorywithapersonaledgetoit
hasgainedimmensepopularityforthework.Inthepoem,thepoetspecifically
referstoKingMartandaVarmaanddescribesthecircumstancesunder
whichhecametowritethepoem.WarriermakesKuchela'swifedeclare,
"thereisnogreaterafflictionthanthatofpoverty".ThemeetingofKuchela
withKrishnaisdescribedinmemorablelanguage.
BecauseofeitherthejoyofseeingtheBrahmin
Orthegriefatthethoughtofhismisery
Shouri'seyesfilledwithtears,whateverbethecause
Hasthebravelotuseyedoneeverweptatall?
WarrierhasalsotranslatedGitagovindaintoMalayalam.
43
KunchanNambiar(17051770)
BeforehecametothecourtatThiruvananthapuram,Kunchan
NambiarhadspenthisearlychildhoodatKillikurissimangalam,hisboyhood
atKudamaloorandhisyouthatAmbalapuzha.In1748,hemovedto
Thiruvananthapuram,firstatthecourtofMartandavarmaandlateratthe
courtofKartikaTirunalRamaVarma.Hehadalreadywrittenseveralof
hisworksbeforeleavingAmbalapuzha.ThechiefcontributionofNambiar
istheinventionandpopularizationofanewperformingartknownasTullal.
Thewordliterallymeans"dance",butunderthisnameNambiardeviseda
newstyleofversenarrationwithalittlebackgroundmusicanddancelike
swingingmovementtoweanthepeopleawayfromChakkiyarKoothu,
whichwastheformpopulartillthen.HewastousepureMalayalamas
opposedtothestylizedandSanskritizedlanguageofKoothu.Healso
adoptedmanyelementsfromPadayaniorKolamTullalandcertainother
folkarts.Itisreasonabletoassumethathewashimselfaperformer.A
firsthandknowledgeofthevarioustalasandragasandeventhepractices
ofdrummersisaprerequisiteforthewritingofaTullal.KunchanNambiar
possessedthisinabundance.EachTullalcompositionconsistsofaPuranic
taleretoldinsimple,rhythmicverse,fitforloudrecitationbeforeanaudience.
TherearethreekindsofTullaldistinguisnedonthebasisoftheperformer's
costumeandthestyleofrendering,viz,Ottan,SeetankanandParayan.
Dravidianmetresareusedthroughoutalthoughthereisnothingtoprevent
theinsertionofaquatraininaSanskritmetre.Nambiaralsodevelopednew
metres(e.g.Vaytharimetres)basedonthevocalnotationforvarioustalas.
ThelanguagealsoispredominantlyMalayalamwithalargeadmixtureof
colloquialanddialectalforms.Humourisinvariablythedominantmood:
otherbhavasarebroughtinforvarietyandtosuitthesituation.
KunchanNambiarisbelievedtohavewrittenoverfortyTullal
compositions.Somescholarsallotalargernumbertohiscredit.Theybelong
toallthethreetypes:21Ottan,IISeetankanand9Parayan.Themost
importantofNambiar'sTullalsare:Syamantakam,Ghoshayatra,Kiratam,
Santanagopalam,Patacharitam,Kartaviryarjunavijayam,Bakavadham,
KalyanaSaugandhikam,Hariniswayamvaram,Tripuradahanamand
44
SabhaPravesam.Nambiarwasanextrovertandobservedthelifearound
veryclosely.Hewasalsoverycriticalofthesocialevilshesawaround
him.Thusevenwhenthemainstoryisfromthepuranas,hewouldintroduce
digressionsinplentyandusesuchoccasionstocommentonlifeinhisown
time.Hedidnotworryaboutthechargeofanachronism.Heknewhis
audienceverywell:notscholarsandpoets,butlaymen,especiallysoldiers,
barelyliterate.Inoneofhisworkshesays:
Itisimpossibletoentertainwithoutlaughter
Thosesoldierswhothinktheyshouldstay
Ifitisacomictale,orelseshouldleavetheplace
Hecertainlysucceededinhisaim.HeiscomparabletoChaucer
andRabelaisforhisboisteroushumourandknowledgeofcontemporary
life.Likethem,hetoobordersontheobsceneattimes,asamatterof
concessiontotheaudienceorreaders.Allclassesofpeopleandall
professionscomeinforsharpcriticisminhiscompositions.Nambudiris,
TamilBrahmins,Nayars,courtiers,courtesans.Nambiarisundoubtedlythe
greatestsatiristinMalayalam.Anexampleofhowheintroducesasatireon
contemporarylifeintoatextbasedonapuranicepisodemaybefoundin
thefollowingpassagefromKarthavirarjunaVijayam.Ravanaisspeaking
toNaradaabouthisownprowessthathasreducedotherkingstoutter
misery.
ThekingdomoftheGandharakaruler
Hasturnedintoameredesert
ThelandoftheSimhalaKing
Isnowfilledwithlionsandleopards
ThelordoftheCherapeople
Feedshimselfoncheapvegetables
TheCholaKinghasnothingtoeat
Exceptthemaizeoflowquality
ThekingsoftheKuruhouse
Havenothingbutjackfruitseeds
ThelordofthelandofKashmir
45
Isbusyeatingcucumbers.
TheruleroftheChampeyaland
Eatsonlytubersandbrokenrice.
TheKonkanprinceisabouttodie.
Thinkingofhiswives'breasts.
AfterRavanareachesHehaya,hismessengersannouncethat
everybodyshouldoweallegiancetohim.
Tributesmustbepaidformtimetotime,
Halftheyieldshouldbegiventome.
Thewholeofpepperyieldshouldbehandedover
Coconut,arecanut,mango,jackfruit
Allthetreesshouldbeconfiscated
Therewillbenoplaceinmycountry
Forthepompoflocalbarons.
Doubletheseedcropshouldbegiven
Tomebyeveryhouseowner.
TheTamilBrahmins(Pattars)stayinghere
Shouldalsogiveonefourthtome.
TheNayarswhostayathome.
Shouldtaketheirbowsandspears
AndstayattheresidenceofRavana
Anddowhateverchoresareassigned
Nayarswhodrinktoddy
Wouldbebeatenup,beware!
Nambiar'spoetryperhapslacksthehighseriousnesssuchaswe
findinEzhuthachan.Thedifferencehereissignificant.Thetwoare
complementary.JustasKilipattuseemstoexpressthetotalpersonalityof
awriterlikeEzhuthachan,theTullalbringsoutthischaracteristicfeatures
ofthepersonalityofNambiar.Betweenthemtheycovertheentirespectrum
ofhumanity,theentiregamutofhumanemotions.NootherKilipattuhas
comeanywherenearEzhuthachan'sRamayanamandMahabharatam,
no,TullalcompositioniseverlikelytoequalthebestofNambiar's
compositions.
46
AfterNambiar
Therehasbeenagreatlullinthefieldofliterarycreationin
MalayalamfornearlyacenturyafterthedeathofKunchanNambiar.No
greatworkofliteraturewasproducedduringthislonganduneasy
interregnum.Therewashoweveraconsistentandsteadydevelopmentof
proseatthistime.SeveralregionalversionsofKeralolpathi,tracingthe
beginningsofKeralahistory,begantoappear.FatherClement'sSankshepa
Vedarthamcameoutin1772.ParemmakkalThomaKathanar(17371799)
wrotethefirsttravelogueinMalayalam,Varthamanapustakam,(Bookof
News).Itisperhapsthemostsustainedpieceofprosewritingwrittentill
thatdate.TheworksofChristianmissionarieslikeArnosPatiri(JohnErnestus
Hanksalden,16991732)andPaulinosePatiri(JohnPhilipWesdin,1748
1806)alsoledtoawideningoftherangeoftopicsandthemesinMalayalam
literature.
Thetransitionfromthe18thcenturytothe19thcenturydidnot
immediatelyleadtoanygreatspurtofliteraryactivity.Theintrusionof
Europeaninfluencewasbeginningtobefeltinthenationallifeatlarge.The
startingofschoolsontheBritishmodelandtheintroductionofEnglishasa
subjectofstudyweretohavetremendousimpactintheyearstocome.
MaharajaSwatiThirunal(18131847)isasymboloftheprocessof
modernizationthatwasbeginningtobesetinmotionatthetime.LikeKartika
TirunalRamaVarmawhowasnotonlyapatronofliteratureandthearts
butalsoadistinguishedwriterofattakkathas,SwatiTirunalwasbotha
patronandapoetmusician.Heisperhapsthemostdistinguishedmusic
composerofKerala.Thefoundationsofmoderneducationwerelaidinthe
formerStateofTravancoreduringhisreign.Amongthegreatwritersathis
court,themosttalentedwaswithoutdoubtIrayimman(RaviVarman)Tampi
(17831856).Heischieflyrememberedtodayfortwothings:one,adelicate
andexquisitelullabypoem("Isitthedarlingbabymoon")andthreewell
designedandsuperblycomposedattakkathas(Keechakavadham,
UtharaswayamvaramandDakshayagomJ.Likehispatron,Tampialsowrote
anumberofsongstobesettomusic.Asawriterofattakkathas,Tampi
hasonlyoneformidablerival,UnnayiWarrier.Hispadasarethemselves
47
exquisitemusicalcompositions.Tampihasanunerringear,andforsheer
verbalfelicity,hisattakkathashavefewrivals.Hewasamasterofwords
andmelody.Thefamousdandaka(longstanza)inKeechakavadham
revealsTampi'sexquisiteartistrywithwordsitdescribesingraphicand
dramatictermstheresponseofDraupaditothequeenwhohadaskedher
togotoKeechaka'spalacewithhisfood.
Hearingthewordsofthequeen
Thedeereyedoneshuddered,
Hereyesturnedredshewasovercomewithfatigue.
Sheofferedmanyexcusestoher
Butharshwordsmadeherquiet.
Servitude,shethought,anobjectofderisionforall
Sheloweredhereyes,
She,superiortoheavenlydamsels,butnow
Bereftofjoy.
Herclothesbecamesoiledandwet
Withtearsandsweat
Herbodytrembling,shestoodthere
Withthevesselinherhand
Thenstartedwalkingthenstoppedontheway,
Shefeltexhaustedlikeadeer
Thatgoestothedenoftheenemyofalldeer.
KilimanoorVidwanRajarajaVarmaKoyitampuran(18121846,also
knownasKareendran)wasalsoatthecourtofSwatiTirunal.Heischiefly
rememberedforhisattakkatha,RavanaVijayam,oneofthemostpopular
ofattakkathas.TherolesofRavanaandRambhaareparticularlysuitedto
theKathakalistyleofpresentation,andalthoughpartoftheplayrepresents
arape,itscrudityisconsiderablytoneddownbythehighlystylizedgestures
andmovementsandthelyricalqualityoftheverse.Inthehandsofinept
actorsitcanleadtoexcessivevulgarity.Criticsofattakkathaliterature
willtaketheseassignsofdecadence,asatruerepresentationoftheerotic
exuberancecharacteristicoftheelitistfeudalclassofthetime.
48
TheVenmaniSchool
Thethirdquarterofthenineteenthcenturyborewitnesstothe
riseofanewschoolofpoetsdevotedto(1)theobservationoflifearound
themand(2)theuseofpureMalayalam.Theyaimedatacertainsimplicity
anddirectness,preferringwordsofDravidianoriginandSanskritwords
thatwouldnotsoundstrangeorharsh.Theythusachievedabalancedmiddle
stylewithaslightbiastowardstheDravidianelements(although"mahan"
pseudoSanskritforMalayalam"makan"doesnotbearthisout).Euphony
wastheirwatchword.Aneasyflowingdictionthatcreatesnoproblemfor
loudandrelaxedrecitation,asmoothandevenrhythmiccadence,maximum
clarityofmeaningandapervasivesenseofhumourandlightheartedness:
thesequalitieswereinheritedfromthechampoosviathewritersofthe
muktakas(singleindependentquatrainsmakingupcompletepoeticcrystals)
likeChelapparampuNambudiriofagenerationearlier.
ThemajorpoetsoftheVenmanischoolwereVenmaniAcchan
Nambudiri(18171891).VenmaniMahanNambudiri(18441893),
PoonthottamAcchanNambudiri(18211865),PoonthottamMahanNambudiri
(18571896)andthemembersoftheKodungalloorKovilakam.Thestyleof
thesepoetsbecamequitepopularforawhileandinfluencedevenothers
whowerenotmembersofthegrouplikeVelutheriKesavanVaidyar(1839
1897)andPerunnelliKrishnanVaidyan(18631894).Thefactthatthey
representedakindofmoraldecadenceisnotfullyrecognizedbyscholars
andcritics.Theslightrealismtheyresortedtowasmeantonlytohighlight
thedowntoearthappealoftheirerraticexuberance.Theywereincapable
ofmoralearnestnessorintellectualhighseriousness.Thereisnothingin
theirwritingsthatremindusofthecentraltraditionofMalayalampoetry,
beginninginfolkpoetryandlaterRamacharitamandgraduallyevolving
throughtheNiranampoets,Cherusseri,Poonthanam,Ezhuthachanand
KunchanNambiar.ItisnecessarytopointoutthatNambiar'shumourhas
abasisinsocialcriticism.ThehumouroftheVenmanipoetsisanendin
itselfitisanindulgenceintheludicrousandridiculousforitsownsake.
ThisexplainswhytheycouldwriteAmbopadesamsoverandoveragain,in
whichagrandmothergivesinstructionstothegranddaughterontheartof
49
courtesanship,VenmaniMahan,KochunniTampuran,NaduvathAcchan,
OravankaraNeelakantanNambudiri:eachwroteanAmbopadesamonthe
modeloftheoldManipravalaclassicVaisikaTantram.Theyallinvariably
resortedtoSanskritmetresintheseworks.Anotherfavouriteformofpoetic
exerciseforthesepoetswastostringtogetherthenamesofcontemporary
poetscomparingthemtovariousflowers(asinKavipushpamala,by
VenmaniMahan),todifferentcharactersinMahabharata(asin
KavibharatambyKunjukuttanTampuran),tocharactersinRamayana
(asinthelaterKaviramayanambyMooloorS.PadmanabhaPanikkar),to
animals(asinKavimrigavalibyOduvilKunjukrishnaMenon)andtobirds
(asinKavipakshimalabyKoyippalliParameswaraKurup).

ThemostrepresentativepoemoftheVenmanischoolisperhaps
Pooraprabandham,whichrevealsboththestrongandtheweakpointsof
themovement.Exceptforthemodernityofthedictionandthefinishin
versification,itisdifficulttoseeanygreatdifferencebetweenthedescriptive
passagesinPooraprabandhamandthoseintheearlierchampoos(where
alsowegetrealisticdescriptionsoflocalpeopleandmarketplacewitha
touchofpointlesshumour).
TheKodungalloorschoolwasanoffshootoftheVenmaniSchool,
butsomeofthepoetslikeKunjukuttanTampuranhadagreaterseriousness
intheirvocation.Thebestevidenceforhiscommitmenttohisvocationis
hismagnificenttranslationofthewholeofVyasa'sMahabharatacompleted
inthecourseofafewmonths.ButmostoftheKodungalloorpoetstook
poetryforapastimeandindulgedinversificationforwantofanyother
formofentertainment.Theneoclassicalgamesofinstantpoeticcomposition,
versemakingcompetition,recitationcompetition,jointcompositionofpoems,
samasyaorriddlecompletion,writingtoprescriptionsandvariousother
kindsofformulaicexercisesweretheirmainconcern.Theyhave,nodoubt,
producedanumberofquatrainsinSanskritmetreswhicharepleasantto
recitealoudbuttheygivenodeeporcomplexexperiencetothereader.In
theirhands,poetrybecameaskill,agame,aperformancewithoutany
spiritualdimension.Thevariouscontroveriesofthetimehadnothingtodo
withthefundamentalsofpoeticexperienceorpoeticcommunication.The
50
squabbleoverthesecondsyllablerhymeisagoodexampletoshowhow
superficialtheywereintheirspeculationsonpoetry.Onehadonlytolook
intoKalidasa'sMeghadoot(CloudMessenger)torealizehowthemusicof
poetrywasdifferentfromtheconcatenationofsimilarconsonantsinthe
differentlinesofastanza.Butthatwasperhapsthelastbreathofthe
neoclassicaltrendwhichusheredintheRomanticRenaissanceattheend
ofthecentury.
Perhapsthisistheplacewherementioncouldbemadeofwhathas
cometobecalledMappilappattukal.Thesesongsarechieflytheworksof
poetsfromtheMappila(Muslim)communityandarewrittenmostlyinArabi
Malayalam,amixtureofArabicandMalayalam.Theyhaveastronglocal
flavourandbelongtothegeneralcategoryoffolkpoetry.Someare
anonymousandarepopularintheregion,althoughnowtheyarereadand
enjoyedalloverKerala.Therearepublicrecitalsofthesepoems,which
areoftenrelatedtospecificsocialfunctionsandritualslikeOppana.Among
thegreatestpoetsofthissubgenreareMoyinkuttyVaidyarandPulikkottil
Hyder.Therearelovelyricsaswellasnarratives(like,Kappappattu,which
hasasymbolicmystricaldimension).
TheModernAge
NineteenthcenturywasnotaverycreativeperiodforMalayalam
literature(excepttowardstheend)fromthepointofviewofimaginative
writing.Butthefoundationsforthegreatrenaissancethatbeganattheend
ofthecenturywerelaidduringthisperiod.Theestablishmentofcolleges
forimpartingEnglisheducation,thetranslationoftheBibleandotherreligious
works,thecompilationofdictionariesandgrammars,theformationofthe
textbookcommittee,thegrowthofprintingpresses,thestartingof
newspapersandperiodicals,theintroductionofscienceandtechnology,the
beginningofindustrializationandtheawakeningofsocialandpolitical
consciousness:theseconstitutethegiantstridestowardsmodernization.It
wouldappearasifthepeople'senergiesweretotallyconsumedbythese
activities.
51
LikehispredecessorsSwatiThirunalandUttramThirunal,Ayilyam
ThirunalRamaVarmaMaharajaofTravancore(18321880)wasagreat
patronofletters.Thereweremanygreatscholarsathiscourt.Hewas
personallyinterestedinpromotingproseliterature.Hehimselfwrote,while
stillyoung,twoproseworksMeenaketanacharitamandBhasha
SakuntalamwhichwerepublishedbyKeralaVarmaValiyaKoyitampuran
afterhisdeath.InMeenaketanacharitamoneoftheArabiantalesisretold
BhashaShakunthalamisafreetranslationofKalidasa'sAbhijnana
Shakuntalam.ThesetwoworksarepioneersindicatingthewayMalayalam
literaturewasdestinedtodevelopinthecomingdecades.Thespateof
translationsfromIndianlanguagesincludingSanskritandfromEuropean
languagesincludingEnglish,whichbeganinAyilyamTirunal'stime,hasnot
yetabated.
VishakamTirunalRamaVarmaMaharaja(18371885)who
succeededAyilyamTirunal,wasalsoanindefatigablepromoterofeducation
andthearts.HimselfatalentedwriterofdiscursiveproseinEnglishand
translatorofEnglishworksintoMalayalam,hewasthecausethatothers
alsotookupwritingoriginalworksanddoingtranslations.Chidambara
VadhyarwhohadtranslatedShakespeare's.AsYouLikeItandTheWinter's
TaleintoMalayalamreceivedencouragementfromhim.VisakhamThirunal
wasoneoftheearliestessayistsinMalayalam.BenjaminBailey(1805
1871)JosephPeet,RichardCollinsandGeorgeMathen(18191870)were
responsibleformanyworksonMalayalamlanguagebasedonwestern
models.ArchdeaconKoshy(18261900)isrememberedforhisnumerous
worksinprose,especiallyforhisworkPulleliKunchu(1882).
PerhapsthemostimportantofthesemissionarieswasHerman
Gundert(18141893).BorninStuttgartinGermanyandeducatedatTubingen
andSwitzerland,GundertcametoIndiain1836.Hewroteovertwenty
booksinMalayalam,themostimportantofwhichareAMalayalamEnglish
Dictionary,AGrammarofMalayalam,Keralappazhama(Kerala
antiquity)andPazhamcholmala(Agarlandofproverbs).Healsoedited
ananthologyofproseandversefortheuseofstudentsunderthename,
Pathamala.ThefirstauthoritativegrammarofMalayalamwasalso
Gundert'scontribution(1851).Thisledtotheproductionofanumberof
grammaticalworksinMalayalam.VaikkamPatchuMoothathu(18141883)
52
publishedhisGrammarofMalayalamin1876,KeralaKaumudiby
KovunniNedungadi(18311889)cameoutin1878.Thiswassoonfollowed
bythefirsthistoryofthelanguagebyP.GovindaPillai(18491897)published
in1881.ThefirstworkonrhetoricinMalayalamontheEuropeanmodel
wasbroughtoutbyFatherGeradunderthetitleAlankaraSastraminthe
sameyear.Theseworksareaclearindicationoftheincreasingwestern
influencewhichbecameestablishedbytheendofthe19thcentury.There
wereofcoursedistinguishedscholarsofthetraditionalistschoollike
KaikulangaraRamaWarrier(18331897),whospecialisedinwriting
commentariesontheclassicsofSanskritliterature.Buttheinfluenceof
KeralaVarmaValiyaKoyithampuranandthegeneralsociopolitical
developmentsseemedtofavourareorientationtowardswesternmodels.
Thistrendcontinuedtobepowerfuluntilthemiddleofthe20thcentury.
KeralaVarmaValiyaKoyithampuran
KeralaVarmarepresentstheconfluenceoftwomajortraditions
inliterature,theOrientalasrepresentedbytheSanskritclassicsandthe
WesternrepresentedbyEnglish/Europeanclassics.Histranslationof
Kalidasa'sAbhinjanaShakuntalam(completedin1882),andofVon
LimburgBrower'sAkbar(startedin1882)clearlyillustratesthehistoric
roleofasynthesizerwhichhewasdestinedtoplayontheKeralacultural
front.Hisconnectionswiththeroyalfamily,hiseducationandupbringing,
hispositionaspresidentoftheTextBookCommittee,hisprogressiveand
independentoutlook,hisintellectualprowessandotherpersonalityfactors
madehimtowerheadandshouldersaboveallhiscontemporaries.Hewrote
anumberofworksinbothSanskritandMalayalam,bothinproseandverse
buthispersonalinfluencewasgreaterthanwhatwasachievedthrough
theseworks.Itmaybesaidthatthemanwasgreaterthanallhiswritings.
WellversedinallaspectsofclassicalSanskritpoeticsandquiteathomein
thenativetradition,withagoodcommandofEnglishaswellmasterofa
sonorousSanskritdictionandproficientinsimplecolloquialMalayalam,
KeralaVarma'sreputationstilldependsnotonanysinglebookhewrote.
ThedevelopmentofMalayalamlanguageandliteraturewashis
life'smissionandincollaborationwithC.PAchuthaMenon(editorof
53
Vidyavinodinimagazine)andKandathilVargheseMappila(editorof
MalayalaManorama),hedidhisutmosttoencourageallkindsofwriters
andwritings.Evenundeservingquillpushersreceivedhissupport,
encouragementandblessinginthisprocessofalloutpromotionofletters.
HismostwidelyknownliteraryworkisMayurasandesam(Peacock
Message)writtenin1884.Itsintrinsicmeritswereperhapsexaggeratedat
thetimeofitsfirstappearance,butitshistoricalimportanceisyettobe
properlyassessed.Itisaworkthatlooksinmanydirections.Itharksback
toKalidasa,themostromanticandsubjectiveworkofthatpoet,whose
influenceamongotherthingswaschieflyresponsiblefortherevivalof
romanticismin19thcenturyEurope.Itcombinesthemixedstyleof
ManipravalapoemswiththepureMalayalamofVenmanipoetsbutused
fora"personal"communication.Itallowsthefreeplayoffancy(asseenin
thepunon"Neelakanta"),butalsorevealstheoperationofcomplex
imaginationattimes(asintheidentificationquatrain).Itwouldbetoomuch
tosaythatMayurasandesamanticipatestheromanticmovementbutthere
isnodoubtthatthereisasofteningoftherhetoricofclassicisminseveral
ofitsquatrains.Alreadyintheheartofclassicismonehearsthesoftnotes
ofromanticlyricism:
Oncewhilealonehuntingbirdsinthepark,
Oblueeyedone,Ihappenedtokillabird.
Outofpityforhisbereavedcompanioncloseby
Didyounot,Otimidone,askmetokillhertoo!
Thelyricalnoteisheardatsomedepth,thesubjectiveelementis
openlyacknowledgedtheseareimportantgains.Someofhisproseessays
areofaninformal,subjectivetypelikeMrigayasmaranakal(Memoriesof
Hunting).
TheGrowthofLiteraryCriticism
Theestablishmentofperiodicalswasafactordirectlyresponsible
forthedevelopmentofliterarycriticism.Theyear1890sawthestartingof
twoimportantperiodicals,KandathilVargheseMappila'sMalayala
ManoramaandCP.AchuthaMenon'sVidyavinodini.AppanThampuran
54
startedhisRasikaranjiniin1903.VargheseMappilahadtheactiveco
operationofKottarathilSankunni,theauthorofAithihyamala.Bhashaposhini
Sabhaactedasacatalyst.CP.AchuthaMenonwroteanumberofperceptive
reviewswhicharestillmarvelsofhonesty,frankness,fearlessness,and
commitmenttodefinitevalues.Hereisanexampletoshowhissenseof
commitment.
Sincedefectsexceedvirtuesinnewbooks,itis
inevitablethat,whenonetriestoexpressunbiasedandimpartial
opinionsonthem,thedemonstrationoffaultsmaybemore
conspicuous.Wearescincerelysorrythataswedopointout
thesedefects,somepeoplearedeeplyhurt.Butthenwecannot
butdoso,sinceourinterestinourliteratureisfargreaterthan
theirhurtfeelings.
ReviewinganotherbookcalledRathisundari,AchuthaMenonsays
"Man'slifeonearthislimitedandsorrowfilledhencewhetherwastingpart
ofitonthepainfulexperienceofreadingbookslikethisisasin,letthe
conscienceofgoodpeopledecidewhetheritisalegalcrime,letthe
advocatesdecide."
ThePlethoraofPlays
InthewakeofKeralaVarma'stranslationofKalidasa'sAbhijnana
Shakuntalam(whichgothimthetitleofKeralaKalidasa),severalattempts
weremadetotranslatenumerousplaysfromSanskritandEnglishinto
Malayalam.ChathukuttyMannadiartranslatedUttararamacharitamand
Janakiparinayam.Othertranslationsfollowed,suchasKalahini
DamanakomfromShakespere'sTamingoftheShrew.Newplayscameto
bewritteninthisfancifulstyle.Theseplayswereseldomacted.Thestage
conditionsofthosedayswerecrudeandunfittoprojectaperformance.
Mostwritersdidnotcarefororknowenoughofthetechniqueofstage
presentation.Thisdelayedthegrowthofanindigenousdramaticformand
structureinthelanguage.NumerousplaysonthemodelofSanskritdrama,
usingbothproseandverse,cametobewrittenaboutthistime.Asifirritated
bythisandwithaviewtodiscouragingtheplethoraofplaysoflowquality,
55

P.RamaKurupwroteChakkiChankaram(1893).Therewasanother
ChakkiChankaram(1894)byK.C.NarayananNambiar(18731922).
Theeffectofthisburlesqueofthecouple,ChakkiandChankaran,wasto
putanend,temporarilyatleast,tothemadrushforproducingplaysfashionable
atthetime.
A.R.RajarajaVarma(18631918)
KeralaVarma'snephewA.R.RajarajaVarmawentastepfurther
thanhisuncleinthepromotionofasynthesisbetweenthedifferenttrends
currentintheliteratureofhistime.AprofessorintheUniversityCollege,
Thiruvananthapuram,hehadtomodernizetheprocessofteachingMalayalam
languageandliteraturethismadehimwritebooksongrammarandrhetoric
(whichearnedhimthetitleofKeralaPanini)andeventuallypreparethe
groundforanenlightenedrenaissanceinMalayalampoetryandliterary
criticism.HisdifferencesofopinionwithKeralaVarmawerenotconfined
tothecontinueduseofthesecondsyllablerhyme:behindthecontroversy
laythebasisofanewpoetics:therejectionofneoclassicismandthe
acceptanceofaromantictheoryofliterature.Theinfluenceofthestudyof
BritishRomanticpoetsofthe19thcenturycoupledwitharenewedinterest
intherealclassicsofSanskritliteraturecanbeseeninRajarajaVarma's
poeticefforts.Thecriticandscholarinhimmighthavestifledthepoet,but
inworkslikeMalayavilasamhemaybeseenaslookingforwardtoan
expectedromanticrevival.HistranslationofKalidasaandBhasaandthe
prefacehewroteforKumaranAsan'sNalinipointtothistrendin
unmistakableterms.LikeKeralaVarma,RajarajaVarmaalsocontributed
significantlytothegrowthofprosethroughhisessays.
K.C.KesavaPillai(18681914)
AcloseassociateofbothKeralaVarmaandRajarajaVarma,K.C.
KesavaPillaiwasamanofremarkabletalent.Hismajorworksare
Kesaviyam(amahakavya),Sadarama(amusicalplayontheTamilmodel,
extremelypopularatthetime),Asannamaranachintasatakam(Reflections
ofaDyingMan,inacenturyofquatrains)andanumberofattakkathas.
56
HisKesaviyamisamahakavyamodelledontheSanskritpatternandstrictly
adheringtotherulesofstructureandstylelaiddownbytheclassical
rhetorician,Dandi.
Thefirstfifteenyearsofthe20thcenturysawamushroomingof
mahakavyas.KesavaPillai'scontemporarieslikeAzhakathuPadmanabha
Kurup(18691932:authorofRamachandravilasam),PandalamKerala
Varma(18791919:authorofRukmangathacharitam),Kattakkayam
CherianMappila(18591937:authorofSriYesuVijayam),Ulloor
ParameswaraIyer(18771949:authorofUmakeralam)andVallathol
NarayanaMenon(18791958:authorofChitrayogam),allpaidtheir
obeisancetothisneoclassicisttrendP.SankaranNambiarreferstothe
appearanceofamockmahakavyaKothakelambyoneVidushaka,which
didtothefloodoftheseexerciseswhatRamakurup'sChakkiChankaram
didtotheimitationplays,DatyuhaSandesam(1897)bySeevolliNarayanan
Nambudiri(18691906)didtospuriousmessagepoemsandParangodi
Parinayam(1892)byKizhakkeppattRamankuttyMenon(18581894)
underinspirationfromKesariVengayilKunhiramanNayanar,triedtodoto
thespurtofuninspirednovelsinimitationofIndulekha.
K.C.KesavaPillaiwasalsoadistinguishedcomposerofsongsof
raremeritandhispositionasacomposerisnextonlytothoseofSwati
TirunalandIrayimmanTampiamongKeralamusicians.Buthisbestwork
asapoetisAsannamaranachintasatakamwhich,althoughwrittenfora
competition,isatouchinglyricalmonologuewithapredominantelegiac
toneandanticipatestheKhandakavyamorshorterpoemsofthepoetsof
therenaissance.IthasanundergroundconnectionwithC.S.Subramanian
Potti'sOruvilapam(ALament1903),V.C.BalakrishnaPanikkar's
Oruvilapam(ALament:1908),andevenKumaranAsan'sVeenaPoovu
(AFallenFlower:1907)whichmaybethoughtofasanelegyindisguise.
TheEssay
Thedevelopmentsinproseatthistimewereverysignificant,
VengayilKunhiramanNayanar(18611895),morefamousunderhis
pseudonymKesari,wasoneofthefirsttoexploretheessayformin
57
Malayalam.HewascloselyassociatedwithperiodicalslikeKerala
Chandrika(startedin1879atThiruvananthapuram),KeralaPatrika
(startedin1884byC.KunhiramanMenon(18541936)andAppuNedungadi
(18661934)atKozhikode),KeralaSanchari(after1898underthe
editorshipofMurkothKumaran)andtheEnglishJournalMalabarSpectator.
KesarihasoftenbeencomparedtoMarkTwain.Ashewasnotoverburdened
withscholarship,hecouldwriteinasimple,popular,informalstyle.Hewas
alifelongdevoteeofthegoddessofcomedy.Hereisapassagefromhis
essay,"ThePleasuresofDeath"
Whenyoudon'thavetobreatheanylonger,youwillnotbe
troubledbytheinnumerablegermsofdiseaseintheairnorby
theinsufferablesmokefromotherpeople'scigars,etc.Nothing
tobeanxiousaboutevenifmotorcarsandbicyclessendup
dustwhiledrivingalongorifyoufallordieoryournoseis
hurt.Youdon'thavetoendureanysuchgrief.Youdon't
havetoputupanylongerwiththeringingofbellsorthecall
ofthesirenorfrogtonguedvoicerefinersexertingtheir
throatsorrecitingsongsfromplaysevenontheroad.Kesari
belongstothecomictraditioninourliterature,andlikeTholan,
Nambiar,ChanduMenon,E.V.KrishnaPillaiandSanjayanhe
wasasharpcriticofsocialreality.
TheRiseoftheNovel
Aninevitableconsequenceofthedevelopmentofprosewasa
creativeuseofthismediumforimaginativeliterarycommunication.The
lastquarterofthe19thcenturysawthebirthofthenovelinMalayalam.It
hasbeenpointedoutthatthenovelaroseinKeralaasinotherregionsof
India,notjustbecauseofEuropeaninfluencethroughEnglisheducationbut
chieflybecausetheconditionsthatexistedinIndiaatthistimeweresimilar
tothoseinEnglandinthe17thand18thcenturieswhichfavouredthe
growthofthisnewformofwritingcalledthenovel.Itwouldperhapsbe
morecorrecttosaythatbothinternalsocioeducationalconditionsand
externalinfluencecombinedtoproduceandpopularizethisnewgenre.It
58
wasperhapsnotwhollytransplantedasafinishedproductintoMalayalam:
theexistenceoftheprintingpress,thegrowthofaliteratereadingpublic,
thedevelopmentofthehabitofbuyingbooks,theincreasingrequirements
ofeducationalinstitutionsandlibraries,theriseinthestatusofwomen(Appu
Nedungadi,theauthorofKundalathawasalsothefounderofthesociety
forthepromotionoftheeducationofwomen,ChanduMenonalsothought
ofwomenaspotentialreadersofhisworks)andthegradualpenetrationof
democraticideasandliberalismintothesocialfabric:thesewereessential
factorswhichbytheirconjunctioncouldfavourthegrowthofthenovelin
Malayalam.
ThequestionwhichisthefirstnovelinMalayalamcanbeanswered
onlyifweagreeonthedefinitionofthenovel.GhathakaVadham(The
SlayerSlain)byMrs.Collins,PullelikunchubyArchdeaconKoshy,his
translationofBunyan'sThePilgrim'sProgress,AyilyamThirunal's
translationofMeenaketanacharitam,KeralaVarma'stranslationofAkbar
thesecertainlyhaveahistoricalimportance.Theuseofproseforlong
narrativesbasedonnonpuranicthemeswasitselfofgreatimportance.
AppuNedungadi'sKundalata(1887)marksanimportantstageinthe
developmentofprosefictioninMalayalam.Theeventsaresupposedto
havetakenplaceinafaroffplaceandthecharactersbearmoreorless
outlandishnameslikeKundalata,Aghoranathan,Ramakisoranand
Tharanathan.Pullelikunchuhasgreaterrealismasfarasphysicaldetails
areconcerned.PartsofKundalathareadliketheproseromanceswhich
inEnglandandothercountriesofEuropeprecededthenovel.Appu
NedungadimayhavebeeninfluencedbyBengalinovelstoo,sincethenovel
asthetermisunderstoodinthemodernworldappearedearliestinBengali
thaninotherIndianlanguages.Theairwasthickwithexpectationsofthe
birthofthegreatnovelallthroughthe1880'swheninthelastyearofthe
decadeO.ChanduMenonbroughtouthisIndulekha.
O.ChanduMenon(18471900)

IntheprefacetothefirsteditionofIndulekha(1889)Chandu
Menondescribesthegenesisofthenovelthus.
59
IbegantoreadEnglishnovelsextensivelyafterIleft
Calicutintheendof1886,andIthendevotedalltheleisurewhich
myofficialdutiesleftme,tonovelreading.Thereupon,Ifound
thatmycircleofintimateswithwhomIhadbeenaccustomedto
passthetimeinsocialconversationandamusementconsidered
itselfsomewhatneglected,andIaccordinglyendeavouredtofind
meansbywhichIcouldconciliateitsmemberswithoutinany
degreeforgoingmynovels.Withthisobjectinview,Iattempted
atfirsttoconveytotheminMalayalamthegistofthestory
containedinsomeofthenovelsIhadread,butmyhearersdid
notseemparticularlyinterestedintheversionwhichIgavethem
oftwoorthreeofthesebooks.Atlastithappenedthatoneof
theseindividualswasgreatlytakenwithLordBeaconsfield's
HenriettaTemple,andthetastethenacquiredforlisteningto
novelstranslatedorally,graduallydevelopedintoapassion.The
importunityofthispersonageinthematterwassogreatthatI
hadseldomtimetoreadabookonmyownaccount
Finally,Iwasurgedtoproduceawrittentranslationof
thenovelbyBeaconsfieldwhichIhavementioned,and
Iconsented.ButwhenIhadmadesomelittleprogressinthe
work,Ithoughtthematterover,anddecidedthatatranslation
thusmadewouldbeabsolutelywithoutvalue...Takingtherefore,
allthesecircumstances(thedifficultiesandinadequaciesof
translation),IdeterminedtowriteaMalayalamnovelmoreor
lessaftertheEnglishfashionandgavemypersecutorapromise
tothiseffect...
Idonotknowhowmycountrymenwillbedisposedto
regardaworkofthisdescription.Thosewhodonotunderstand
Englishhavehadnoopportunityofreadingstoriesinthismould,
andIdoubtiftheywillrelishtheirfirstexperienceofthiskindof
literature.
Thisprefatorynote,whichitselfreadslikeapassageinanovel
highlightsthetwinsourcesofinspirationforthenovelinMalayalam:the
influenceoftheEnglishmodelandthepressureofareadership.Hislast
sentencealsomakesitclearthatatthetimeofwriting,hethoughtofhis
workasthefirstnovelinMalayalam,whichincidentallyisapossibleanswer
tothequestionweposedatthebeginningofourdiscussiononthenovel.
ChanduMenonstartedasawriterratherlateinhislife.Hewrote
Indulekhahisfirstworkandanovelofnomeanlengthinjustabouttwo
months.Itiseasilyseenthatplotisnothisstrongpoint.ButIndulekhaisa
workwhichMalayaliscanalwaysholdupaloftasanexcellentspecimenof
whatanovelshouldaimtobe.Thedramaticunfoldingofthetale,theperfect
balancebetweennarrationanddialogue,themagnificentcharacterization,
thesplendiddirectandindirectcriticismofmannersandmorals,theall
pervasivehumourandirony,thevitalityofeveryscenefullyvisualized
theseareamongthemanyvirtuesofhispioneeringworkofexceptional
maturity.ChanduMenonstartedwrittinghissecondnovelSarada,buthe
couldnotfinishit.Thefirstpartaboutonethirdoftheproposedwork
waspublishedin1892.Theauthorrevealshereafirmergripoverthenovel
form:hisspeculationsduringthefouryearintervalbetweenthetwoworks,
asP.K.Balakrishnanhaspointedout,havetakenhimtoafarmoreserious
conceptionofthenatureandfunctionofthenovelasaworkofart.
TheinterviewbetweenIndulekhaandNambudiripadmaybequoted
toillustrateChanduMenon'sartatitsironicbest.
"Areyoumadaboutplay,Indulekha?"inquiredthe
Nambudiripad.
"Madaboutwhat?"askedIndulekha.
"AbouttheplaytheKathakali".

"Ihaveneveryetbeenmadaboutanything".answered
Indulekha.
"Oh,I'mverymadaboutit,I'amasmadasIcanbe".
"Icanquitebelievethatthereisnodoubtaboutit".responded
Indulekhawithasmile.
"Howdoyouknow,Indulekha?Didanyonetellyouaboutit
before?"
"No,Iknewitonlynow".
"YouknowitfromwhatIsaid,did'ntyou?"
"Exactly,Ifeltcertainofitfromyourownwords".
61
"Ihadapieceactedatyourplaceyesterday",saidthe
Namboodiripad."ThatfellowRamanactsbeautifullyonthestage.
HaveyoueverheardofRaman,Indulekha?Raman,Raman,
Imean:theSudrascallhimRamaPanikkar,heisimmensely
clever,suchasplendidactorandsohandsome.Hereafter,
Indulekha,youshallseeaplayeveryday.Iamquitemadonit.I
haveaplayonmostnightsoftheweek,andyesterdayIsawa
maleimpersonatingafemalecharacter.Youhaveneverseen
anythinglikeit.ItwasRaghavan,aboytheycallRaghavan.Do
youknowRaghavan,Indulekha?Ifhisfaceweresmooth,itwould
bejustlikeyours,justlikeittherewouldn'tbetheslightest
difference."
TheReligiousAwakening
TheimpactofWesterneducationwasthegreatrealityinIndian
nationallifeinthe19thcentury.TheRenaissanceinBengalwasitsmost
directconsequence.ExposuretowesternculturemadeIndianslookattheir
culturewithacertaindetachment.Thisledontheonehandtoincreased
politicalawarenessandconsequentlythestruggleagainstforeigndomination
ontheotherhand,itprovokedtheIndianstosetaboutmodernizingthe
Indiansocialstructurewhichwasstillsteepedinmedievalism.
AnewunderstandingofIndianculture,especiallyHinduphilosophy,
wasthuscalledfor,andtheeffortsofRajaRamMohanRoy,Sree
RamakrishnaParamahamsa,Vivekanandaandothershadtheirimpacton
Bengaliliterature.InKeralatoo,therewasasimilarreligiousawakening.
SriChattampiSwamikal(18541924)andSreeNarayanaGuru(18571929),
closecompanionsoftenengagedinlongwanderingsasmendicantsform
placetoplace,weretheharbingersofthisnewspirituality,anewmoral
idealismwhichwasdeeplyrootedinboththewisdomofthepastandthe
realityofthepresent.
Throughtheirrevolutionaryreinterpretationofthephilosophyof
theVedasandtheUpanishads,theybroughtaboutamassivetransformation
inthebasicmooringsofourpeople.Bothweregiftedwithalinguisticinsight
62
andhadaDravidianorientationintheexpressionoftheirthought.Both
usedtheirwritingsChattampiSwamikalinproseandNarayanaGuruin
versetoeffectfundamentalchanges.Bothachievedafusionofintuition
andreason,andcoordinatedthemetaphysicalwiththemundane.Narayana
Guru'spoeticinstinctfoundasupplementaryfulfilmentintheworksofhis
discipleKumaranAsan.
C.V.RamanPillai(18581922)
ThegreatrenaissancethatstartedinMalayalamliteraturetowards
theendofthe19thcenturyfounditsmosteffectivespokesmenintwogreat
novelistsandthreepoets.ThetwonovelistswereO.ChanduMenonof
MalabarandC.V.RamanPillaiofTravancore.C.V.RamanPillawaseleven
yearsjuniortoChanduMenon.BothbenefitedfromEnglisheducation,but
consistentwiththeirrespectivegiftsandtemperaments,theyachievednear
perfectioninwhattheytriedtodo.Theirhighpositionassuprememasters
ofthenovelremainsunchallengedtilldate.ChanduMenonisthegreatest
novelistinMalayalamandC.V.RamanPillai'sRamarajaBahaduristhe
greatestnovel.ChanduMenon'sattentionwasfocussedoncontemporary
socialrealityandthroughithediscoveredtheeternalspringsofhuman
character.C.V.RamanPillaiusedhistoryasameansofunfoldingthe
intricaciesofhumanlife,bothonthesociopoliticalplaneandonthe
psychologicalplane.Itisdifficulttosaywhetherheevertriedtoexplore
historyasameansofredemption.Butitwouldbewrongtosaythathedoes
notconcernhimselfwithsocialreality:hedoesspeculateontheroleof
leadershipinsociety,onthefortunesoffamiliesthroughgenerationsandon
theconflictbetweencharacteranddestiny.
C.V.RamanPillai'smajorcontributiontofictionconsistsof
MartandaVarma(published1891),Dharmaraja(1893),Premamritam
(startedin1915)andRamarajaBahadur(191320).MartandaVarmais
averyearlywork,writtenunderthedirectinfluenceofWalterScott's
Waverleynovels,especiallyIvanhoe.ThehistoryofTravancore(earlier
Venad)strictlyspeaking,theformationoftheStateofTravancoreandits
teethingtroubleshadcaughtandcapturedC.V.RamanPillai'simagination
63
fromhisstudentdaysanditcontinuedtobeahauntingobsessionforan
entirelifetime.CenteringaroundtheloveaffairofAnanthapadmanabhan
andParukutty,theentirepoliticalconspiracyofPappuThampiandtheEight
NayarHousesagainstyoungMartandaVarma,therightfulheirtothethrone
onthematrilinealmodel,ishatched,unravelled,andfoiledbytheclever
machinationsoftheprinceandhisablesupporters.Andyetoutsideofthe
involutionsoftheplot,thereadergetsverylittlefromthework.Mostofthe
charactersareeithertypesorunfinishedstudies:theonlyexceptionis
Subhadra,thatflickeringwickofloveandloyaltybeamingthroughthesolid
darknessofintrigueandtreacheryenvelopingthemainplot.Historyappears
hereasafairytalewhereourwillingsuspensionofdisbeliefistheauthor's
chiefasset.Theauthorhimselfmakeitclearintheprefacethathewas
writingahistoricalromance.Butthestyleisadequate,thenarrationisbold,
andtheplotisingenious.
Theworkshows,evenasKeralaVarma'sAkbartriesto
demonstrate,thatthestyleforanovelofepicdimensionsisacombination
ofSanskritizeddiction,repeatedrhetoricalflourishesandheavydramatic
juxtapositions.Thecolloquialorcontemporarylanguagemightbejudiciously
usedforcertaincharactersincertainscenes,butmustinevitablymergein
thelargersweepandmustswellthechorusforthefinaleffect.Thisprinciple
iskeptupinC.V.RamanPillai'smaturernovelsalso.Dharmaraja,published
twentytwoyearslater,revealswhatabigstridetheauthorhadtakenduring
theinterval.Thisisanunusualgap,butthegloryisthatC.V.RamanPillai
wasabletobridgeitandnowwithredoubtedvigourandheightened
imaginativepowerheransacksthearchivesofTravancorehistory.Raja
KesavaDasandtheroyalfamilywhosefortunesheconsciouslychoseto
espouse,recedeintothebackgroundeventhenominallovestoryof
MeenakshiandKesavanUnnithanpaleintorelativeinsignificance.The
psychologyofrevengeandpersonalambitionandtheultimatetriumphof
moralpowerarethethingsthatnowcomeintotheforeground.Itisthe
tragedyoftheKazhakkoottamHousehightragedyovertakingthescionof
that"familyoftheunflinchingheat"thatholdstheattentionofthenovelist
aswellasthereaders.
64
RamarajaBahadur,C.V.RamanPillai'smasterpiece,isconceived
onanepicstyle,thelittlelovestoryofSavitriandTrivikramancannotloom
verylargeonthiscycloramaofhistorywhentheclashofwitsandthecrash
ofarmsoverwhelmthereaders.IfthereisanepicforthepeopleofKerala,
itisperhapsRamarajaBahadur.Thehighseriousnessoftheworkis
unmistakable.WhatisatstakeinTippu'sinvasionandthebattlethatfollows
isthefateofmillions,notofjustakingoraroyalfamily.Butwithinthe
nervecentreofthisconflictofhistoricalforces,thereisthedelicatesituation
ofthetwoKesavas:KesavaPillaiDewanjiandKesavanUnnithan.The
resolutionofthistwofoldwaronthedomesticfrontstirredupbyUnnithan's
jealousyandwaronthecountry'sfrontier,isbroughtaboutatonestrokeat
theend.Theinscrutabledestinyofman,ofboththeindividualandthemasses,
isthecentralthemeofRamarajaBahadur,thestructureoftheplot,the
skillincharacterization,thenarrativeanddescriptivepower:alltheseare
merelythemeanstotheultimateendofunravellingthismystery.Ramaraja
BahadurhasattemptedthismoresuccessfullythananyotherMalayalam
novelwrittensofar.Itsimitatorssuccumbedtoaneasyandtotalcollapse
becauseoftheirfailuretounderstandthisessentialfeatureofC.V.'sart.
TheRomanticMovement
ThehightideofrenaissancewasbroughtintoMalayalam
literaturebyavarietyofinfluences.Thefamiliarityourpoetsacquired
withBritishromanticpoetswasoneofthem.Therewerein19thcentury
Kerala,asin18thcenturyEngland,anumberofprecursorsoftheRomantic
movement.OneofthemostgiftedofthemwasV.C.BalakrishnaPanikkar
(18901915)"themarvellousboy"ofMalayalampoetry.Inhisshortlife
hewasabletomakeatremendousbreakthroughinthelanguageand
sensibilityofMalayalampoets.Hismostimportantpoemsare"Oru
Vilapam"and"Viswaroopam".Theformer,"ALament"isamajorelegy
inMalayalam.Theloverwhoislamentingthedeathofhisladyinan
epidemicofcholeraisthefocusofourattentionhere.Theopeningquatrain
presentshim"asseatedfacingalampthatcontinuedtoburnwhilehe
couldnotevenpushitswick".Onequatrainmustsufficetoillustratehis
intensityandpowerofphrasing:
65
Thefreshnessthatcomesofbeauty,
Theframearisingfrompoetry,
Theprestigeduetoscholarship,
Thepomponaccountofmartialskill:
Allvirtuessodescribedknockatthesamegate
Andmergeattheendintothesameultimate
Sourceofall
N.KumaranAsan(18731924)
Thepoetwhomostclearlysymbolizesthepoeticrevolutioninthe
firstquarterofthe20thcenturyisKumaranAsan.Hisearlydiscipleshipof
SriNarayanaGuruandhisSanskritstudiesatBangalore,Madrasand
Calcuttawereimportantinfluencesonhispoeticdevelopment.Thethree
andahalfyearshespentoutsideKeralaprovidedhimwithakindofbroad
outlookanddeepsensibilitywhichwouldperhapshavebeenimpossibleif
hehadstayedathome.Adeepmoralandspiritualcommitmentbecame
partofAsan'spersonalityandwhenafteraspellofwritingdevotionalpoetry
heturnedtosecularthemes,hecouldproducesomethingwithoutany
precedentinthelanguage.VeenaPoovu(Afallenflower,1907)combines
thelyricalandtheelegiacwiththeromantic.Yettherelaxeddisciplineofa
classicaltrainingwasalwaystheretoaddadeepertonetohisclose
investigationofthemeaningoflifeasseeninthebriefcareerofaflower.
Theinfinitedelicacyoftouchinpssageslikethefollowingwasrarein
Malayalampoetryatthattime(TranslationbyG.KumaraPillai).
Themotherplantwithlovingcare
Enfoldedyourinfantcharmincalyxsoft
Thegentlebreezecamerockingyoutosleep
Tothelullabyofthemurmuringleaves.
Yourlovelybodytoldamovingtale
Ofgoldendaysoffulfilledyouth
Yourdayswerebrief,andyetsorichandfull'
Youhadyourwoes,andyetyourmindwassteepedinjoy.
66
Thesamecloseattentiontodetailmaybefoundinallhispoems,
whichauthenticatesandtherebyenhancestheirspiritualglow.Asandidnot
trytowriteaneoclassicistmahakavyainsteadhespecializedinthenarratives
ofmiddlelength,Nalini(1911),Leela(1914),ChintavishtayayaSita(1919),
Duravastha(1922),Chandalabhikshuki(1923)andKaruna(1923)are
eloquenttestimonytoAsan'spowersofpoeticconcentrationanddramatic
contextualization.Occasionallythecallofsocialpressuresluredhimtotry
adifferentstrain,asin"ReflectionsofaThiyyaBoy".
Whyshouldstthouwail,then,OBharat?
Thyslaveryisthydestiny,OMother!
Thysons,blindedbycaste,clashamongthemselves
Andgetkilledwhatforisfreedom,then?
Asanisoftendescribedasthepoetoflovemanywritershave
writtenaboutlove,butAsan'sloveisofatranscendentalkindandinpoem
afterpoem,Nalini,Leela,Chandalabhikshuki,hedemonstratesit.For
himitwasidenticalwithultimateandabsolutefreedom,asheexplainsitin
"TheSongofFreedom".InSita,hisreflections,onloveturnabitbitteras
thesituationperhapsdeservesit.InDuravasthaitachievesaslight
transformation,sincehetriestoseeklove'smeaningintermsofcontemporary
reality.ItissetagainstthehistoricalbackgroundoftheMoplahRebellion,
butAsanthepoetisbasicallyconcernedwiththeestablishmentoftheidea
thatallmenbelongtothesamecasteandsamereligion,ashewastaught
bySriNarayanaGuru.HereisarepresentativepassagefromDuravastha,
whichrevealsthesocialreformerandprophetinAsan:
Wakeup,Oyougardeners,
Wakeupandtoil,springisathand.
Inthisgardenenrichedbybeautifulblossoms
Onhighboughtsandlow,
Rememberthereisnotasingleflower
WhichdoesnotdelighttheLord.
Comeforward
67
Andreplacethelaws,
Orelsetheyaresuretodisplaceyou.
Thereisaragingwind
Unceasinglyreverberatingwiththisutteranceintoday'sKerala.
Timefromallthefourdirectionsdeclarestheselfsamething
Andeventheearthbeneathyourfeetresoundswiththedinofunrest.
Asanasapoetwasagreatsynthesizer.Hewrotetwomajorpoems
onBuddhistlegends,ChandalabhikshukiandKaruna(Compassion)They
werehislastworks,writtenbeforehisuntimelydeathin1924,Love,Freedom
andEqualityarehisbasicconcerns.ThelastlinesofKarunasumupall
theseinconcrete,contextbasedterms:
Salutationstothee,OUpagupta,withoutgettinglost
In'nirvana'comebackagaintoservetheworld.
MotherEarthtodayneedsmoreofsuchsonsasyouwhose
compassionreachesthelowliestandlost.
Asan'scareerillustratesinfullthechangesthatweretakingplace
intheMalayalampoetryofhistime.Hisearliestworksweremainlyhymns
employingSanskritizeddictionandSanskritmetres.WithVeenaPoovu
(1907)hissensibilityregistersachange:thedictionissimplified,andalthough
Sanskritmetresareused,theyhaveaclosenessbynowtotheeasyand
flowingDravidianmetres.Thepessimisticnoteisreplacedbyamorestrident
noteinsomeofthelaterpoems.Theuseofafocalcharactermostofsuch
charactersarewomenlikeNaliniinNaliniandSitainthepoemnamed
afterherasprotagonisthelpstodramatizethewholeexperienceofthe
poem.IntheshorterpoemsandinPrarodanam,anelegywithasplendid
andresonantorchestration,thestylefluctuates,butinhislastthreepoems
Dravidianmetresareused,thedictionissimpleandnatural.Karunaisthe
culminatingpointofthistrend.
UlloorParameswaraIyer(18771949)
Ulloor,thesecondofthegrandpoetictrinityofthe20thcentury
renaissanceinMalayalam,startedhiscareerasapoetunderthetutelageof
68
KeralaVarmaValiyaKoyitampuran.Hewasapastmasterinallthetraditional
gamesofclassicalpoetry.Heevenexcelledasthewriterofamahakavya
bychoosingastoryfromearlyKeralahistory.Umakeralam,hismahakavya,
isaworkofgreatdevotion:devotiontotheland,tothelanguage,toapoetic
traditionandtohighmoralvalues.Hewrote,likeAsanandVallathol,a
numberofshortnarrativesorkhandakavyas,ofwhichthemostfamousare
KarnabhooshanamandPingala.IntheformerhecelebratesKama's
infinitegenerosityanddedicationtoprinciples.Inthelatterhetriestoportray
thetransformationofacourtesanovernightintoapiousandrefinedcharacter
almostasaint.Ulooralsowrotequitealargenumberoflyricsandshorter
pieces,nowavailableinvariouscollections.Theycoverawiderangefrom
eulogiestokingsandfriendstothepoetryofsocialcommitment(forexample,
arguingforTempleEntryforlowcasteHindus).
Uloorwasperhapsthemostclassicalandtheleastromanticofthe
threepoets.Onecouldsayeitherthattheromanticinhimwasstifledbythe
authoritarianclassicistorthattheclassicistinhimwastryingtopassfora
romantictosuitthechangingtastesofthetime.Itmustberemembered
thatUlloorwasoneofthefirstofourfullfledgedpoetstoachievethebenefits
offormaleducationuptothepostgraduatelevelfromaUniversity.Hewas
thusexposedtotheinfluenceofEnglishpoetrythroughclassroom
instruction.AsanandVallatholhadonlyinformalcontactwithEnglishpoetry.
Neitherofthemcouldhave,onthebasisoftheirtraining,writtenawork
likeUlloor'smonumentalHistoryofKeralaLiterature.ButAsanthrough
selfstudyandVallatholpartlybyhisnativegiftandpartlythroughindirect
channels,becameimbuedwiththespiritofromanticism.Allthethreebegan
asclassicists,graduatedintoromanticismandfinallypeepedintorealism.
Allofthemwrotetheirbestpoemsduringthesecondphase.Ulloorcultivated
theclassicallyricwithitsseveredisciplineoverthestructureanditsultimate
didacticmotivation.HecouldsaywithWordsworththathewasateacher
ornothing.Butweknowthatinhisbestpoems,Wordsworthcouldnot
keepuphisdeclaredintentionofbeingateacher.Whatwasimportantwas
thatthereadershouldbeenabledtoexperienceinfull,thewonderand
excitementthatwasthesourceofinspirationforthepoemitselfUllooris
interestednotinthecommunicationofthatexperiencethroughthesenses,
69
butindistillingtheabstractmoralvalueofthatexperience.Thuseveninhis
bestlyricsheaddsalmostmechanicallylikeColeridgeattheendofThe
AncientMariner,amoral.Beingsuspiciousofhissubjectiveevaluation,he
wouldinvokesomevalueapprovedofbythemastersofthepast.Hismaster
wasSriHarsha,notKalidasa.ThusinAnnumInnum(ThenandNow),
afterglorifyingthepastandvisualizingabrightfutureinglowing,eloquent
terms,headdsthelastquatrainwhichisanexhortationtothepeopleof
India."IndiawillbecometheParadiseitwasonce,OIndians,ifwe,purein
bodyandmind,liftourselvesthroughhardwork".Thesensuousexperience
presentedearlierdoesnot,accordingtohim,makeitvalidenough.There
aretimeswhenUlloorcouldrisetotheheightsoflyricismforshortflights:
inBhoothakkannadi(Microscope)hewrites:
"Thedesiretoriseseenintheflyingfireflies,
Theenthusiasmbrimmingwithinthesingingcuckoo
Toofferworshiptootherbeings,
Theskillofthefullblownflowerstoenticetheentireworld,
Theexpertiseofthejumpingbirdtomoveitsfeet...
Ihavereadambrosialikesuggestivepoetryeveninmererust,
Ihaveheardwithmyearsweetveenasoundseveninsilence".
Uloor'sideaoftranscendentalloveisclearlybroughtoutinhis
PremaSangeetam(TheMusicofLove)whichconcludeswiththepoet's
totalselfdedicationtoGod.
OThou,SpiritEternal!
Approachedthroughdevotion,
WhocaneverseeThee
ThathasnoteyestintedwithUniversalLove?
Whatishappinessforothers
Ismyhappiness,indeed
Whatissorrowforothers
Ismysorrow,too:
ThouandIandothers:
Arenotallthesethesameintruth?
70
Atyourbeckandcall
Aremybodyandsoul:
Shapethem,dayandnight,
Bothforothers'sake
Lord,IsaluteThee!
VallatholNarayanaMenon(18781958)

Vallathol'strainingwasinclassicismbuthisnativegeniuswas
romantic.ThespiritofarenaissancewasintheairandVallatholbreathedit
insumptuously.Hetookpartinalltheneoclassicalgamesofpoetryand
evenwroteamahakavya,buthisreputationtodayisfirmlybasedonhis
middlelengthnarrativeslikeBandhanasthanayaAnirudhan(Anirudhan
inPrison:1914),SishyanumMakanum(DiscipleandSon:1918),
Magdalanamariam(MaryMagdalene:1921)andshorterlyricscontained
intheearlyvolumesofSahityamanjari(LiteraryAnthology:PartI(1916),
PartII(1918)andPartsIllandIV(1924).Hewasthemostsensuousof
thethreepoets,mostathomeinthedescriptionoftheworldweliveinand
thelifewelive.Nationalconsciousness,setafloatbytheIndianNational
CongressandmenlikeGokhale,TilakandGandhi,gaveacontemporary
relevancetohispoemsextollingIndia'spastglory.Inpoemslike
Puranangal(ThePuranas),KarmabhoomiyudePinchukal(TheLittle
FootofIndia),EnteGurunathan(MyMaster),PoraPora(Notenough,
Notenough)andnumerousotherlyrics,Vallatholgavechiselledexpression
tothisnewlyawakenednationalismbothinpoliticalandculturalterms.
Butperhapsmorethanthesepoemswithapoliticalorientationand
animmediateculturalrelevance,hispoemsaboutthelessspectacular
aspectsofeverydaylifeinKeralavillageswillhavealastingvalue.Tothe
peopleofhisowngeneration,everywordhewroteaboutIndianculture
wasafreshrevelationofthenationalistspirit.After1925perhapssomeof
theselessinspiredpoemscouldnotmaketheirappealaseffectivelyas
before.ButVallatholhadplentyofotherarrowsinhisquiverandother
stringstohisbow.HecoulddescribeaKeralalandscapemoreimaginatively
thanmostearlierpoets.Hecouldportraywomencharactersinshortpoems
71
withconsiderableeffectlikeUshainBandhanashanayaAnirudhan,
MariaminMagdalanamariam,RadhainRadhayudeKritharthata
(Radha'sConsolation),SakuntalainAcchanumMakalum(Fatherand
Daughter),etc.Ushaforinstance,defendsherselfandherloverwithno
trepidationduringtheencounterwithherfather'sMinister,shesays.
Isentforhimandgothimhere.
Mybeloveddidnotcomeofhisownaccord
WhatisthisthesenseofjusticeinBali'stribe,
Heapingallblamesonone,theotherkeptaskin?
ItisinterestingtonotethatAsan,UlloorandVallatholcoulddo
amplejusticetotheirheroines,whiletheirheroesareallowedtopaleinto
relativemeeknessandinsignficance.OnlyKamainUlloor's
Karnabhooshanamcouldbethoughtofasanexception.
OneofVallathol'sperfectachievementsisadramaticpoembased
onthePuranicstoryofViswamithraandSakuntala{AcchanumMakalum)
Writtenwiththemaximumconcentrationandcloseattentiontoeverysyllable,
thisdramaticnarrativereadslikeasceneleftoutbyKalidasainhis
Sakuntalamtobewrittenduringhis20thcenturyincarnation.Thesceneis
themeetingbetweenViswamitraandhislonglostdaughterSakuntala,now
stayingatthehermitageofKasyapawithherlittlesonSarvadamana,after
beingrepudiatedandrejectedbyherlord,KingDushyantainafitof
forgetfulness.Seeingthathisdaughterhasbeenunjustlyrepudiatedby
Dushyanta,Viswamitra,notoriousforhissuddenanduncontrollableoutbursts
offury,threatenstoinvokeadrasticcurseuponthecriminalking.The
scenecouldeasilyremindthereaderofapossibleKathakalisettingin
whichthesituationwouldbepresentedwithtremendouseffect.Vallathol
wasalsodeeplyinterestedintheresuscitationofthisancientKeralaartof
dancedrama,itsresourcesareindirectlyexploitedinfullinAccchanum
Makalum.Hereisthesceneinthepoet'sownwords:
ThemightyViswamitrahadstarteduttering
thesewords,placinghisrightarmclenched
inanger,onhischest.
72
Ifonlyheweretoflingitforward
itwouldspelltheend!
Itwillbecomethethunderballthatwould
annihilateherhusbandwithhisentirerace.
Fullyawareofthatdreadconsequence,sheinstantly
clutchedthatdreadmissileofdestruction
withbothherhandsandcried:
"Father,formysake,forbear!Letnotyour
Daughterbecomethedestroyerofherhusband!
Lethernotbeconsumedbythefireofdirewidowhood!
Abandonedearlierbyherparentsonce,
Shehasnowbeenabandonedfreely
Byherhusbandtoo,thatisall
Letmylifebecompletelydestitute,
Butletnotmysontoobecomeanoutcast
onaccountofmysin!".
Thefireofhisangerhavingbeenquenched
Bythetearsofhisdaughter
Thefather,nowfeelingextremelyhappy,
commendedher.
"FaretheewellYourgoodnesshadpulledmeoutofmoralruin
Mayyou,alongwithyourson,soonjoinyourlord!"
(TranslationbyKainikkaraKumaraPillai)
Magdalanamariamisadramaticrenderingofthespiritual
conversionofaprofessionalcourtesanintotheChristianwayoflifethrough
prayerandpenance.Thiswasperhapsthefirsttimeanepisodefroma
westernsource(theBible,inthiscase)wasexploitedinthiswaybya
Malayalampoet.Vallathol,nodoubt,orientalizesthewholesetting.Christis
almostidentifiedwithKrishna,thustheEastandtheWest(onecouldof
coursearguethatChristwasmoreorientalthanoccidental)aremadeto
73

meetintheecstaticrealmofpoetry.Vallatholcouldnotshakeoffhisnational
heritageandhewasmoreathomeinpoemslikeAcchanumMakalum,
SishyanumMakanumandKochuSita.HisshorterlyricsinSahitya
Manjariareaveritablestorehouseofmemorablewordpictures.
BhakityumVibhakityum,Prabhatageetam,AWalkintheRain,ABoat
Journey,BharatapuzhaandAPictureareexamplesofVallathol'sspecial
talentinevokingakindofcountrymusicbytheperfectdispositionofword
andimage.Asagainstthepoliticalpoet,herewehavetherealspokesman
ofIndianculture,thegenuineloverofnature,theperfectwielderofwords.
Inotherareashecouldbeimitatedandevensurpassedherehewassupreme
withoutanequal.
LiteraryCriticism:WesternInfluence
TheinfluenceofWesternliterarymodelsismostclearlyseeninthe
fieldofcriticism.TheattempttorelateoldIndianvaluestonewwestern
valueswillaccountformostofthedevelopmentsinliteratureinthefirst
halfofthe20thcentury.Therapidgrowthofprosethroughjournalslike
Bhashaposhini(started1896)inevitablyledtothenewtrendincriticism,
viz.,theevaluationofliteraryworksinMalayalamonthebasisofWestern
criticalstandards.Thistendencywhichexistedinitsrudimentaryformin
KeralaVarmabecamemoresystematicinA.R.RajarajaVarma.Itfound
itsfullthroatedspokesmaninSahityaPanchanananRK.NarayanaPillai
(18781937).HiscriticaltreatisesonCherusseri,Ezhuthachan,Kunchan
NambiarandUnnayiWarrierarethebestmonumentstothiscreative
encounterbetweentwotraditionsofcriticism.Closeinterpretationofwhat
isthereinthetext,attemptstoinvestigateintoproblemsofauthorshipand
chronologyandtorelatewhatisinaworktosocioreligiousdevelopments
andhistoricalsettingatthetimeofcomposition,applicationofdocumentary
evidencetotextualproblemsandfinaljudgementbasedontotalevaluation
ratherthanonalankaraanddiction:thesewerethegeneralfeaturesofhis
bestcriticalwritings.Onecouldsaythathepromotedjudicialcriticism.The
useofquotationsfromSanskritalongsidethosefromEnglishisproofto
showthathisaimwasasortofsynthesisoftheEastandtheWest.Histhird
lectureonThunchathuEzhuthachanbeginsthus.
74
Sincetherecouldbedifferenceofopinionaboutthe
vedanticpassagesinAdhyatmaRamayanamKilipattuas
shownbefore,IwouldnotliketoerectEzhuthachan'spillarof
fameonsuchafoundation.Moresecurebasesotherthanthat
arenotdifficulttofind.Nooneneedhesitatetosaythatthe
BhaktiRasasparklingthroughoutthatworkandtheskillinthe
useoflanguageareuniquetoit.Althoughitispossibletosee
manyotherRasaslikeSringara(erotic)Vira(heroic)and
Karuna(tragic)clearlydemonstratedinit,thereissomething
specialabouttheBhaktiRasa.NootherRasaseemstohave
bestirredhimasdeeplyasBhaktiRasa.
WhilethisshowstheapplicationoftheIndianaesthetictheoryof
Rasa,wehaveinthefollowingpassage,theapplicationofwesternideas:
ItisthegoodfortuneofthepeopleofKeralathatin
Ezhuthachan,whoistoberegardedasthefoundingpreceptor
ofMalayalamliterature,thereisastrongbiastowardsethics,
Rasasarebornofemotionsandemotionsarethetoolsofthe
tradeforthepoets.IrememberBeneditoCroce,theItalian
critic,ashavingsaidsomewhereasfollows."Thepoets
transformthesubjectstheydealwithintoidealgoals.Itisdone
notthroughthesillytricksoftropes,butthroughatotal
involvement.Andinthiswaywepassformastateofemotional
excitementintooneofquietreflection.'Howwellthisremark
suitsEzhuthachan'spoetry'!.
RK.NarayanaPillai'scriticalcredoisclearlyexpressedinthe
prefacehewrotetohismonographonEzhuthachan.
"Itissaidthatwearesomuchencumberedaboutwith
theevergrowingpileofcontemporaryliteraturethatweseldom
findtimetomakeorrenewacquaintancewitholdmastersof
thepen.Thereasonofthelikelyneglectofoldmasters,
accordingtooneview,isthatunlessweareintroducedtothem
bymenofourowntime,wemaynotrecognizethem.Every
agerequiresthepasttobeinterpretedtoitintermsofitsown
ideas".
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TheclassicistinRK.NarayanaPillaiseemstoagreewiththe
classicistinT.S.Eliotwhocametoholdanalmostsimilarviewaboutthe
needtointerpretthepastafreshtoeachage.
SwadeshabhimaniK.RamakrishnaPillai(18781916),thestormy
petrelofTravancorepolitics,wasalsoimbuedwiththewesterninfluence,
buthedidnotcareforajudicialapproach.Insteadhespokeoutloudand
clearandattimeswithvirulence,givingnoquartertotheauthorhecriticised.
Hispoliticalradicalismandtrainingasajournalistaidedhiminthis.His
shortbiographyofKarlMarx,isthefirstworkofsocialistthoughtin
Malayalam.HealsowrotebooksonSocrates,Columbus,FranklinandGandhi.
HisVrithantaPatraPravartanam(1912)isapioneeringworkofjournalism
andconsistentwithloftyidealismevenlaysdownaseverecodeofconduct
fortheaspiringjournalist.HehadbecomeeditorofSwadeshabhimaniin
1906)andwasexiledfromTravancorein1910).Heheldtheviewthatstyle
wasbornofthewriter'scharacterandcouldnotbeearnedthroughimitation.
Thetruthofthisisborneoutbyhisownstyle,asforinstanceinhisvirulent
attachonkingship:
Themonarchsbelieveandforceotherstobelievethat
theyareGod'srepresentativesorincarnations.Thisisabsurd.
DidGodcreateaspecialkindofdogtobethekingofdogs,or
aspecialkindofelephanttoruleoverallelephants?
ThereweremanyothercriticslikeC.Anthappayiwhotriedto
assimilatethewesterncriticalmodes.
DramaandtheStage
Inthehistoryofdramatoo,wefindtheIndiantraditiontryingto
adjustitselftothegrowinginfluenceofEuropeandrama.ThePortuguese
broughtintoKeralatheirmiracleplayswhichsuppliedtheinspirationfor
Chavittunatakam.OneoftheearliestexamplesofthistypeisGenoa(date
notknown).AmongthehistoricalplaysthatfollowedwereCaralman
CharitramandNapoleanCharitram.Theseplayshoweverdidnotinfluence
Malayalamliteratureinanyway.ThefirsttranslationofaShakespearean
76
playcameoutin1866{AlmarattamfromAComedyofErrors).Dramatic
literatureproperbeganwithKeralaVarma'stranslationofAbhijnana
Sakuntalam(18811882).Thiswasapopularhit.Italsoledtonumerous
othertranslations,fewofwhichwereputonstage.C.V.RamanPillai's
Chandramukhivilasam(1885),KochunniThampuran'sKalyaniKalyanam
(1888),K.C.KesavaPillai'sLakshmiKalyanam(1893),KandathilVarghese
Mappila'sEbrayakutty(1894)aswellasKalahinidamanakam(from
Shakespeare'sTamingoftheShrew)andKocheepanTharakan's(1861
1940)Mariamma(publishedin1903,theauthorclaims1878asthedateof
composition)weremajorlandmarksinthegrowthofMalayalamdrama.
C.V.'sChandramukhivilasamisacombinationofSanskritelements
andwesternelements,MariammadramatizesthecharacteristicallyChristian
domesticproblemoftheconflictbetweenmotherinlawanddaughterin
law.Itisaplayclearlymodelledonwesternsocialproblemplayinprose
interspersedwithquatrainsinverse.Theuseofdialectisrealisticand
effective.C.V.RamanPillaireturnedtothestagein1909with
Kurupillakalari,aprosecomedyinthemannerofGoldsmithandSheridan.
Itwasaveryeffectivesocialsatire.Thehenpeckedhusbandandthe
westernizedEnglisheducatedladyaresatirizedintheplay.C.V.'slater
dramaticworksincludedThentanamkottuHarischandran(1914),
KaimalassanteKadassikkai(1915),PandathePatchan(1918)andButler
Pappan(1921).Thesearebasicallyfarceswithanemphasisonsocial
satire.Hisrealcontributiontodramaperhapsconsistsofdramatizationsof
hisfamoushistoricalnovels:theyareamongthebesthistoricalplaysstill
putonstage.K.PKaruppan'sBalakaleswam(1914)isaplaywitha
message,althoughtraditionalinform.Thetraditionalkindofverseusedinit
maybesaidtogiveanaddedsharpnesstoitssocialcriticism.Itadvocates
progressivemeasuresofsocialreforminunmistakabletermsandcallsupon
thegovernmenttoputanendtocastepracticesbylawandtopromotethe
educationandupliftmentofthelowerclasses.Itispropheticinthissense
andprovokedbitteroppositionatthetime.
E.VKrishnaPillai(18951938)inheritedfromC.V.RamanPillai
thetraditionofsocialcomedyontheonehandandhistoricaltragedyonthe
other.E.V.'snativecomicgiftwasputtogooduseinhisPranayakkammishan
77
(1932),B.A.Mayavi(1933)andVivahakammattam(1934).Himselfan
actor,hecouldexploitdevicesofstagepresentationeffectively.Theserious
sideofhispersonalityfoundexpressioninhishistoricaltragedies.Sitalakshmi
(1926),RajaKesavaDasan(1930)andIravikuttyPillai(1934).They
arereallythedramaticcounterparttoC.V.RamanPillai'sfictional
representationofhistory.E.V.'scomiclegacywaspursuedbyN.P.
ChellappanNair,M.G.KesavaPillaiandT.N.GopinathanNair.Histragic
heritagewassustainedandimproveduponbyKainikkaraPadmanabhaPillai
withhisVeluThampiDalavaandKalvariyileKalpapadapam(1934),
KappanaKrishnaMenonwithhisCheramanPerumalandPazhassiRaja,
KainikkaraKumaraPillaiwithhisHarishchandran(1934),Mohavum
Muktiyum(1938)andKuttanadRamakrishnaPillaiwithhisTaptabashpam
(1934).ThepartplayedbySreeChithiraThirunalVayanassala,
Thiruvananthapuram,inpromotingthewritingofnewplayseveryyearfor
theannualperformanceontheMaharaja'sbirthdayisverysignificantin
thisregard,althoughonmanyoccassionsithadtobesatisfiedwithsecond
rateorthirdrateplays.Butithaskeptupthelongestcontinuoustraditionin
amateuractinginThiruvananthapuram:arareachievementinitself.
ThemostimportanttheatreartsinKeralahavealwayshadtheir
devotedaudienceinthevillages.Thereintheopenairtheritualisticartslike
Padayani,Theyyam,Kakkarassi,PoothamkaliandPoorakkaliarestill
attractinglargecrowds.Theclassicalperformingartsreceivedabigboost
inthepresentcenturywiththefoundingofKeralaKalaMandalambythe
poetVallathol.Attakkathascontinuetobewrittenonoldsubjectsaswell
asnewones.Thepuristsandthetraditionalitsdonotquitefavourthe
wideningoftherangeoftheKathakalirepertoire.Changesnevertheless
aretakingplace,howeverimperceptibletheymaybeatthetime.Dramaon
thewesternmodelhasalwayshadtofaceanimplicitchallengefromthese
traditionalperformingartswithahoaryheritagebehindthem.Inmorerecent
timesthecinemamayappeartobeathreat,butthesechallengesshouldbe
asourceofinspirationforthedramatistcommittedtohisvocation.The
influenceofTamilmusicalsandtheirMalayalamadaptationsorimitations
waskeenlyfeltinthe1920'sand1930's.Itisperhapsalegacyfromthe
tremendouslypopularSangitanaishadham(1892)ofT.C.AchuthaMenon
(18701942)andthelaterBalagopalam(1920)ofKuttamathKunjukrishna
78
Kurup.ThemusicaldramaversionofKumaranAsan'sKarunawasalsoa
verypopularplayonthecommercialstage.Thistraditionmaybesaidto
continuestill,occasionallywithanoverdoseofspicyhumourorwithaleftist
orientedpoliticalmessage.
Malayalamdramaunderwentasignificantdevelopmentinthe
1930's.ItmaybesaidtohavestartedwiththediscoveryofIbsen.A.
BalakrishnaPillai,oneofthemajorcriticsoftheperiod,translatedIbsen's
GhostsintoMalayalamin1936andwrotearticlesabouthimtopopularize
thekindofdramathatIbsenseemedtostandfor.In1940C.Narayana
PillaitranslatedRosmersholm.Thistrendmergedwiththenewmovement
whichhadalreadymadesomeadvancesinMalabar.Thatdramawasno
mereentertainment,thatitwasastrongmeansofsocialawakeningand
thatseriousdramacouldmakeapowerfulappealtotheaudience:these
truthsweredemonstratedbytwoplaysbasedontheBrahmincommunity
inMalabar.AdukkalayilninnuArangathekku(FromtheKitchentothe
SceneofAction1930)byV.TRamanBhattathiripad,tracesthehistory
oftheliberationoftheNamboothiriwomen.Itwasanepochmakingplay,
mainlybecauseofitsideologicalthrust.Ritumati(TheNubileMaiden
1939)byM.PBhattathiripadcontinuedthemovement.K.Damodaran's
Pattabakki(RentalArrears1938)isourfirstplayonasociopolitical
theme.Itisoutandoutpropangandist,yethasanimportantdifference
fromtheconventionaltypeofcommercialdramawithoutanyserious
thoughtinit.Thefortieswerethusreadyforarealtakeoff.New
playwrightslikeN.KrishnaPillai,PulimanaParameswaranPillai,Edasseri
GovindanNairandC.J.ThomasbroughtintothestageinKeralathemuch
neededseriousnessofgenuinetragedythroughthefrontdooritself.N.
KrishnaPillaihaddeclaredhisintentionsasaplaywrightincategorical
terms,"theidealplay,asfarasIamconcerned,isoneinwhichsome
seriousandfundamentalhumanproblemisrealisticallyanalysedand
handledwiththeutmostconcentration,avoidingwastageinwords,
dialogues,situationsandcharacters.ThisidealwasinstilledinmebyIbsen
whomIconsidertobethemostsuccessfulmasterdramatistofthemodern
ageandhencehaveattemptedtoemulate,withdiscrimination,hisdramatic
formandtechniqueinmyplays".
79
KrishnaPillai'smajorworksareBhagnabhavanam(Shattered
Home:1942),Kanyaka(TheVirgin1944)andBalabalam(TheTrialof
Strength1946)PulimanaParameswaranPillai'sSamathvawadi(The
Socialist:1944)isaprecociousworkitemploystheexpressionistdevice
withconsummateskill.EdasseriGovindanNair'sKoottukrishi(Joint
Farming:1950)emphasisedthevalueofrusticrealism.Anewdimensionto
theseriousproblemplaywasgivenbyC.J.ThomasinhisAvonVeendum
Varunnu(HeComesAgain).Itisaworkthatanticipatesthelater
developmentofMalayalamdrama.C.J.Thomas'experimentalurgeachieves
itsmagnificentfulfilmentinhisCrime27of1128(19521954).Achallenge
todirectorsandactors,CrimeisuniqueamongMalayalamdramas.Before
BeckettandIonescobecameknownaswritersoftheAbsurdTheatreand
withoutproclaiminghimselftobethefounderofanyschool,C.J.Thomas
gavetotalexpressiontohisconceptofdramaneithertragedynorcomedy
alone,butbothatthesametime,eachseekingitsjustificationintheother.
C.J.Thomaswastowriteonemoretragedy,AaManushyanNeeThanne
(ThouArtThatMan),adramatizationoftheBibilicalstoryofDavidand
Bathsheba.Thispatternofepicdramasonpuranicthemeswastakenupby
C.N.SreekantanNairafterhisfirstattemptsthesocialdrama.Thefifties
andearlysixtiesweretheperiodofstagemusicals,oftenwithapronounced
sociopoliticalbias.ThoppilBhasi,N.N.Pillai,K.TMohammed,G.Sankara
PillaiandKavalamNarayanaPanicker,amongothers,havekeptthetheatre
activeandmeaningfulduringthepostindependenceperiod.
Poetry:TheSecondGenerationofRomantics
Ofthethreepoets,Asan,UlloorandVallathol,itwasVallatholthe
youngestthatattractedthelargestfollowinginhislifetimeandenjoyedthe
greatestpopularity.AmongthosewhowereclosetohiminstyleareNalappat
NarayanaMenon,KuttippurathuKesavanNair,K.M.Panikkar,G.Sankara
Kurup,PallathuRaman,Bodheswaran,VennikulamGopalaKurup,P.
KunjiramanNair,PalaiNarayananNair,M.PAppanandBalamaniAmma.
NalappattNarayanaMenon(18871955)ismainlyrememberedforhis
classicelegyonthedeathofhiswife,KannuneerTulli(TearDrop),oneof
thebestmeditativelyricsinMalayalam.LiketheEnglishelegiacpoets,he
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ispromptedtospeculateonthemearningoflifebytheexperienceof
bereavement:
Infinite,inscrutableandineffable.
Therouteonwhichspinsthiscosmicglobe
Whatdoesmanknowofitstruemeaning,
Wholooksatitfromanobscurecorner?
Thisphilosophicalstrainwhichisanundercurrentofromanticpoetry
makesNalappattNarayanaMenonclosesttoAsanofallthepoetsinthe
Vallatholschool,KuttippurathuKesavanNair(18831959)inhispoem
GrameenaKanyaka(TheVillageMaid)wroteaboutthesimplejoysof
theruralsocietythatwerethreatenedbytheprospectofurbanization.
PallathuRaman(18921950)mainlywrotepoemsofsocialrevolt,K.M.
Panikkar(18951963),alsoahistorianinEnglishandanovelistintheC.V.
tradition,cameundertheinfluenceoftheearlyVallatholandwrotepoems
inseveralgenres.
G.SankaraKurup(19001978),broughtupintheclassicisttradition
ofUlloorandVallathol,fellearlyundertheinfluenceofRabindranathTagore
andemergedasoneofthemajorvoicesinthe1930's.Hepassedthrough
variousstagesofevolutionmarkedbymovementssuchasmysticism,
symbolism,realismandalsosocialistrealism.Amonghismajorlyricaland
meditativepoemsareNakshatragitam(SongoftheStar),Suryakanthi
(TheSunflower),InnuNjanNaleNee(TodayI,TomorrowThou),
Nimisham(TheMoment)andViswadarsanam(TheCosmicVision).They
areallimbuedwithaspiritualearnestnesswhichoftenbringshimcloserto
thepoetryofKumaranAsan.HisdramaticmonologuePerumthachan
(TheMasterCarpenter),isoneofthesuccessfulpoemsinthatgenrein
Malayalam.
VennikulamGopalaKurup(19021980)hasstayedmoreorless
withintheVallatholframework,buthasachievedsomefineeffectsinhis
bestpoemsaboutscenesineverydaylife.P.KunhiramanNair(19091978)
wasanindefatigablechampionofthenativetraditionoflifeandanunwearied
admirerofthebeautyofKeralalandscape.NalappattBalamoniAmmais
thegreatestpoetessKeralahasproducedsofar.Sheisequallygoodat
81
domesticthemesandatspeculativephilosophy.Herlongermonologuesbased
onParasurama,Viswamitra,MahabaliandVibhishanaaddanewdimension
toVallathol'sportrayalsofpuraniccharactersandepisodes.
Twopoets,EdappallyRaghavanPillaiandChangmpuzhaKrishna
Pillai,broughtinanewbreathoflifeintotheMalayalampoetryofthe
1930's.EdappalliRaghavanPillai(19091936),oneofthetrueinheritorsof
unfulfilledrenownamongmodernMalayalampoets,broughtoutand
emphasizedthefinerelementswhichwereoftenmutedinthepoemsofthe
VallatholSchool.Hispoetryremindsusofavibrantmelodyplayedona
singlestringinstrument.Beforehecommittedsuicidein1936hewrotea
fewexcellentlyricsinthepurerromanticstrainwithnohangoverfrom
neoclassicism.Theclosealliancebetweennatureandthepoet'smoodof
themomentisarecurringthemeinhiswork,asinthefollowinglinesfrom
Prateeksha(Hope):
Comeaway,comeaway,mybirdofhope
Darknessisspreadingeverywhere!
Singingitslastsong,tothewest
Hasflownthegoldenbirdoftwilight
Intheflowergardenofthenight
Alreadythejasminebudsoftonighthaveblossomed.
Thelastflickeringsmileofthelotus
Hasmeltedintothetwilightglow
Thecuckoo,tiredofitssinging,
Isasleeponthetreeintheyard.
Mybirdofhope,wanderingsomewhere
Intheheavens,pleasecomeaway!
Thedoubledistilledessenceofromanticlyricism,tenderanddelicate
andwistful:neverbeforeorafterinthehistoryofMalayalampoetryhasit
beencapturedinwords.EdappalliRaghavanPillaihasbeencomparedby
A.BalakrishnaPillaitoLeopardiofItaly:thebroodingmelancholyofan
autumnalafternoonlingersoverthepoemsofboth.RaghavanPillai'sbest
poemisperhapsManinadam(Thesoundofthebells)whichendswitha
quietprayer:
82
Willeachdropofmyblood
Drippingfrommyheart'sbrokenwall
Tiredoftherepeatedbatterings
Oftheroughrubblesofinsult
Inspirethepenthatwriteslovesongs?
Andifitdoes,willitbeeffective?
HiscompanionChangampuzhaKrishnaPillai(19111948)metthe
samechallengeoflifewithgreaterresilience.Butdeepdowninhimtoo
thereglowedanincurableidealismwhichsawtheworldinprimarycolours.
Ina'statement'inverseprefixedtohisfirstvolumeBashpanjali(Tearful
Offerings1934)hesaid:
Maybeit'srightthisworld
Maybeasourceofuniquejoys
Maybeawaveinthemilkysea
Ofthelifeofpowerandpomp:
UnluckythatI'am,whateverIsaw
Wasshroudedinpain!
Whateverfelluponmyears
Wasthecryofpity!
Whatevermyburningsoulsuffered
Weresighs,deepandhot.
Changampuzha'smostpopularworkisapastoralplayinversecalled
Ramanan.ItisadramatizationofthelifeanddeathofRaghavanPillai
presentedinidealizedterms.Itsromanticmelodieshavecapturedthe
lovelinessofthelandscapeofKeralawithitsevergreentreesandits
numerousrivers.WithChangampuzha,Malayalampoetrycomesdirectly
undertheinfluenceofworldpoetryotherthanEnglishtoo.Hewasaprolific
writerwithaneverwideningreadership.Hewassusceptibletodifferent
kindsofinfluencefromtimetotime:hehaswrittenpoemsbothextolling
vediccultureandcondemningitvehementlyhehasdenouncedsocialism
andhashailedMarx.Thesecontradictionsexistonlyontheintellectual
plane.Themagicofhispoetrysubsumesalltheseparadoxes.Hislast
collectionofpoemsSwararagasudha(1948)representshisartatitsmost
83
mature."Rakkilikal"(Nightbirds:1946)isintheformofaduetrecitedbya
youngmanandayoungwomancallinguponthesleepingworldtoawaken
toanewday,betterandbrighterthaneverbefore."Manaswini"(Woman
withagenerousheart:1947)isanautobiographicalpoeminwhichthepoet
payshishomageinglowingwords
Asmyheart,reflectingonyou,
Meltsanddissolvesinareverie,
Mysoul,urgedbysomeecstasy,
Isthrilledthroughandthrough
Pain,pain,intoxicating
Pain:letmedrenchmyselfinit!
Drenchmyselfandfromwithinme
Letasoftstrainofthefluteflow.
Changampuzhapassedawayin1948andwiththatthemagicworld
ofromanticismtoocametoanend.Inthethirtiesandforties,realismhad
threatenedtocreepintoMalayalampoetry,butnevercouldraiseitshead
veryhigh,EdasseriGovindanNairwasoneofthefirstpoetstouseanon
romanticdictionandtalkabouttheproblemsoflifewithprecisionand
sharpness.Rurallifeandindustriallifeappearinhispoems(Puthenkalavum,
Arivalum(Thenewpotandthesickle)"Panimudakku"(Strike)innaked,
unadornedandnottoomusicalverse.Changampuzha'sprotestsongswere
somellifluousthattheyoftenlulledboththerebelandhisopponentintothe
luxuryofadaydream.Edasserimadetherebelthinkandunderstand,before
rushingintoafuryofviolence.ThroughhimMalayalampoetrylearnedto
shedsomecolourfulbutunhealthyencrustationsandspeakthelanguageof
truthasin"Burythegriefsinapitandletustakealeaptopower".
VyloppilliSreedharaMenon(19111985)isperhapsthelastofour
majorlinkswithVallathol.Hesurvivedthefloodtideofthepoetryof
Changampuzha,hisexactcontemporary.Hestartedpublishingcollections
lateandinthelatefortiesandfiftieshewrotesomeofhisverybestpoems.
Hehadoncedeclaredhimselftobea"poetofbeauty",butlaterextended
themeaningoftheworld"beauty"tocoverallaspectsoflife.Hispoetry
gainedindepthandcomplexityintheyearsthatfollowed.Hismostpopular
84
poemis"Mampazham"(RipeMango),averyearlyworkillustratingthe
Wordsworthianviewthatchildrenareprophets.Amonghismoremature
worksare"SahyanteMakan"(SonoftheWesternGhats)presentingwith
sympathyandunderstandingthetroubledthoughtsofatempleelephantin
theprocessofgoingcrazyandrunningamuck.Theromanticstrainisnot
absentinhim,forexample"Oonjalinmel"(OntheSwing),butitdoesnot
leadtouncontrolledoutburstsortorrentialoverfloworloosemeanderings.
Healwaysexercisesseverecontroloverhismatterandmannerseldom
doeshetoleratesentimentalityormelodrama.Hismostambitiouspoemis
perhapsKudiyozhikkal(Eviction),akindoflyricaldramaticnarrativein
whichthepoettriestodramatizehisownambivalencevisavisthe
communityatlargeandtoclarifytheroleofthepoetinaworldofchanging
values.

TheEdappallischoolcontinuedforalittlewhileinthefiftiesasin
theworksofP.Bhaskaran.ButtheEdasserilinegotstrengthenedwiththe
comingintothesceneofN.V.KrishnaWarrier(19161989)authorof
NeendaKavitakal(LongPoems)andKochuthomman,AkkithamAchuthan
Nambudiri,authorofIrupathamNootandinteItihasam(TheEpicofthe
TwentiethCentury)andOlappamanna,authorofNangemakutty.
FictionintheForeground
Inthewakeofthewesternnovelcamethewesternshortstory.
ThestoriesinthepuranasorinworkslikePanchatantracouldnotgive
risetoamodernformofshortfiction.WhenEnglishcametoinfluencethe
prosestyle,italsoledtotheuseofproseforstorytelling.Amongtheearliest
practitionersoftheshortstoryinMalayalamareVengayilKunhiraman
Nayanar(18611915),AmbadiNarayanaPoduval(18711936),Murkot
Kumaran(18741941),K.Sukumaran(18761956)andM.R.K.C.or
ChenkulathKunhiramaMenon(18821940).Intheplaceofanativetradition
ofstorytelling,theydevelopedanewmodebyincorporatingthewestern
narrativetradition.Butthestoriesoftheseearlydecadesofthe20thcentury
werequaintacountsofepisodes,theirmainpurposeseemstohavebeento
provideentertainmenttotheliteratepopulation.Buttheshortstorybeganto
forgeaheadinthe1930's.Anewgenerationofwriterswerejustwaitingin
85
thewingswhentheSahityaParishathwaslaunchedin1927intheplaceof
theoldKavisamajamstartedin1892andthelaterBhashaposhiniSabha
whichhadbecomedefunct.Thebestlinkbetweentheolderwritersofthe
shortstoryandthenewgenerationwasE.V.KrishnaPillai,whosestories
arecollectedinKelisoudham.In1937theyoungerwritersstartedaJivat
SahityaSamitiwhichin1944grewintotheProgressiveLiteratureAssociation.
Whateverlimitationsthismovementmayhavehad,theemphasisputonthe
realitiesoflifeandontheneedtorelateliteraturetocontemporaryproblems
haditssalutaryeffectontheshortstory.Perhapswithoutthisnewawakening,
theMalayalamshortstorywouldhaveremainedwhereitwasbefore.But
inthenewcircumstancestheshortstorygotaboost.Someofthebest
talentswentintothisfield.
KarurNeelakantaPillai(18981974),P.KesavaDev(19041983),
PonkunnamVarkey(b,1908),VaikomMuhammedBasheer(19121994)
S.K.Pottekkat(19131982),ThakazhiSivasankaraPillai(b,1914),PC.
Kuttikrishnan(19151979),LalithambikaAntharjanam(19091987)andK.
SaraswathiAmma(19191974)wereamongthemastersofthenewshort
storythatbeganitsbrilliantcareerinthe1930'sandachievedgreatheights
inthenexttwentyyears.Karurwasahumanisttothecoreandevenwhen
heusedsatirehehadhissympathiesintherightquartersintheright
proportion.Themoralizingstrainiscompletelymutedinhisbeststories
suchas"Marappavakal"(WoodenDolls),"Poovampazham"(Bananas)and
"Mothiram"(TheRing),ComparedwiththestoriesofE.V.KrisnnaPillai
orBhavathrathanNambudiripad,thestoriesofKarurarefinishedproducts.
Hisstoriesabouttheepisodesinthelifeofaschoolteachersuchashewas,
aremarkedbyselectiverealismandpoignantpathos.Heis,perhaps,the
mosteconomicalofourshortstorywriters.
KesavaDevbeganasapoliticallyorientedwriterandhissympathies
laywiththeoppressedclasses.Heisoftenimpatientabouttheaesthetic
side.Hisviewisthatifthewritertakesenoughcareaboutwhathehasto
say,thentechnicalexcellencewillautomaticallyfollow.Nevertheless,some
ofhisearlystoriesarequitemovingbecauseoftheirraw,unselfconscious
craftsmanship.Noonecanwritewithoutcraftanditistheregardfor
authenticityinartisticcommunicationthatmakesawritercarefortheway
86
communicationisachieved."MeenkaranKoran"(Koran,thefisherman)is
astorythatwellrevealsbothDev'sthematicobsessionsandhistechnique
ofnarration.PonkunnamVarkeyisalsoconcernedwithsociopoliticalreality
andhisearlystoriesareopenattacksonthechurch.Theattempttobringto
lightthehiddenmotivationsforoutwardlypiousactionsiswhatVarkeyis
speciallyinterestedininhisstorieswhichexposethefoiblesorcrueltiesof
thechurchasaninstitution.Hisyoungercontemporary,PonjikkaraRaphy
continuedforatime,thistiradeagainstthe"tyranny"oftheCatholicChurch.
VaikomMuhammedBasheer,quiteunlikeVarkey,worksbysuggestion.He
isalsoasocialcritic(hereacriticoftheweaknessesoftheIslamicsociety
inKerala)buthedoesnotshoutorharanguelikeDevandVarkey.Heis
closertoKarurinthisrespect.Themasterartistinhimisfullyrevealedin
storieslike"Poovanpazham"(Banana),"BhargaviNilayam"and
"MuchittukalikaranteMakal"(Agambler'sdaughter).Thereishumour
andpathosinseveralofhisbeststories.
S.K.Pottekkatismoreinterestedinpsychologythaninsocialreality.
Hisstorieslike"Stri"(Woman),"Vadhu"(TheBride)and"Nisagandhi"
(Flowerofthenight)revealthis.Theabsenceofapropagandistobsession
enableshimtouseapoeticstyle.Someofthestoriesarelaidinplaces
outsideKerala.Hisromanticinterestsarereflectedinthetitlesofhis
collection:Indraneelam,Chandrakantham,Padmaragam,(namesof
preciousstones)"Rajamally","Kanakambaram","Nisagandhi"(namesof
flowers)Pulliman,Himavahini,Manimalika,Vanakaumudi(allwordswith
richassociations).
ThakazhiSivasankaraPillaistartedasashortstorywriterinthe
lineofGuydeMaupassantwhowasprobablyintroudcedtohimbyA.
BalakrishnaPillai.Hehasanunerringeyeforthetellingdetailandinhis
beststorieshemakesthiseffectbyusingasimpleunadornedstyle.Compared
withhimPottekatandKuttikrishnanmaybesaidtoemployanornatestyle,
a"precious"dictionandaimatspecialeffects.InThakazhi,thestyleisnot
anendinitself.Wedonotseeit,asamatteroffact,weseethroughit.He
iscapableofclinicalanalysisandobjectivereportinginaneutralstyle.One
ofhispopularearlystoriesis"Vellappokkam"(Flood).Hismajorthemes
concernthelifeofthepeasantsandthehavenots.Butitmaybesaidthat
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undertheinfluenceofhisFrenchmasters,thereisanoverdoseof"naturalist"
writingintheearlystories,roughlyinthemannerofZola.
LalithambikaAntharjanamandK.SaraswathiAmmaareamong
theforemostwomenstorytellersinMalayalamtheydealwiththepieties
ofdomesticlife.Antharjanam'sstoriesaremarkedbyherinnatesympathy
forpeopleindistress.Shehasalsoagreatdealofvarietyofthemes,as
exemplifiedby"Pancharayumma"(Asweetkiss)ontheonehandand
"SathyathinteSwaram"(TheVoiceofTruth)ontheother.Theformeris
personal,subjective,domestic,delicate,lyrical,theotheristragic,social,
public,harsh,dramatic.TheproblemsofaNambudirihouseholdarealso
takenupattimes,asin"Kuttasammatham"(Confession).SaraswathiAmma
hasalesssophisticatedstyle.Herforthrightanalysisofmanwoman
relationshipisnottoocommoneveninWesternliterature.Theshortstories
ofP.C.Kuttikrishnanpresenttheinterplayoftheromanticandtherealistic.
LikeKarurandBasheerKuttikrishnanalsoiscapableofusinghumourasan
undertone.Itdoesnotgraduateintosatire.Healsorevealsauniqueinsight
intohumannature.Thepsychologyoftheproletariathasseldombeenportrayed
betterthaninsomeoftheearlyshortstoriesofPonjikkaraRaphy,justas
middleclasslifeisvividlyportrayedinthestoriesofVettoorRamanNair.
Thedevelopmentofthenovelinthesecondquarterofthetwentieth
centuryisacloseparalleltothegrowthoftheshortstoryasoutlinedabove.
ChanduMenonandC.V.RamanPillaihadestablishedtwolineagesinthe
Malayalamnovel.Foralongwhiletheywerewithoutanyrealfollowing.
Theywereimitatedadinfinitum.Socialandhistoricalnovelscameoutin
largenumbers.Buttherewasnocreativeoriginalityinanyofthem.Narayana
Kurukkal(18611948)wroteParappuram(duringthe1890's)and
Udayabhanuduringthe1900's,whichmayberegardedassettingupa
newgenre,viz.,thepoliticalnovel,VirutanSanku(Sanku,thesmartfellow)
byKarattAchuthaMenon(18671913)waswrittenin1913.RamaVarma
AppanThampuran(18761942)wastheauthoramongnumerousotherthings
thenovelBhootharayar(1923),AmbadiNarayanaPoduval'sKeralaputran
alsodeservesmentionhere.Thesewerenotmajorachievements.Thusit
mightbesaidthatthecourseofextendedprosefictioninMalayalamappeared
tohavecometoanend.
88
Itwasthenthatin1931aworkthatwasuniqueinmanyways
cameoutitwasApphanteMakal(Uncle'sDaughter)byBhavatratan
Nambudiripad.LikeV.T.Bhattathiripad'splayAdukkalayilNinnu
Arangathekku,producedaboutthesametime,thisnovelalsohadaprofound
socialrelevance.Butapartfromthat,itwasveryreadablestoryinprose,
thecharacterswerefullyaliveandthesocialsituation,fullyrealizedinthe
contextofthenovel.
Thefreshawakeningofthenovelinthethirtieswasduetovarious
factorssuchasthearrivalonthesceneofanewgenerationofwriters,the
demandforreadingmaterialforthenewlyliterate,theexposureof
MalayalamwriterstothenewvistasofRussianandFrenchfictionthrough
thewritingsofBalakrishnaPillaiandageneralinterestamongthepeoplein
matterssocial,politicalandcultural,whichisalsoseeninournationallifeat
thetime.Thefortiesandtheearlyfiftieswereabusyperiodforthe
novelistsasthefollowingshows.
1942OdayilNinnu(OutoftheGutter,KesavaDev)
1944BalyakalaSakhi(ChildhoodfriendBasheer
1946Nad(Actress:Dev)
1947Sabdangal(Voices:Basheer)
1956
1948
1949
1958
1957
1955
1951
1950
ThottiyudeMakan(Scavenger'sSon:Thakazhi)
Vishakanyaka(PoisonMaid:Pottekkat)
Randidangazhi(TwoMeasuresThakazhi
Bhrantalayam(MadHouse:Dev)
Arkuvendi(ForWhoseSake:Dev)
Entuppuppakkoranendarnnu
(MyGrandpahadanElephant:Basheer)
Ummachu(Kuttikrishnan)
Chemmeen(PrawnsThakazhi)
PathummuyudeAadu(Pattumma'sGoatBasheer)
SundarikalumSundaranrmarum(WomenandMen
ofCharm:Kuttikrishnan).
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Itisclearfromtheabovelistthatmostofthetimethesamepeople
wroteshortstoriesandnovels.Thustheearlymodernnovelisnomorethan
anextendedshortstory,ifthenovelistdoesnotappearonthestageandadd
hisowncommentsandexplanations,thenovelwouldbestillshorter.
Thakazhi'searlyworkPathithaPankajam(FallenLotus),Dev'sOdayil
Ninnu,Pottekkat'sNadanPremam(CountryLove)andBasheer's
BalyakalaSakhiarenovelsofthiskind.Dev'sNatiandPottekkat's
Vishakanyakahavegraduatedintowhatmaybecalledthenovelproper.
ThusthemodernnovelinMalayalamismostlyapostwarphenomenon.
Whatisimportanthereisthataspectsoflifewhichhadneverenteredinto
literaturebeforewithsufficientforceordepth,sweptintoitnow,through
thesenovels.Thenovelasagenreinthehandsofthesewritersispurelya
westerntransplantationnoneofthemhastriedtoevolveanindigenous
formofprosenarration.TheinfluenceofChekhov,Maupassant,Gorky,
Hugo,Tolstoy,Steinbeck,KnutHamsunandperhapsDostoievskythelist
canbelengthened.Butitmusthoweverbegrantedthatthesenovelists
widenedtherangeofourreaders'interestsandthusprovidedamuchneeded
educationinliterarysensibility,Pappu,Chathan,Koran,Ummachu,
Karuthamma,Majid,Suhra,Ousephtheywereallgrantedentryintothe
templeofSaraswati.ThePariahandtheNambudirijostledshouldersin
claimingthecompassionandconsiderationofthereadingpublic.Andwhat
ismore,thenovelwasnomoreameremeansofentertainment,adecoration
oranoutgrowth.Itwaslikelifeitself,ascreatedbytheartist'svision.In
thefiftiesthenovelbecamethemostproductiveliteraryformbutsceptics
continuedtofeeltherewasnotyetanyonetochallenge.ChanduMenon
noranynovelyettostandcomparisonwithRamarajaBahadur.
LiteraryCriticism
Amongtheformsofnonfictionprosethatreceivedatremendous
onwardpushinthemodernperiod,wasliterarycriticism.Inthe1930'sand
40'sthreenamesbecamemostinfluential.ABalakrishnaPillai(18891960),
JosephMundasseri(19011977)andKuttikrishnaMarar(19001973).Their
criticalwritingsaremostlyinterpretativeratherthantheoretical.Intheory,
theytriedtodrawuponliteratureinotherlanguages.BalakrishnaPillaiand
MundesserimostlyuponEuropeanliterature,includingRussian,whileMarar
90
wasmainlyconfinedtoandcontentedwithvedicandclassical,Sanskrit
literature.BalakrishnaPillaiwroteelaboratestudiesoftheselectedlyrics
ofEdappalliRaghavanPillai,ChangampuzhaKrishnaPillai,G.Sankara
KurupKedamangalamPappukuttyandworkslikeKeralaVarma's
MayurasandesamandThakazhi'sThalayode(skull).Hehadwidelyread
inEuropeanliterature,French,Russian,Italianetc.,andoftenquotedfrom
orreferredtoworksintheselanguagesforcomparisonandcontrastwith
contemporaryMalayalamliterature.Hewasinawayresponsibleforthe
cultivationoftheexoticinMalayalamliterature.Hisobessionwiththe
theoreticalaspectsofliteraryschoolsandmovements,witharchaeology
andancienthistory,withmythandpsychoanalysisandwithliterarygenres
andformalistcriticism,helpedfertilizetheotherwisebarrengroundofliterary
criticisminMalayalam.Attimesheseemedtoindulgeinoversimplification
andcategorization,buteventhenhedidhelpreaderstolookforspecific
elementsinliteraryworks.Hewasmainlyresponsibleforthemodernization
ofliterarytasteinMalayalam.Respectforcontemporaryclassicsseemsto
havebeenhiswatchword.
JosephMundasseribeganhiscareerasacriticbylookingfora
meansofsynthesizingIndianpoeticswiththeinsightsofWesternliterary
criticism.Hewasabletosetforthsomeoftheseviewsinhisearlywork
KavyaPeetika.HeappliedthesetotheworksofKumaranAsanandtried
toidentifytheelementsofgreatnessinAsan'swork.Thus,likeBalakrishna
Pillai,hewasalsobentuponinterpretingandhighlightingcontemporary
classics.HisessaysinManadandam,showhisinterestinancientclassics
likeKalidasa'sMeghadoot.HiscontroversialtheoryaboutRoopabhadrata
formalexcellenceshowedthathewasnotevaluatingaworkofart
solelyonthebasisoftheproclaimedaimsofawriter.Buthesawtheartist
fundamentallyasaspokesmanofhisage.Thisestablishedhispositionas
thechiefarchitectofthetheoryofprogressiveliteratureinthe1940's.He
wasablysupportedbyahostofothercriticslikeM.S.Devadas,S.Guptan
NairandK.Damodaran.Mundasseridemonstratedtheusefulnessofthe
comparativemethodevenincontemporarystudiesinMattoli(Echo),
althoughhisconclusionswerenotalwayslogical.Hetriedhishand
occasionallyatfiction,buthisplaceinliteratureisbasicallythatofacritic.
Hewasmasterofasonorouskindofprose,fullofsanskritismsandinvolved
91
constructionshowingtheinfluenceofEnglishsyntax.Heusedthisstyleto
defendproletarianwritingwhichemploystheoppositekindofstyle.
ExactlyopposedtothestandofMudasseriwasthatofKuttikrishna
Marar,achampionofIndianclassicsandthevaluesofclassicalcriticism.
Hestartedhiscareeerasanintepretercommentatoroftheworksof
Vallathol,butsoonemergedintothearenafullyarmedtodefendvalues
whichseemedtobethreatenedwithextinctionundertheonslaughtsofthe
progressivists.HiseleboratecriticalstudyofMahabharatafromthepoint
ofviewofadedicatedandenlightenedclassicist(Bharataparyatanam),
hisopenavowalthatcriticalimpartialityisamisconceptionwherevalues
areatstake,hisadvocacyofartaslifeitself,asagainstartforlife'ssake,
hiswonderfulpenetrationintothefundamentalprinciplesofspiritualand
moralelementsinliteratureenabledhimtoestablishhispositionasamajor
criticalthoughhedidnotknowEnglishwellanddidnothavethebenefitsof
westerneducation.
AssoberasMarar,butwithalltheeruditionofA.Balakrishna
PillaiandthesocialcommitmentofMundasseriwasM.P.Paulwho,however,
didnotlivelongenoughtodojusticetohistalents.Hisstudiesofliterary
genres,especiallytheshortstoryandthenovel,hadatremendousimpact
notonlyoncritics,butonthenoveliststhemselves.Hisattempttostudy
aestheticsasfundamentaltothepracticeofliterarycriticismshowsthe
influenceofhisEnglisheducation.Hehadaneasy,unaffectedkindofmiddle
styleathiscommand,aprosefreefromthemannerismsofMundasseriand
theobscurantismofBalakrishnaPillai.
Anumberofessayistshadcontributedtothegrowthofproseand
literarycriticisminthefortiesandfifties.K.R.KrishnaPillai,R.Narayana
Panikkar,P.SankaranNambiar,SooranadKunjanPillai,GovindankuttyNair,
KainikkaraKumaraPillaiandA.D.Harisarmaareonlyafewofthem.
Amongthewritersofbiographicalandcriticalstudiesmaybementioned
PK.ParameswaranNair(SahityaPanchananan,C.V.RamanPillai),
K.M.George(SadhuKochukunju,JeevacharitaSahityam),K.
BhaskaranNair,{DaivaneetikkuDakshinyamIlia),N.KrishnaPillai
(ThiranjeduthaPrabandhangal)andPK.Balakrishnan(Narayanaguru,
TippuSultanandChanduMenonAstudy),Amongthetraveloguesare
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K.PKesavaMenon'sBilathiviseshamandnumerousvolumesbyS.K.
Pottekkat.Therehavebeenmanygreatmastersofhumour,themost
importantofthemareE.V.KrishnaPillai(18951938)andM.R.Nair
(Sanjayan,19031944).Sanjayanhadamoreseriousfacetoo.In
Sanityanikashamarecollectedanumberofbrilliantpiecesofliterarycriticism,
whichanticipatelaterdevelopmentsincomparativeliteraturestudies.
AmongtheirfollowersareN.P.ChellappanNairandP.K.RajarajaVarma.
ThemostimportantautobiographiesinthelanguageincludethoseofP.K.
NarayanaPillai(Smaranamandalam,1938),E.V.KrishnaPillai
(Jeevithasmaranakal1941),K.M.Panikkar(Atmakatha1953),K.P
KesavaMenon(KazhinjaKalam),Mundasseri(KozhinjaIlakal)andC.
Kesavan(Jeevithasamaram).
TheinformalessayhasbeenenrichedbythewritingsofE.V.
KrishnaPillai(ChiriyumChintayumin2parts.1936),whicharemarked
bysatire.Sanjayanwrotesocialsatirebothinproseandinverse.Thelight
essayhashadanumberofpractitionersbuttheyaremostlyscatteredin
variousperiodicals.ThetraditionofCherusseriandKunchanNambiarhave
beenkeptupbyprosewritersinourtime.Theliteratureofresearchhas
grownimmensely,duringtheperiod.Amongthehistoriesofliterature,the
greatestmonumentisUlloor'sKeralaSahityaCharitramwhichisa
compendiumofthehistoryofSanskritliteratureinKeralatoo.Dictionaries
likeSreekanteswaramPadmanabhaPillai'smonumentalSabdataravali
havebeenfollowedbyothermorediversifiedones.Booksonscienceand
technologyandondifferentaspectsofGandhismandMarxhavecomeout
inrecenttimes.
JournalismisaflourishingfieldandweeklieslikeMathrubhumi
andMalayalarajyamandmonthlieslikeMangalodayamusedtocaterto
thetastesoftheyoungeraswellastheoldergenerationofbothreadersand
writers.Thefiftiesbeganasaperiodofcontroversiessetafloatbythe
progressivemovementanditspoliticalization.Writerswereoftenurgedto
takesides,anditwasarguedthatnottakingsidesatallwasitselftakinga
certainside.Butamidstthedinandnoiseofthepolemicsandthesplashof
slogansandcatchwordsandstereotypedformulas,itseemsthatefforts
werebeingmadesomewhereforapowerfultakeoffafterthefifties.
93
AfterIndependence
Malayalamliteratureafterindependencehasbeenmakingsteady
progressinalmostallbranchesofliteraryendeavour.Theinfluence
ofthepoetictrinity(Asan,Ulloor,Vallathol)wasonthewane,andnew
trendshadtakenrootsevenbeforethearrivaloffreedom.Theperiodsaw
thecontinuationofneoromanticismmixedwithatouchofrealismthe
progressivemovementwithitscommitmenttorealismandevennaturalism,
haddissipatedwiththeKollamconferencebecauseofinternecinedispute
betweenCommunistpartyhardlinerslikeE.M.S.Nambudiripadandwriters
likeKesavaDev,ThakazhiSivasankaraPillaiandJosephMundassery.There
wasashortperiodofconfusionamongwriterscommittedtoleftistideology,
butfiction,poetryanddramaappearedtosteerclearoftheseideological
muddlesandemergeintoanewphase,throwingawayhackneyed
preoccupationsandformsofexpression.Thesecondhalfofthe20thcentury
couldthusbetermedpostprogressive,postromanticormodernist.Asin
manyotherIndianlanguages,changescontinuedtotakeplaceinMalayalam
tooonaparwithwhatwashappeninginmostliteraturesoftheworld.The
quarterofacenturyafterindependenceisoftenreferredtoasthemodernist
phase,whichforatimecoincidedwiththeleftoverprogressiveromantic
trends.Andthelastquartercenturyhassometimesbeenidentifiedasthe
94
postmodernphase.Justasindependenceusheredinmodernism,certain
politicalandsocialevents,suchastheEmergency(197577)helpedthe
transitionfrommodernismtopostmodernism.Whiletheemergenceofno
newmovementmarksacompletecutofffromtheexistingtrends,thereis
aperiodofoverlap,duringwhichthedyingpastandtheinchoatepresent
faceeachotherinanuneasycoexistence.
Poetry
Manyoftheseniorpoetsatthecomingofindependencewere
stillveryproductivewiththeirmatureworks,markingthefruitionofthe
tendenciesthatwerevisibleintheirearlyworks.G.SankaraKurup(1901
77)producedhismagnumopus,"Vishwadarshanam,"atatimewhensome
criticswerearguingthatthesproutofMalayalampoetryhadstoppedgrowing
andthatpoetryhadnofuture.Hewentontowritelyricalpieceslike
"Shivatandavam"(DanceofShiva)andnarrativeslike"Chandanakattil"
(SandalwoodBed).PettymindedwriterswentonwonderingwhetherKurup
wasapoetatall,whenhewaschosenforthefirsteverJnanpithPuraskar,
whichwasanunpleasantsurpriseforthem.P.KunhiramanNair(190678)
tooemergedfromundertheshadowofVallatholandgrewoutofhisearly
phaseasadevotionalpoethetoosurprisedhisreaderswithnewthemes
andstrikingimagery.FewpoetshavecapturedthebeautyofKerala'sland
andlandscape,peopleandnature,withsuchauthenticityashe.Hemoved
fromplacetoplaceallthroughKerala,lookingforthevanishedgraceand
wondrousbeautyofyore.N.BalamaniAmma(19092003),afterwriting
brilliantlyaboutmotherandgrandmotherandthedomesticvirtues,produced
aseriesofcharacterstudies,exploringthesignificanceofpuranicheroes
likeParasurama,Vibhishana,Mahabali,Vishwamitraandothers,and
uncoveringthehiddensideoftheirprowess.VyloppillilSreedharaMenon
(191185),whosefirstcollectioncameoutonlyin1948,achievedhisfull
gloryduringthepostindependenceyears.Hisnarrativepiece
"Kudiyozhikkal"(Eviction)wasabreakthroughinunderstandingthe
psychologyofthemiddleclassintheKeralasetting.Hisshorterpoemslike
"Oonjalil"(OntheSwing),"Onappattukaar,""Ujvalamuhurtam,"and
95
"Savitri,"revealtothereaderthequintessenceofpoetryinavarietyof
forms.VennikulamGopalaKurup,M.P.Appan,V.K.GovindanNairand
K.K.RajawereamongtheotherswhoenrichedMalayalampoetryintheir
ownways.Despitethedifficultconditionsofliving,Appanalwaysmaintained
apleasantattitudetolife.PalaiNarayananNair(b.1911)istheauthorofa
seriescalledKeralamValarunnu(KeralaisFlourishing),tracingthegrowth
anddevelopmentofKeralathroughmyths,legends,historyandsocial
progress,inadditiontoseverallyricalpieceswitharomanticorrealistic
touchlikeAmritakala(TheImmortalCrescent)andJeevitakahalam(The
BugleofLife).
Thedominantinfluenceonyoungpoetsatmidcentury,however,
wasthatofChangampuzhaKrishnaPillai(191148)withhisirrepressible
romanticpoeticvisionandexuberantstyle.Afterhisdeaththistrendsurvived
inthepoetsoftheneoromanticschool,someofwhomcherishedthe
languageandsentimentsalreadyemployedbyChangampuzha.P.Bhaskaran,
ThirunalloorKarunakaran,VayalarRamaVarma,PuthusseriRamachandran,
O.N.V.Kurup,PunalurBalanandotherstriedtocombinetheneoromantic
sentimentswiththeideasofsocialrevolution.Theymaybesaidtohave
shareduptoatimetheideologyofleftistpolitics.Insomewaysthistrend
hascontinuedtotheendofthe20thcentury.Someofthesewriterslater
turnedawayfromtheirearlierpreoccupations,butthelanguageandstyle
remainedwithoutchange.P.Bhaskaran(b.1924)wasaCommunist,went
undergroundin194647andwrotehisfamouspoem"VayalarGarjikkunnu"
(VayalarCriesOut),celebratingtheviolentprotestagainstautocracyinthe
villageofVayalarinerstwhileTravancore.Laterheleftthepartyandentered
thefilmworld,directingfilmsandwritinglyricsforthefilms,wherehe
distinguishedhimselfasafilmsongwriter.Hewroteafewanticommunist
poemslike"PretangaludePattu"(TheChorusoftheDead).Likehispopular
filmsongs,hislaterpoemsalsoevokesoftsentimentsaboutloveand
nostalgia."OrkkukaVallappozhum"(RememberatTimes)isacollectionof
personallyricsrichinemotion.Hismaturepoemshaveasobervisionof
lifeandperhapsasombreunderstandingofmanandhisenvirons.Vayalar
RamaVarma(192875)toowasinspiredbyideasofsocialrevolutionand
96
wasforatimewritingonthebasisofleftistpoliticalideology.Hetoo
graduallymovedawayfromtotalcommitmenttopoliticsanddeclaredthat
"theswordisnotmyweaponofwar"inhiswellknownpoem"Sarga
sangitam"(TheSongofCreation)HisnarrativepoemAyishawasofgreat
popularappeal,thoughnotobtrusivelypolitical.Buthishumanistfervour
neversubsided.PuthusseriRamachandran(b.1928)andPunalurBalan
(192987)toohadtheircommitmenttoleftistpolitics,butdidnotstrayinto
writingfilmlyrics.AvunnathraUcchathil(AttheTopofOne'sVoice)isa
collectionofPuthusseriRamachandran'srepresentativepoems.Punalur
Balan'smaturepoemsarecollectedinthevolumesKottayilePattu(The
SongattheFort)andRamanRaghavan.ThirunalloorKarunakaranadded
aclassicaltouchtohispoemswitharuralbackgroundpartlyduetohis
closeknowledgeSanskritclassics.O.N.V.Kurup(b.1931)alsobelonged
tothisgroupoferstwhilepinkpoetsforawhile,buthislaterpoemshavea
significancebeyondanygroupallegiance,asisseeninhis"Chorunu"(The
FirstFeedofRice),"Nalumanippookkal"(FourO'ClockFlowers),
"Suryagitam"(OdetotheSun)and"BhoomikkoruCharamagitam"(A
RequiemfortheEarth).Amonghismoreambitiousworksarethetwo
narratives,UjjayiniandSwayamvaram,whereheachievesanexcellence
notquitepossibleintheshortlyric.Fromhistoricalandpuraniclegendshe
recreatesinhisownmellifluousstylemenandwomenwhoarearchetypal
instature.
TheimmediatepostindependencesceneinMalayalamliterature
presentsamixtureofmultiplevisionsandidioms:sidebysidewiththese
neoromantictrendstherewasanotherschoolthatsteeredclearofthe
politicalclaptrapandwroteaboutmanashewasineverydaylife,usinga
languagethatwasasruggedasthelifeitwroteabout.EdasseriGovindan
Nair(190674)espousedavisionandastylethatwerediametricallyopposed
tothoseoftheromanticsandneoromantics.Heavoidedpoeticcliches,
favouredcommonspeech,hadadreadofmellifluousness,cloyingsentiments
andhackneyedideassometimesinvokingapopularmythtogivethepoem
apublicdimension,asin"Poothappattu"(TheSongoftheSprite)oran
incidentfromcontemporarylifetoprojectthesignificanceoftheordinary,
97
asin"PuthenkalavumArivalum"(TheNewCookingPotandtheSickle).
Thelatterpoemendswiththefamouscouplet:
Firstwemustreappower
AndafterthattheAryancrop.
Herethereisnomincingofwords,noresorttofinery,nosoundor
wordforitsownsake.
Aprovocativeantiromanticstancemaybefoundintheearlypieces
ofN.V.KrishnaWarrior(191689)."MadirasiyileOruSayahnam"(An
EveninginMadras)pokesfunattheinfatuationacollegestudentfeels
forhisAngloIndianclassmate,whomheidealizes,onlytomeetwitha
pitiablediscomfitureattheend.His"Rats"writtenagainstthebackground
ofthefamineduringWorldWarII,ismarkedbybitterironyandsatirein
favouroftheratsattheexpenseofthehumans.Withthesamevitriolic
penhewrotethepoem"MohanDasGandhiandNathuramGodse,""Kalla
Deivangal"(FalseGods)and"AvasanatheAspatri"(TheLastHospital).
M.Govindan(191989),anintellectualofnomeanorder,exposedthrough
hispoetryasthroughhisproseessaysthehypocrisyandcorruptionendemic
inthecontemporaryIndiansocialmilieu.His"GazetteNotification,"
"Lucifer'sSolicitor,"and"Pashanappattu"(PoisonSong)revealthe
intensityofhisrepulsionfortheevilforcesinsociety.Hisbiographical
poemonKunchanNambiar,the18thcenturymasterhumoristinMalayalam,
isatouchingaccountofthelastdaysofthatgreatpoet.Thesepoetsmay
besaidtohavepursuedtheEdasseriline,asopposedtotheEdappalliline.
TothismaybesaidtobelongwriterslikeKadavanatKuttikrishnan,
OlappamannaSubrahmanyanNambudiripadandAkkithamAchyuthan
Nambudiri.Akkitham(b.1926)sprangasurpriseonthereaderswithhis
longpoemIrupathamnoottandinteIthihasam(TheEpicofthe20th
Century),whichisamovingrejectionofallthecripplingideologiesinthe
mindsoftheyounginthe1950s.Hecastigatesthosewhomaintainthat
thestomachisthecentralconcernofmanandpleadthat"lightbrings
grief,darknessishappiness."InhislaterwritingslikeBalidarshanam
and"Karathalamalakam"(lit.GooseberryintheHand)and
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Sparshamanikalherevealshissterlingqualitiesasapoetinthegreat
Indiantradition.His"Nityamegham"(TheEverlastingCloud)isapoem
thatsubtlyinvokesthespiritofKalidasa'sCloudMessenger:itopens
withanimageoftheraincloud:
Withthefireandsteamofthepain
OfseparationfromtheBeloved,
Withasigh,withatear,
Thespiritoftimemakesaraincloud,
Andfliesitinplay
Throughtheskyoffancy
Asachildfliesakite.
R.Ramachandran(19232005)hadneoromanticleaningstobegin
with,howeverhesoondiscoveredhisownstyle,whichwasnotlikethatof
anyoneelse.Hewrotelittlebutthatlittlewasworthalot.G.KumaraPillai
(19232000)startedoffintheChangampuzhaschool,butashegrewup
triedotherstyles.Therearequiteafewbeautifullyricstohiscredit,such
as"Arorumorathe...,""Eenallanattilallo...,""Dharmadam
Dharmasankatam,"etc.ChemmanamChacko(b.1926)isobsessedwith
thedeclineofvaluesinoursocietyandheexposestoridiculeourvanities
andpretensionsinanumberofanthologies.In"Rice,"thespeakerreturns
fromNorthIndia,fedupwithchappathi,onlytofindthatriceisscarcein
hisownnativevillageinKerala.Kunjunni(b.1927),whohappenstobethe
bestknownpoetofchildren'sverseinmoderntimes,isalsoquicktonotice
theironiesincontemporarylife:
Afterall,menrushforward
Withlegsthatbendonlybackward!
Butthesediscrepanciesandresultingtensionsinlifegobeyond
simplehumourandassumemassiveproportionsoftragicironyinthepoems
ofN.N.Kakkad(192787).
99
Heusesalltheresourcesofpuranicmetaphorstoconjureupimages
ofhorrorstalkingthecorridorsoflife,asin"Invocation":
OBrobdingnagianmonster
jamming'my'flesh'into
abowlofbloodandsweat,
you,mylord,come!
Hereisaworm
thatinvokesyou
fromtheswarminggutter.
Suddenly,asitwere,thepseudoromanticillusionsoffellowpoets
toppledownandKakkadevokestheepiphanyofafacetofaceencounter
withtherealityofthisworld,couchedinthelanguageofthegreatmythsof
mankind.Fromthepoemsinhisearlycollection1963tohislastvolume
Saphalameeyatra(JourneySuccessful),heconsistentlyworkedouta
schemeformodernistpoetryinMalayalam.Hisearlypoemswereapuzzle
tomanyreadersbutbythetimeofhislastpoems,readershadgrownattuned
tohisstyleanddictionandvision.Swervingawayfromthetroddenpathof
neoromanticismwasthepoetryofAyyappaPaniker(b.1930),whose
"Kurukshetram"tooupsetmanyagentlereaderinthebeginning.Hewent
ontowriteaseriesofcartoonpoemsalongwith"Kudumbapuranam"(The
FamilySaga),"Pakalukal,Ratrikal"(Days,Nights)and"Gopikadandakam"
andproducedalongpoemofanepicjourneycalledGotrayanam(The
JourneyoftheTribe).ThemodernisttrendwasfosteredbypoetslikeAttoor
RaviVarma(b.1930),whose"Cancer"and"Sankramanam"questioned
andbroadenedthesensibilitiesoftheMalayalireadingpublic.M.N.Paloor
(b.1932)tooexposestheabsurditiesofmodernurbanlifein"Poetatthe
Airport,"butalwaysinhismindloomslargethetragicomicvisionofVyasa's
Mahabharata.CherianK.Cherian(b.1932)istheauthorofwellknown
poemslike"Palazhimathanam(TheChurningoftheOceanofMilk)and
"Bhasmasuran,".MadhavanAyyappath(b.1934)withhispoemsin
Kilimozhikalintroducedanewsensibilityandvocabularycentringaround
theimageofthebird,whichwasatvariancewiththefashionofthetime.
YusafaliKecheri(b.1934)istheauthorofmanycollectionssuchasAayiram
100
NavullaMounam(SilencewithaThousandTongues)andKecheripuzha
(KecheriRiver).Heisalsoawellknownfilmlyricist.Sugathakumari
(b.1934)usesastylethatisreminiscentoftheromantics,butrealizesthe
contradictionsbetweendreamandreality.Herearlypoemsareofapersonal
nature,introspectiveandselfcentred,butlateronshebroadensherthemes
andconcernstoincludesocialinequalities,man'sinhumanitytoman,
ecologicalimbalanceandtheproblemsofwomen,childrenandthetribal
people."Ratrimazha"(RainatNight)and"Colossus"aregoodexamples
oftheseenlargedpreoccupations.Thelatterpoemcloseswiththeselines:
WhomdoIcallthroughthislute?
WhomdoIsearchfor?
Isearchforamightyone
MightyastheVaraha
ThatrescuedourMother
Fromthedepthsofthesea.
Thepoetryofthesixtiesandseventieswasmarkedbyarenewed
commitmenttoeverydaylife:itwasfeltthatcontemporarypoetryhadtobe
contemporarywithourlife.Theechooflife'srhythmsmaybeheardinthe
poemsofKadammanittaRamakrishnan(b.1935),suchas"Kattalan"(The
Woodsman),"Kiratavritham"(TheHunter'sTale),"Santha"and"Mazha
Peyyunnu,MaddalamKottunnu"(ItRainsandtheDrumsBeat).Hemay
besaidtohaveresuscitatedthefolktraditionbehindtheloudrecitationof
poetrybeforelargecrowds.Heavoidsthehackneyedvocabularyandstale
imageryoftheneoromantics,andbringsafreshvigourintopoetry.
KilimanoorRemakantan(b.1935)hasamoresubduedtoneandquieter
rhythminhisnarrativesandlyrics.HistranslationofDante'sTheDivine
Comedyisaremarkableachievement.NeelamperoorMadhusudananNair
(b.1936)isaprogressivist,asmaybeseenfromhispoemsinUrangum
Munpu(BeforeGoingtoSleep).PazhavilaRamesan(b.1936)isnottobe
classedwithanyschool,forhispoetrypursuesanindependentchannelof
itsown.K.V.Tampi(b.1937)istheauthorofseveralworkslike
101
Punarjanmam(Rebirth).VishnuNarayananNambudiri(b.1939)handles
avarietyofthemesrangingfromtheageoldgloryofIndiantradition(asin
"Pitryaanam")totheconsternationofthemodernIndianwhowonderswhat
hashappenedtohisselfidentity,asinhis"WhereismyFace?"Thislossof
faceisamaladythatheexploresinanumberofpoems.KaroorSasi(1939)
hasmadehismarkasapoetawareofdevelopmentsincontemporarysociety.
SreekumaranTampi(b.1940),wellknownasawriteroffilmsongs,isalso
theauthorofpoetrycollectionslikeEngineerudeVeena(Engineer'sLute).
D.VinayachandranPillai(b.1946)seemstolookatpoetryasa
multifacetedcelebrationoflifehecapturestherhythmsofthecarnivalas
hereciteshispoemsaloud.His"Vinayachandrika,""VeettilekkullaVazhi"
(TheHomewardPath),"SamasthaKeralamPO".(AllKeralaP.O.)and
"Samayamanasam"(TheMindofTime)displayanoriginalitythatisrarein
thesedaysofurbanizedlife.Thebreathoftheopenairgivesthemaspecial
charm.EzhacheryRamachandran(b.1944)tooinvokesthefolktradition
andespousesthetragicsufferingsofpoorpeople,asinhisNeeliand
Kavadichintu.Thespiritoftheseventiesismostpowerfullyevokedinthe
writingsofK.Sachidanandan(b.1946),hiseverchangingstylesreveala
mindthatiscontinuallygropingandgrowing.FromAtmagita(Songofthe
Self)of1974onwardshehasevolvedintoamaturepoetofmanifoldthemes
andstyles.Beingaliterarycriticaswell,hewriteswithaninnerunderstanding
ofthepotentialitiesofthevariedstylesandformsheexperimentswith.
LalitaLenin(b.1946)isapoetofbalancedoutlookonlifeandliterature,as
isseeninhercollectionofpoems,Karkitakavavu(TheNewMoonof
JulyAugust).K.G.SankaraPillai(b.1948)isanotherproductoftheseventies,
seeinglifeintheraw,butportrayingitwithimaginationandintelligence.His
earlypoemslike"Bengal,"laterpoemslike"KochiyileVrikshangal(Trees
ofKochi)andthemorerecentworksembodyapoeticvisionwhichkeeps
hisreadersexpectingsomethingtoturnup.Thisanxietyofexpectation
giveshispoemsafuturisticdimension.NellickalMuralidharan(b.1948),
whoisalsoascholarandacritic,hasseverallyricsandnarrativepiecesto
hiscredit,withastronginclinationtothefolktradition.S.RamesanNair(b.
1948)istheauthorofseveralvolumeslikeSuryahridayam(TheHeartof
102
theSun)Heisalsoafilmlyricist.KunhappaPattanur(b.1947)captures
thespiritofNorthernKeralainseveralofhispoemsofsocialcommitment.
DesamangalamRamakrishnan(b.1948),inhisTataramayanam,Vittupoya
Vakkukal,Vicharichatallaandothercollections,revealsanacute
awarenessofthesubtletiesoflinguisticexpression,coupledwiththeessence
offolkculture.A.Ayyappan(b.1949)isabreakerofconventionsbothasa
manandasapoet.Hispoems,asincollectionslikeBalikkurippukal(
SacrificialNotes),haveasecretfireinthem.
S.MadhusudananPillai(KilimanoorMadhu,b.1952)belongsto
themodernistphase,withanoccasionaltouchoftheunfamiliarandtheout
oftheway.SasiCheravalli(b.1952),RoseMary(b.1956)andUmesh
Babu(b.1958)havemadetheirowncontributiontothegrowthofMalayalam
poeticsensibility.BalachandranChullikad(b.1957)stormedintothescene
withhisvibrantvoiceandintenselyemotionaloutburstsinpoemslike
"Amavasi"(TheNewMoon)and"Manasantaram."(ChangeofMind).
"EvideJohn?(WhereisJohn?)evokesstrongmemoriesofJohnAbraham,
thefilmmaker,whopassedawaylongbeforehistime.
Theoralrecitativetradition,oftenrepresentedbythetermkaviarangu
(poetryonthestage)iscarriedonbyabrilliantarrayofpoetswhoholdthe
audiencespellboundbythequalityoftheirvoiceaswellasbythemelody
andrhythmoftheirrendering.V.MadhusudananNair(b.1950)istheauthor
ofNaranathuBhrantan(TheMadOneofNaranath)andGandharvam.
Thetitlepoemintheformervolumeconcernsoneofthetwelvechildrenof
apariahgirl,whoissupposedtobethegrandancestressofallthe'people'
ofKerala.
'Mother',whohasbornetwelvechildren,
1amthemadoneamongthem.
Invokingfolktraditionandlocalmythology,MadhusudananNair
narratesacaptivatingtalethatappealstoallMalayalis.Kureepuzha
Sreekumar(b.1955)alsohasamasteryofthefolkstyleandhispoems
103
appealbestwhentheyarereadaloud,sincepartofthemeaningcomes
fromtherhythm."Jessy,NinakkenthuThonni?"(Whatdidyoufeel,Jessy?)
and"Keezhalan"(TheDowntrodden)aremovingpresentations'ofhuman'
suffering.
Therearealargenumberofpoeticvoices,nowintheirthirties
andforties,andsomeintheirearlyfiftiestoo,whoarecapableof
establishinganewmovementwiththespiritofthechangingtimesintheir
newrhythmsandvisions.MethilRadhakrishnanisapioneeravantegarde
writer.TP.Rajeevanisequallyenterprising.CivicChandran(b.1951),S.
Ramesan(b.1952),K.V.Baby(b.1953,authorofTheBirdBrooding
overtheEggs),V.G.Tampi(b.1955),SavitriRajeevan(b.1956,author
ofCherivu)RaghavanAtholi(b.1957),PrabhaVarma(b.1959,author
ofChandananazhi),Vijayalakshmi(b.1960,authorofMrigasikshakan),
PP,Ramachandran(b.1962),K.R.Toni(b.1964),Indrababu(b.1965),
Jayan,K.C.(b.1966),RafiqAhamed(b.1967),ManojKuroor,Sreehari,
Santhan,Raman,AnwarAli,AnitaTampi,Sandhya,RajanKylas,Santhosh
Kumar,S.Joseph,ShirazAli,RupeshPaul,Sebastian,PavithranTheekkuni
andalargenumberofyoungpoetshaveemergedduringthepastfifteen
years,virtuallyconstitutinganewmovementornewschool.Allofthem
arepromising,onlytimecantellwhoamongthemwillfulfillthepromise.
Itisnodoubthearteningtofindthatsomanyyoungwritersaremost
activeatthedawnofthenewcentury,fullofnewvisionsandfreshenergy
andresisttheattractionsofsentimentalcinematicverse.Butthelistof
themovementmustremainincomplete.
Drama
Asinpoetry,inMalayalamdramatoo,achangewasintheair
evenbeforeindependence.N.KrishnaPillaihadwrittenhis
Bhagnabhavanam,KanyakaandBalabalamhisinfluenceonlater
playwrightscametobearfruitintheearlyyearsofindependence.K.
Surendran,earlyC.N.SreekantanNair(192876),earlyG.SankaraPillai
bearmarksofthisinfluence.PulimanaParameswaranPillai(191649)wrote
Samatvavadi,whichhadanexperimentalorientation:thistrendalsobore
104
fruitionintheyearsafterindependence,asintheworksofN.N.Pillai(1918
96),K.T.Mohamed(b,1928),P.M.A.Aziz(b.1936)andahostofothers.
Thecommunisttheatre,suchasKPAC,Desabhimani,etc.,andthe
commercialtheatre(likethoseofN.N.Pillai,P.J.Antony,Thikkurissi
SukumaranNairetc.)viedwitheachothertowinovertheaudience,(at
timesthesetwoappearedtomergetogether),whileamaturetheatre,like
ShriChithiraTirunalVayanasalaorKalavediorschoolgroups,cateredto
thetastesofalimitednumberofenthusiasts.KainikkaraPadmanabhaPillai,
KainikkaraKumaraPillai,N.PChellappanNair,T.N.GopinathanNair,
NagavallyR.S.Kurupetc.continuedtowriteintheoldertradition,either
historicalorpuranicplaysorcomediesexposingthefolliesandfoiblesof
contemporaryurbanmiddleclass.Theymaybesaidtohavedrawn
inspirationfromC.V.RamanPillaiorE.V.KrishnaPillai.
InNorthernKeralatheKendrakalasamitiwasresponsiblefor
awakeninganenlightenedinterestindramaandtheatre.LikeThoppilBhasi
inthesouth,anumberofplaywrightsinthenorth,likeCherukad
(Govindappisharodi,191476),Thikkodiyan(P.KunhananthanNair,1916
2001),PC.Kuttikrishnan,EdasseriGovindanNairandothersproduced
sociallyrelevantplays.LaterK.T.Mohamed(b.1929),authorofKaravatta
Pasu(TheCowGoneDry),IthuBhoomiyaanu(ThisistheEarth)and
severalotherwellknownplays,becamethecentreoftheatreactivitiesin
Malabar.CJ.Thomas(191860),whowasconvincedthatthelifeofthe
dramalayinitsstagepresentationandnotinthewrittentext,wrotethree
remarkableplays,AvanVeendumVarunnu!(Behold,HeComesAgain),
1128ilKraim27(Crime27of1128)andAaManushyanNeeThanne
(ThouartThatMan),buthecouldnotseeanyofhisplaysperformedtohis
satisfactionduringhislifetime.Thereisnodenyingthattherewasalotof
genuineenthusiasmfortheatreandtheliteratureoftheatre.Thefiftyyears
afterindependencewasthusaveryproductiveperiod,atleastintermsof
quantity.Moreplayswerewrittenandpublishedduringthistimethanduring
anyearlierperiod.Theatreaudiencealsogrewinsizethroughoutthelength
andbreadthofKerala.Buttherewasagreatdivergencebetweentheatre
anddramaallthroughthehalfcentury.Goodplaysremainedunstaged,
whilepopulartheatrepiecesdidnotpossesssubstantialliteraryqualities.
105
Thisdilemmafacedallgoodplaywrightssomeofthemwere
satisfiedwiththeirwrittenwork.ButKavalamNarayanaPanikker(b.1928)
andG.SankaraPillai(193089)triedtofindasolutionforthisanomalyin
theirownrespectiveways.Kavalamconcentratedonpoeticdramaand
drewinspirationfromfolktheatreandIndiantradition,notamechanical
adaptationoftheperipheralfeatures,butacreativeadaptationofancient
techniqueswithanewmeaningandnewforce.SankaraPillairesortedto
theuseofimaginationtosupplywhateverwasdeficientinexperimental
drama,avoidingthemonotonyofstereotypeddialogueandillusionsofrealism.
BothKavalamandSankaraPillaiweretryingtoexplorethenativetheatre.
ThediscussionsthattookplaceintheNatakakalarisatvariouscentres,
withtheactiveparticipationofSreekantanNair,M.Govindan,M.V.Devan,
M.K.Sanoo,ThomasMathew,AyyappaPaniker,PK.VenukuttanNair,
KavalamNarayanaPanikkerandG.SankaraPillai,alongwiththeactual
productionsatthesekalarisseemedtoindicateawayofrediscoveringour
nativetheatre.ThisisborneoutbythelaterexperimentalworksofKavalam
andSankaraPillai.PerhapstheestablishmentoftheSchoolofDramaat
ThrissurundertheUniversityofCalicutcouldbeseenasabyproductofall
theseefforts.ThelaterplaysofC.NSreekantanNair{Kanchanasita,
Saketam,andLankalakshmi),thelaterplaysofG.SankaraPillai(Karutha
DeivatheThedi)andthematureplaysofKavalam(Deivathaar,
Avanavankatampa,Theyyatheyyam,etc.)arebrilliantexamplesof
Malayalamdramainitsmaturity,alongwiththethreeplaysofC.J.Thomas
mentionedabove.
TothiswemayaddSouparnika,VelliyazhchaandPadippura
byNarendraPrasad(19462003).Prasadwasalsoasensitivedirectorof
plays,inadditiontobeingagoodfilmactor.Hehadatragicunderstanding
oflife,whichalsotookinitsstridethelightermomentsinit.Elamkulathe
AmmabyPK.VenukuttanNair,andseveralexperimentalworksofK.T
Mohamed,Azizandotherscouldbementionedhere.Omcheri(N.N.Pillai,
b.1924)hasseveralplaystohiscredit,notablyThevarudeAana(God's
Elephant)andUlakudePerumal(TheLordoftheWorld).Vayala
VasudevanPillai(b.1945),theerstwhileDirectoroftheCalicutUniversity
106
SchoolofDrama,istheauthorofViswadarshanam(TheCosmicVision),
ThulasivanamandAgniAmongtheotherplaywrightsofthishalfcentury,
mentionmaybemadeofG.Gopalakrishnan,authorofSemitheri(Cemetery),
SreerangamVikramanNair,authorofChithalpputtukal(Anthills),CP
Rajasekharan(b.1949,authorofplayslikePratimakalVilkanuntu(Statues
forSale),P.Balachandran,authorofPavamUsman,T.MAbraham,who
wroteNizhalkootaram(ShadowTent),Srijanardanan,authorof
Viralppadukal,MadhuMaster,authorofCaligula,K.S.Sreenath,author
ofDevashilakal,etc.Thesearemanyyoungartisanstotheater,butnotas
manyascrowdinthefieldofpoetryandfiction.
Fiction:TheNovel
Thepostindependenceperiodsawafreshstartinthehistoryof
longerfictioninMalayalamasinmanyotherIndianlanguages,parallelto
theevolutionofpostworldwarfictioninotherpartsoftheworld.Itwas
bothabreakandacontinuation.KesavaDev,whowasaCommunistinthe
thirtiesandfourtiesturnedawayfromdiehardideologiesandwroteasymbolic
novelcalledArkuVendi?(ForWhoseSake?)in1950,challengingthe
philosophyofStalinistliquidationofpoliticalenemies.Ithadaspecial
significanceinthecontextoftheCalcuttathesis.Afterportrayingtheclass
struggleoffarmlabourersinRantidangazhi(TwoMeasures)in1949,
ThakazhiSivasankaraPillaiturnedawayfrompartypoliticsandproduceda
movingromanceinChemmeen(Shrimps)in1956.ForS.K.Pottekkattand
VaikomMuhamedBasheer,whohadnotdabbledinpolitics,thecontinuity
ismarkedintheformer'sVishakanyaka(PoisonMaid,1948)andthe
latter'sNtuppuppakkoranendarnnu(MyGrandpahadanElephant,1951).
ThenonpoliticalsocialordomesticnovelwaschampionedbyPC.
Kuttikrishnan(Uroob)withhisUmmachu(1955)andSundarikalum
Sundaranmarum(MenandWomenofCharm,1958).In1957Basheer's
PathummayudeAadu(Pathumma'sGoat)broughtinanewkindofprose
tale,whichperhapsonlyBasheercouldhandlewithdexterity.VettoorRaman
Nair(19192003)wasawidelyknownwriterwhoinhisshortstories
107
portrayedeitherthelifeoftheruralmiddleclassorthelifeofarmymenin
thebarracks,buthealsowrotethemininovelJeevikkanMarannupoya
Stree(TheWomanWhoForgottoLive),withoutanyostensiblepolitical
affiliation.Thefiftiesthusmarktheevolutionofanewkindoffiction,which
haditsimpactontheshortstoriesaswell.Thiswastheauspiciousmoment
fortheentryofT.PadmanabhanandM.TVasudevanNairuponthe
scene.Itwasrecognizedthatpoliticsoftenreducedthelargerconcerns
oflifetomereideologicalissues,whilethelifeoftheindividualsconstituting
theentirepopulationhasmanyotherinterestsandperspectives.Any
reductiveoversimplificationofliferesultsintheemaciationofliterature.
Thetrendawayfromsocialrealisminterpretedinanarrowsense
ledtothegrowthoftheMalayalamnovelinthepostindependenceera.
WiththephenomenalsuccessofChemmeenasanovelandasafilm
madeThakazhiturntowriteonalargercanvastheinclusiveaccountsof
thepeoplearoundhim.ThematureworksofPottekkatt,Basheer,Dev,
ThakazhiandUroobmakethethirdquarterofthe20thcenturyoneofthe
brightestperiodsofthenovelinMalayalam.Pottekkatt'sOruTheruvinte
Katha(TheTaleofaStreet)andOruDesathinteKatha(TheTaleofa
Locale)gavetheauthoramplecanvastonarratethestoriesofanumber
ofindividualsandgroups.Thedaytodaylivesofthiscommonhumanity
isthestuffofgreatfictionandPottekkattgottheJnanpithPuraskarfor
hismagnumopusOruDesathinteKatha.Thakazhitookuptheportrayal
ofgenerationsoffamiliesinOuseppinteMakkal(ChildrenofOuseph)
andextendeditfurthertowriteabrihadakhyayikaorgrandnarrative
coveringthelivesofhundredsofcharactersanddozensoffamiliesand
severalgenerations.Hewaswritinganentireeraandentireregioninhis
magnumopusKayar(Coir),whichprocuredhimtheJnanpithPuraskar.
Pottekkattwasperhapsthefirsttoexperimentwiththewritingof
anentireregionThakazhiaddedthehistoricaldimensionbybringingin
centuriesandgenerations.InKayarthelifeofawholecommunityinthe
villagecomplexofKuttanadcoveringtwocenturiesandahalf,beginning
withthelandsettlementandendingwiththelandlegislationunderthe
108
firstCommunistgovernmentinKerala,isnarrated.Thecentralconcern
ofthenovelistherelationbetweenmanandtheearthhecultivates.Already
UroobhaddevelopedtheconceptofanextensivecanvasinSundarikalum
Sundaranmarum.Thegrandnarrativefounditsrightfulplacein
Malayalamfictionduringtheperiodafterindependence.KesavaDev,in
Ayalkar(Neighbours),usedthelargeframednoveltorecounttheintricate
relationshipsbetweendifferentcastesandcommunities.TheNairs,
EzhavasandChristiansfiguredominantlyinthecomplexandinvolved
storyofthepeoplewholiveinanyKeralavillageasneighbours.These
novelistswereholdingamirroruptolifeinallitsdiversities,without
identifyingindividualheroesandheroinesorvillains.M.K.Menon(Vilasini,
192893)attemptedthebiggestnovelinMalayalam,perhapsalsoinany
Indianlanguage,inAvakasikal(Inheritors),probablymotivatedbythe
desiretowritethegrandnarrativecentringaroundafamily.Hisother
novelslikeInangathaKannikal(UnfitChains)andChundeli(Mouse)
werealsoexperimental.PuthoorUnnikrishnan(b.1933)revealshiscontrol
overfictionalmaterialwithremarkablenarrativeskillinBalikkalluand
Aanappaka.K.L.MohanaVarma(b.1936),authorofnovelslike
Chambal,Ohari(Share)andCricket,extendedthethematicrangeof
fiction,bringinginurbanconcerns.
Anothertendencythatcouldbefoundduringthisperiodisthe
attempttoretellpuranicepisodes.P.K.Balakrishnansetthetrendwithhis
popularredactionoftheMahabharatafromthepointofviewofDroupadi:
sheisreflectingonthecircuitouscourseofherlifeduringthelastnightof
thebattleofKurukshetra(EniNjanUrangatte).M.TVasudevanNair"s
Rantamoozham(TheSecondTurn)recountsthestoryofBhimasena,
supposedtobethesonofVayuthisisdemystifiedordemythifiedinthe
novel.Otherwritershavealsotriedtoretellotherclassicsintheformofthe
novel,sincethenovelhasbecomethemostpopularformofthenarrativein
Malayalam.SomeofthenovelsofKovilan(V.VAyyappan,b.1923)are
regionbasedlikehismasterpieceThattakam,butsomeothersarelocated
awayfromKerala,intheHimalayas,asinhismilitarytales.Hisworks
havearemarkablephilosophicalinsightandarewritteninananswerable
style,uniquetohimself.
109
K.E.Mathai(Parappurath,192481),whoalsoservedinthearmy,
iswellknownforhispopularnovelssuchasPanitheerathaVeedu
(UnfinishedHouse)AranazhikaNeram(HalfanHour).HisfriendK.
Surendran(192297))authoredseveralpopularnovelslikeThaalam
(Rhythm),MayaandKattukurangu(WildMonkey).
Thepostindependencenovelhasbeenenrichedbythecontribution
ofwriterslivingoutsideKerala.Thepravasinovelhasaddedafreshchapter,
bringinginnewlandscapesandnewcharacters.Thenagaratinai(city
landscape)hasprovidedthemilieuforsomeofthebestnovelsinMalayalam.
Kakkanadan,O.V.Vijayan,M.Mukundan,P.Sachidanandan(Anand)and
othershaveannexedthesenewareastotheconcernoftheMalayalifiction
readers.Notthatallofthemhavelocatedtheactioninalltheirwritings
outsideKerala,buttheyhavebroughtanewperspectiveorsensibility,as
thepravasipoetshavedoneoflate.Kakkanadan(GeorgeVarghese,b.1935),
onceattachedtoleftistideology,turnedawayfromittowriteoneofthe
mostpowerfulnarrativesbasedonthatexperienceinhisnovel
Ushnamekhala(TheTropics).O.V.Vijayan(19312004),havingspenta
numberofyearsinDelhi,locateshisclassicnovelKhazakinteItihasam
(TheLegendofKhazak)intheremotevillageinhisnativePalakkad.Ithas
asimpleplotbuttheinlaidnarrationinvestsitwithametaphysicaloreven
mysticalaura,whichmarksitoutamongtheworksoffictionattemptedby
Malayalisduringthepostfreedomperiod.Itmaybesaidthatinnovelettes
likeKhazakandGurusagaram,hewasturningawayfromthegrand
narrativeintherealisticmodeinfavourofmetaphoricalorallegoricalfiction,
whichwastheforteofnarrativesinancientIndia.Tosuggestasymbolically
largedesignwithashortphysicalframe,inotherwordstouseamicroscope
asamagnifyingglass,isthekindoftechniquethatVijayanresortedto.It
wasperhapsbettersuitedtohisworldvision.
AnandalsoseemstotakeacuefromVijayan,butmovesaway
fromitsoastomakefictionreadlesslikefictionandmorelikepseudo
history,withoutabandoningtheallegoricalelement.HisJaivamanushyan
andlaterworksfollowthispattern,althoughhisfirstnovelAlkkoottam
(TheCrowd)hadalltheingredientsofnormativefiction.Severalyounger
110
novelists,likeperhapsN.S.Madhavan(b.1948),areapparentlyeagerto
followthisstyleofdistortingrealityforthesakeofgettingattruth.With
theirworksonemaysaythatMalayalamnovelisenteringtheworldof
postmodernism.AfterastintattheexistentialistnovelalaSartreandCamus,
Mukundanisafrontrunnerinthepostmoderntrendwithsuchworksas
DeivathinteVikruthikal(God'sMischief)andKesavanteVilapangal(The
lamentationsofKesavan).ButtomostreadersMayyazhippuzhayude
Theerangalil(OntheBanksofMayyazhi)islikelytoremainhisearly
masterpiece.Hehadalsowrittenacritiqueofmodernismmuchearlier,
calledEnthanuAadhunikata?(WhatisModernism?).Buthehas
apparentlymovedonfromthatposition.N.P.Mohamed(19282003)too
triedhishandatpoliticalallegoryinHiranyakasipuhighlightingthehorrors
oftotalitarianism,butmovedontothesocialnovelasinEnnappaadam
(Oilfield)andMaram(Tree),whichareverysensitiveportrayalsofthelife
oftheMuslimcommunity,differentinstylefromthatofVaikomMohamed
Basheer.
Thenovelisperhapsthebestsellerintheconsumeristbookmarket
today,andhencetherearealargenumberofwriterscateringtothattrend.
MuttathuVarkey(191889)hasanumberofpopularnovelstohiscredit,
suchasInapravukal(APairofDoves),andPadathaPainkili(TheBird
thatDoesn'tSing).Theseworkssetatrendinstorytelling,involvingsimple
domesticcharactersintheireverydaylifewiththeirjoysandsorrowstoldin
arathersentimentalmelodramaticlanguage.Nowonderitattractedavast
numberofreadersandconsiderablyhelpedtopromotethepopularityofthe
novelform.Todayitcommandsthelargestreadershipofallliteraryforms.
Itisevensaidthatitcontributedtothegrowthofliteracy.Theyprobably
dominatethefieldofserialfictioninthepulpweekliesandmagazinesand
areKanam,EJ.(E.J.Philip,192687),PulinkunnuAntony,Kottayam
Pushpanath,PV.Thampi,MallikaYunis,M.D.Ratnamma,etc.etc.Itis
noteasytolistthenovelistsinthiscategorytheirnameisalegion.
AmongthemoreseriousandgiftedofthesenovelistsareSarah
Thomas(b.1934)authorofNarmadipudava),PR.Syamala(193190),
authorofShyamaranyamamongotherworks),K.B.Sreedevi(b.1940,
Ill
authorofYajnam),P.Vatsala(b.1938,authorofNellu,Agneyam),S.K.
Marar(b.1930,authorofSharapolimala),G.N.Panikker(b.1937,author
ofIruttinteThazhvara)andGeorgeOnakkoor(b.1941,authorofwell
knownnovelslikeIllamandUlkkadal(TheBay).Perumbadavam
Sreedharan(b.1938)hasseveralnovelstohiscredit,thebestknownamong
thembeingOruSankirtanamPole(VerilylikeaPsalm),basedonthelife
ofDostoevsky.Amongthosewhohaveexploredtheregionalnovelwithan
intenseflavourofthelocallanguageandlocalsocialfabricmaybementioned
G.Vivekanandan(192399,authorofKallichellamma)andU.A.Khader
(b.1935,authorofThrikkottoorPeruma).
Severalwritersaretherewhoportraythedeclineofthefeudal
systemandoftheoldorderofthejointfamily,amongwhomeasilythemost
giftedisM.T.VasudevanNair(b.1933),authorofalargenumberofpopular
favouriteslikeNalukettu(FourchamberedHouse),Asuravithu,etc.The
landscapeandethosoftheValluvanadregionandthetransformations
undergonebytheminthecourseofthecentury,involvingrelicsofthe
tarawadandthecommunaltensionsprovideachallengingthemeforthe
highlyevocativestyleofVasudevanNair'snarrativeart.Thenovelsof
V.K.N.(NarayanankuttyNair,19322004)belongtothesmallsubgenreof
satiricalfiction,notlargelyexploredafterC.VRamanPillai'sPremamritam.
HisPitamahanandGeneralChathanstakeustotherarefiedworldof
spoofs,givingusoccasionsforguffawsoflaughter.
MalayattoorRamakrishnan(192797)wroteVerukal(Roots),
depictingthestoryofhisfamilyorcommunity,buthealsofictionalizedhis
experienceasaseniorcivilservantinYantram(TheMachine).Something
ofthelatterkindwefindinChuvappunada(TheRedTape)byE.Vasu(b.
1939),exposinganddenouncingthestrangleholdofofficialdominthelifeof
theaveragecitizen.C.Radhakrishnan(b.1939)isaprolificwriterofboth
novelsandshortstories,withawidevarietyofthemesandexperimentalin
thenarrativemode.Narain(b.1939),perhapsalateentrantinthefield,
cameupwithhisownaccountoftriballife,otherwisenotadequately
presentedinMalayalamfiction.Hisshortstoriesaswellashisnovelettes
likeKocharethihavetheirownspecialnarrativemodeandflavour.Punathil
112
Kunhabdulla(b.1940)isrightlyfamousastheauthorofpopularnovelslike
Smarakasilakal(MemorialStones)andMarunnu(Medicine).Madampu
Kunjikkuttan(b.1941)hasauthoredafewverypowerfulnovels,including
AshwathamavuandBhrashtu.
Amongtheyoungergenerationofnovelistsbornafterindependence,
therearemanywhohaveprovedtheirmettleandmayyetspringsurprises
intheyearstocome.N.S.Madhavan(b.1948),inhisshortstoriesaswell
ashisnovels,choosesunfamiliarthemesorunfamiliartreatment,asmaybe
seeninChoolaimettileSavangal(TheCorpsesofChulaimedu)andHiguita.
U.K.Kumaran(b.1950)isindefatigableinhissearchfornewthemesand
plots.C.V.Balakrishnan(b.1952)istheauthorofAyussintePustakamand
T.V.Kochubawa(195599)thatofVriddhasadanam(OldAgeHome),
botheagertoexplorenewareasofexperience.AkbarKakkattil(b.1954)
keepswideninghiscanvasfromtimetotime.ShihabudinPoythumkadavu
(b.1963)isarisingnovelistandshortstorywriter.Youngnoveliststoday
aredeeplyinterestedinexperimentationbothinthemeandtechnique,taking
longstridesinthepostmoderndirection.
Fiction:TheShortStory
OfalltheformsofliteraryexpressioninmodernMalayalamthe
shortstoryhadthefastestandsteadiestgrowth.Alreadyatthetimeof
independence,therewereanumberofstalwartswhocontinuedtowrite
equallywellinthehalfcenturythatfollowed.Asinthecaseofotherforms
likepoetryandthenovel,therewasakindofinevitableoverlap,since
developmentsintheculturalfielddonotstrictlyfollowthecontoursofpolitical
events.Karoor,Basheer,Dev,Thakazhi,Varkey,Pottekkattand
Kuttikrishnanweredoingexcellentworkalthoughsomeofthemhadvegetated
fromshortertolongerfiction,promptedbytheconfidencegainedfromthe
experienceoftheshortstory.Thelimitedcanvasgavescopeforgreater
varietyandconcentration.Dalitlifewasalsoportrayedinshortfictionasin
thewritingsofT.K.C.Vaduthala(T.K.Chathan,192188).Hehashis
followersinanumberofwritersnowlikePaulChirackarode.Thenewwriters
hadnewexperiencestonarrateandnewwaysofdoingit.
113
CorrespondingtotheChangampuzhastyleinpoetry,therewasa
tender,romanticallyinclined,narrativeseepingintoshorterfictioninthe
fifties.Unsuccessfullove,whichcapturestheimaginationinearlyyouth,
dominatedthethematicconcernsoftheyoungergeneration.T.Padmanabhan
(b.1931),whosworeallegianceonlytotheshortstory,andhasjealously
maintaineditallthroughhislifewithoutcastingevenasurreptitiousglance
atlongerfiction,wasinthevanguardofthenewshortstory.Inaseriesof
brilliantcollectionslikePrakasamParathunnaPenkutty(TheGirlSpreading
LightAround),MakhansinghinteMaranam(TheDeathofMakhanSingh),
Sakshi(Witness)andKaalabhairavan,hehasexploredboththeformof
theshortstoryandthepsychologyofthepeopleinvolvedineachstory.
Whatappealsmosttohisreadersinallhisearlyandrecentstoriesisthe
lyricalqualityofthelanguageandtheaestheticsofhisperceptions,especially
intheportrayaloflonelinessandhelplessness.M.TVasudevanNairtoois
amasteroftheartofshortfictionwithanunerringeyefordetail:stories
like"Kuttiedathi"areclassicsinthegenre.Thesameistrueof"Pathanam"
(TheFall)and"Abhayam"(Refuge).Hisprotagonistspassthroughdifferent
stagesofevolution.Maybe,becausethespaceinashortstoryisverylimited,
helateronoptedforthelargercanvasofextendedfiction.Hisstudyof
Hemingwaygivesacluetohisownartoffiction.
T.PadmanabhanandM.T.VasudevanNairserveasbridges
betweentheearlymodernshortstorywritersinMalayalam,oftheso
calledrenaissance,andthenewshortstoryofthelatefiftiesandsixties.
Throughintrospection,loneliness,angst,theneedforselfdefinition,they,
liketheirprotagonists,leadthereadertowardstheinnerworldofindividuals,
oftenlivingoutsidetheconventionsofsociallife.Therebelsandtheoutcasts,
theinsultedandtheinjured,receiveasympathetictreatment..Themodernists
whocomeinthewakeofthesemasterstorytellersincludeO.V.Vijayan,
Kakkanadan,Madhavikutty(KamalaDas/KamalaSoraiyab.1932),M.P
NarayanaPillai(193998)M.Mukundan,Vaishakhan(M.K.Gopinathan
Nair,b.1940),M.Sukumaran(b.1943),Zachariah(b.1945),S.V.Venugopan
Nair(b.1945)P.Padmarajan(194590),SarahJoseph(b.1946),V.P
Sivakumar(194793):abrilliantgalaxyofwriterswholookedatlifewitha
freshmindandrecordedtheircreativeresponsesinahighlysensitiveidiom.
114
WiththeirwritingsMalayalamfictioncomestobeonaparwithworld
fiction,trulycontemporaryinspiritandform.Vijayan's"Parakal(Rocks),
"Kadaltheerathu"(OntheSeashore),"Ettukali"(TheSpider),"Chengannur
Vandi"(TheChengannurTrain)and"Arimpara"areclassicsoftheirkind.
Theyaremouldedbythepostwar,postindependencesensibility,justas
thesensibilityofthetimeswasmouldedbytheseverywritingsandhavea
profunditylackinginmostofthewritingsoftheprogressiverealistsbefore
independence.Itisalmostanewgrammar,asitwere,thatlikehis
contemporariesVijayanuses.
Inthehandsofthenaturalisticwriters,creativeimaginationhad
sufferedagreatdealandlostitsfreedomandfreshness.Kakkanadaninhis
storieslike"Nishadasankirtanam"and"Shrichakram"employslanguageto
reachouttotheineffableandbeyond.Languageisemployedtoservea
functionitdoesnotnormallyserveinconventionalwriting.Hereitisnotthe
givenlanguage,buttheonecreatedbytheauthor.N.Mohanan(193399)
wasawriterofverydelicatetouches,asmaybeseeninhisEnteKatha
(Ninteyum)(MyStoryaswellasYours).C.V.Sreeraman(b.1933)has
writtenseveralbeautifulshortstories,exquisitelychiseled,suchas
"Irickappindam"and"Vastuhara."Madhavikuttyinherearlyshortstories
exploresherownuncommonexperiencestheeffortisnottotellapleasing
storyorentertainthereader,butunderstandoneself.Itisnotthelanguage
ofcommunicationinthevulgarsense,butthatofconfessionorcommunion.
"PakshiyudeManam"(TheScentoftheBird)and"Kalyani"aregood
examplesofthenewsensibility.M.PNarayanaPillai(193998)wasa
resourcefulwriterwithanoriginalmind,andhisstoriesinthecollection
MuruganEnnaPampatty(Murugan,theSnakecharmer)revealsasense
oftheweirdcoupledwithasenseofrefinedhumour.Mukundan,perhaps
morethaninhisnovels,dealswiththeunknownaspectsofeverydaylife,as
in"Radha,RadhaAlone"andinhisstoryofthefootballer.Partlybecause
ofhisfamiliaritywithFrenchexistentialists,heisselfconsciousinhis
modernistwriting.Heseemstochoosehisthemesandsubjectstosuithis
ownpreconceivedidea.Thisgivesaphilosophicaledgetosomeofhisstories.
Zachariahstartsoffwithanativeintuitionaboutthenatureofhuman
experienceheisnotundulyworriedaboutthepossibleimplicationsofthe
115
imageshecreates.Inhisearlystorieshejustcreatesanimageoraseries
ofscatteredimages,whichthereadersmightusetomakeouttheirown
meanings.S.V.VenugopanNairlooksatthesituationsinlifewithasense
ofhumourandexposeslife'slittlefolliesandironies,asinRekhayilillatha
Oral(OneWhoisnotintheRecords).
Padmarajanseemstoexaminehisexperienceoftheworldundera
microscopeandspeculatesonthepotentialsignificanceofwhatheisable
tosee.Heissometimesluredbyunfamiliareventsorscenes,and,asinhis
novels,idealizesthesituationssoastomakeapowerfulimpactonthe
reader.Hisfilmsalsocentrearoundtheoutofthewayorabnormalaspects
oflife.SarahJosephinthecollectionPapathara(ThePlaceofSin)questions
theassumptionsprevalentinsocietywithanacutelysensitivemind.
"PrakasiniyudeMakkal"(ChildrenofPrakasini)and"Muditheyyam"reveal
herobsessionwithnearsurrealisticimages.Hernovels,likeAlahayude
Makkalalsoarepreoccupiedwiththeunhackneyedaspectsoflifeand
herperceptionsarerenderedexactbyhermasteryofherdialect.V.P
Sivakumar,perhapstheyoungestofthemodernistsbornintheveryyearof
independence,isalsoamongthefirstofthepostmodernists,andhis
experienceoftranslatingsomeofthepostmodernshortstorywritersin
worldliterature,likehisfavouriteBorhes,mayhavegivenhimthepushto
movefurtherintothefuture.Thevirtualrealityhehimselfcreatesisthe
substanceofhiswritings.Inasensethatspiritisstillguidingsomeofthe
morerecentshortfictionwritersinMalayalam.Thetransitiontothe
postmodernisalreadychartedoutinthelateststoriesofSivakumarlike
"Pratishta"(Installation).
M.Sukumaran'sstorieslike"ThookkumarangalNjanngalkku,"(The
GallowsareforUs)aremarkedbyunusualintensityofvision.Payipra
Radhakrishnan(RadhakrishnanKartha,(b.1952),authorofSwarnamedal
andhiswifeNaliniBekal(b.1955),whowroteHamsaganamand
Muchilottammaalsodeservementionhere.Thenewtrendhasfound
enthusiasticfollowers,whohavetriedtodefamiliarizetherealandtorealize
theunfamiliar.VictorLeenus(194692)alsomaybesaidtobelongtothis
116
category,likeT.P.Kishore(195798).Manasi(P.A.Rugmini,b.1948),author
ofIdivalinteThengal(TheSobsoftheSwordofThunder),Ashita(b.
1956),whohasauthoredApoornaviramangal(IncompleteStops),Gita
Hiranyan(b.19562002,authorofOttasnappilOthukkanavilla
Janmasatyam(TheTruthofaLifetimeCannotbeCompressedinaSingle
Snap),Chandramati(Chandrika,b.1954),authorofAryavartanam,
DevigramaniandReindeer,depictinglife'simpressionswiththeclarity
andsharpnessofacutdiamond,N.Prabhakaran,Harikumar,Fantasyand
fabulationsfreshenterintotheirfictionetc.Thetraditionextendsfurtherto
includetheyoungestgenerationofwriterswhoareverycreative,likeA.S.
Priya,InduMenon,B.Murali,R.Unny,SanthoshEchikanam,K.R.Meera,
andothersinanapparentlyunendingline.Asinthecaseofpoetry,the
beginningofthenewcountryismarkedbytheactiveinvolvementofever
somanyyoungwriterswhichshouldbeasourceofencouragementtothe
seniorwriterstoo.
LiteraryCriticism
Thegrowthofhigherinstitutionsoflearning,theachievementof
totalliteracyforthestate,thespreadofthelibrarymovementandthe
popularityofliteraryperiodicalswereallfactorsleadingtoaboomofcritical
enterprisesamongthewriters.Atthetimeofindependencethemajorliterary
criticsactiveinthefieldwerenotmorethanadozenorscore,butbythe
beginningofthe21stcentury,virtuallyeveryreaderseemstohavegraduated
intoapotentialcritic.Traditionalpoetics,westernliterarytheories,new
fangledideas,apartfromtheholdofvariousideologies,notnecessarily
political,inspirepracticallyeveryreadertoreadbookreviewsandeven
booksofliterarycriticism.Itisnownottheidlepastimeofscholars,butthe
concernedloudandnotsoloudthinkingofeveryteacher,student,journalist,
visitortothelibraryorbookshop.Leadingpublishersarenowinterestedin
bringingoutcollectionsofliteraryessaysorevenwholebooksofliterary
criticism.However,fortheproperpresentationofthesubjectinthepresent
historicalaccount,itmaybenecessarytoidentifythemostimportantofthe
critics,withoutmeaningtoignoretheothers,includingtheeveractiveyounger
critics.
117
Asinthecaseoftheothergenres,inliterarycriticismtoothere
wastheinevitableoverlapoftendenciesandpersonalities.KuttikrishnaMarar
andJosephMundasserywerethemajorfigures,Mararconcentratingon
poetry,Mundasseryfocusingattentiononfictionandnotonlypoetry.In
theirwake,K.BhaskaranNair,K.M.George,C.J.Thomas,S.Guptan
Nair,SukumarAzhicode,P.K.Balakrishnan,M.K.Sanoo,M.Leelavathy,
K.S.NarayanaPillai,K.P.Appan,K.PSankaran,M.ThomasMathew,V.
Rajakrishnanandothershaveenlargedtheconcernsofthecriticandrectified
theimbalanceandbroughtotherformsofliteraturewithinthepurviewof
criticism.M.PPaulwasmainlyacriticoffiction,andhistwobooksonthe
novelandtheshortstory,foralltheirobviouslimitations,wereverytimely
publications.Hecommandedspecialrespectamongthecreativewritersof
theperiodandwasthereforequiteinfluential.
Thegrowthoffiction,boththenovelandtheshortstory,andtheir
increasingpopularityamongthestudentsaswellasthegeneralreading
public,andtheopportunitytopublishwritingsonsocalledcreativewriting
gaveanunprecedentedopportunityforbuddingcriticstosetforthontheir
grandjourney.Manynotonlyventuredtodoso,butalsostayedonasfull
timecritics.Literarycriticismmaybesaidtohavebecomeaprofessionfor
many,andthispromotedtheprofessionalismofthecriticalentrepreneurs.
Academicscholarshipflourishedalongsidefreelancecriticism,andbothfilled
agapthatwasthereintheearlierperiod.Theinstitutionofawardsand
prizesatthenationalandstatelevelsprovidedoccasionforconsideringthe
meritsanddefectsofpublishedworks.K.BhaskaranNair(191382),
althoughascientistbytraining,wroteoncriticismandpoetics:amonghis
worksareKalayumKaalavum(ArtandLife)andDeivaneetikku
Dakshinyamilla(DivineJusticehasnoCompunction).K.M.George(1914
2002)isrememberedasthechampionofcomparativeliterarystudiesand
theworkshehasedited,suchasencyclopedias,anthologies,historiesof
literatureetc.areimportantsourcesforliteraryinterpretation.Heisalso
theauthorofcriticalmonographsonseveralMalayalamauthors.M.P.
SankunniNair(b.1917),whoisascholarcritic,wellversedinSanskrit,
TamilandMalayalam,hasauthoredChhatravumChaamaravumand
118
Natyamandapam.C.J.Thomas(191860),morefamousasaplaywright,
wasagoodcriticofnotonlytheatreanddrama,butalsoofsocietyandlife.
Likehim,M.Govindanwasaseminalthinkerandhadaprofoundimpacton
thewritersofhistime.HisAnveshanathinteAarambhamwasanepoch
makingtreatiseonthespiritofenlightenedenquiryintoman'scontemporary
estate.S.GuptanNair(b.1919)bringsthequalitiesofaresponsibleteacher
tohispracticeofcriticism:wellinformed,balancedandjudicious,asin
Samalochana.K.RaghavanPillai(192087),knowledgableinwesternand
Sanskritcriticism,wasanacademicwhoeditedseveralancientclassics.
M.KrishnanNair(b.1923)throughhisliterarycolumn
Sahityavaraphalamhasintroducedanumberofdistinguishedforeignwriters
tothereadingpublicinKerala.SukumarAzhicode(b.1926),famousasan
oratorandcriticofcriticism,specializesinbothmandanavimarshamand
khandanavimarsham:hisearlybookAsanteSitakavyam(Asan'spoemon
Sita)isagoodexampleoftheformer,whilehisG.SankaraKurup
Vimarsikkappedunnu(A.CritiqueofG.SankaraKurup)isanexampleof
thelatter.P.K.Balakrishnan(192591)haswrittenanumberofseminal
criticalworksonfiction{Novel:SiddhiyumSadhanayum),onpoetry
(KavyakalaKumaranAsanilude)andonsociety(Jathivyavasththiyum
Keralacharitravum).ThayattSankaran(192685)andP.GovindaPillai
(b.1926)maycomeunderthecategoryofsocialthinkersandculturecritics.
M.K.Sanoo(b.1928)hasseveralcriticalworkstohiscredit,especially
biographicalstudiesofauthorslikeChangampuzha,M.Govindan,Sahodaran
AyyappanandShriNarayanaGuru.M.Leelavathy(b.1929),perhapsthe
bestknownwomancriticinMalayalam,isaprolificwriterofbookssuchas
Varnaraji,KavitayumSastravum(PoetryandScience),Kavitadhwani,
andacomprehensivehistoryofMalayalampoetry.M.R.Chandrasekharan
(b.1929)iswellknownastheauthorofNirupakanteRajyabharam(The
Critic'sGovernance).M.Achuthan(b.1930)istheauthorofPashchathya
SahityaDarshanam(WesternLiteraryView)andCherukatha:Innale,
Innu(TheShortStory:Yesterday,Today).K.M.Tharakan(19302003)
wasacriticquitefamiliarwithwesternrhetoricandpoetics,andhaswritten
perceptivelyonMalayalamfictionandpoetry.
119
SlightlyyoungertothesebutequallyforcefulisK.P.Appan(b.
1936),atheoristandpracticalcritic,withconceptssuchasthiraskaram,
kalaham,kshobham,kalapam,etc.asbasictothefunctionofcriticismin
ourtime,whohaswrittenanumberofbooks,mainlycommentingon
contemporaryMalayalamfiction,andexplainingpostmodernism.Hehas
beenanimportantinfluenceonthethinkingofyoungerwriters.Likewise
M.GangadharanandM.ThomasMathew,theformerwellanchoredin
socialhistoryandthelatterinaesthetics,haveanalyzedliteraryandsocio
culturalissuesthathaveaffectedourlifeandthought.K.Venu(b.1945),
withsuchbooksasPrapanchavumManushyanum,helpedtodeepenour
awarenessofmanandnature.AyyappaPanikerandSachidanandanare
creativewriterswhohavebroughttobearoncriticismideasgleanedfrom
literarycreation.K.P.Sankaranbringsoutthenuancesofliteraryexpression
withaninnateunderstandingofpoetryandlife.ChathanathAchyuthanunni
isaclassicistwhounderstandswhatmodernwesterncriticismhasaddedto
ourtraditionalwisdom.M.M.Basheer(1940)hasdoneamonumental
scholarlyworkonKumaranAsan'spoeticcraft.R.Viswanathan(1942
2005)istheauthorofAnvayam,aworkofrarecriticalinsight.D.Benjamin
(1948)commentsonliteraryworksfromanaesthetichumanistpointof
view.
V.RajakrishnanandNarendraPrasadareabletolookatthemany
facetsofcontemporaryMalayalamliteratureandculturewithfreshinsights
receivedfromwesternsources.B.Rajeevanisabletobringtobearonhis
criticismtheimpactofsociopoliticalthought.DesamangalamRamakrishnan
isagainapoetwhocanusetheawarenessoflinguisticsasakeytothe
interpretationofpoetry.AshaMenon,V.C.SreejanandPrasannarajanare
amongthelargenumberofinterpretivecriticswithsharpperceptions.P.P.
Raveendranextendsthefrontiersofconventionalliterarycriticismtocover
suchnewdevelopmentsasculturalstudies.EzhumattoorRajarajaVarma
(b.1953)hasanilluminatingstudyofVilapakavyaprasthanam(TheElegy),
apartfromabiographyofN.KrishnaPillai.BalachandranVadakkedath(b.
1954),K.S.Ravikumar(b.1957),S.Rajasekharan,E.D.Rajagopalan,N.
Sasidharan,C.R.Prasad,PK.Rajasekharanetcareamongtheimportant
120
voicesincriticismasinpoetry,novelandshortstory,thenumberofyoung
enthusiastsinthefieldofcriticismisalsoverylargeandthenewgeneration
isgiftedwithatripleinsight,combiningtheessenceofancientSanskritand
Dravidianlorewithnewwesternthinkingandtheirownpersonal
preoccupationswithcurrentliteraryaffairs.Academicscholarshipisalso
flourishingasasmallscaleindustryintheformofdoctoralthesesfromthe
differentuniversities,someofthemhaveagenuinecriticalimportance.
GeneralLiterature
Thepastfiftyyearshaveseenanupwardtrendnotonlyinall
branchesofliterature,butalsoinwhatmakesliteraturepossible.Apart
frompoetry,drama,fictionandcriticism,innumerablebookshavebeen
publishedongeneralknowledge,science,particularlyinformationtechnology,
law,areasofsocialconcernlikefeminism,dalitawareness,tribalculture,
folkloreandwhatnot.Thereishardlyanysubjectofgeneralhumaninterest
onwhichsomebookshavenotbeenproduced.Biographiesand
autobiographieshavehadaboom:variousnationalandstateleaderslike
Gandhi,Nehru,RajivGandhi,C.Kesavan,E.M.SNambudiripad,K.
Ayyappan,ChattampiSwamikal,SriNarayanaGuru,majorwriterslikeAsan,
Vallathol,Changampuzha,EdasseriGovindanNair,M.Govindan,Panampilli
GovindaMenon,SuranadKunjanPillai,etc.Autobiographicalliteratureis
alsogrowing,thankstotheeffortsofauthorslikeK.P.KesavaMenon,
A.K.Gopalan,C.Kesavan,Pavanan,KalamandalamKrishnanNair,
Thikkodiyan,Cherukad,GuptanNair,etc.Booksonscientificsubjectshave
registeredaphenomenalincrease.Asimilargrowthmaybeperceivedin
thefieldofchildren'sliteratureforallagegroupsfromnurserysongsonwards.
Encyclopediasarebeingbroughtoutbybothgovernmentandprivate
agencies.Thegovernmentisbringingoutevenanencyclopediaofworld
literature.Theculturalwingsofthegovernmentarebringingoutbooksand
journalsofspecialinteresttothoseinterestedinliterature,visualarts,theatre,
folklore,literacyetc.Inkeepingwiththeexplosioningeneralknowledge,
therehasbeencorrespondingexplosionintheproductionofbooksonevery
121
subject.Politicsandeconomicsviewithsociologyandhistoryamongworks
ongeneralinformation.
Wellinformedtravelliteraturebasedonfirsthandexperienceis
anotherfieldofgrowinginterest.S.K.Pottekkatthaslaidstrongfoundations
fortravelogueinMalayalam,followedbymanyothers.K.V.Surendranath
wroteabouthistraveltoKailasinhisbookLokathinteMukalthattil(On
theTopoftheWorld).M.PVirendraKumarhaswrittenabouttravelsto
countriesrarelyvisitedbyprofessionaltravelmongers,althoughhehasalso
authoredotherworkslikeBuddhanteChiri(Buddhan'sSmile)andRamante
Dukkham(Rama'sSorrow).Theliteratureofhumourhasalsofounda
largenumberofpatronsandpractitionersinthetraditionofE.V.Krishna
PillaiandSanjayan:theyincludePK.RajarajaVarma,M.N.GovindanNair,
AnandakuttanNair,NarayananNair,VeloorKrishnankutty,SubbiahPillai,
K.S.Krishnan,Sukumar,JosePanachipuram,etc.Translationshavealways
furtheredtheprogressofMalayalamlanguageandliterature,andthemodern
periodhasbornewitnesstothetranslationofclassicsfromworldlanguages
likeHomer'sIliadandOdyssey,Dante'sDivineComedy,Shakespeare's
CompleteWorks,SherlockHolmescomplete,andKahlilGibrancomplete,
somanyLatinAmericanauthors,worksfromotherIndianlanguages,world
fiction,worldpoetryandworlddrama:allthedoorsarealwayskeptopen.
Littlebylittle,Malayalamliteraturealsogetstranslatedintootherlanguages,
althoughonlyintrickles,comparedtowhatwegettranslatedintoMalayalam.
ThereareafewinstancesofnonMalayalistranslatingMalayalamliterary
worksintootherlanguageslikeEnglish,Hindi,Tamil,Kannada,Marathi,
etc.Beforeindependencethesewerefewandfarbetween,butduringthe
pastfiftyyearsthenumberhasbeenincreasing.Apartfromtranslations
sponsoredbyNationalBookTrustandSahityaAkademis,individualsalso
havetakentheinitiative.R.E.AsherhastranslatedThakazhiandBasheer
directlyfromMalayalamintoEnglish,ReadeWoodEzhuthacchan'sAdhyatma
Ramayana,HarinamaKirtana,etc.intoEnglish,RatiSaxenaBalamani
Amma'sNaivedyam,Thakazhi'sKayar(abridged)andshortstories,
Karoor'sshortstories,aswellaspoemsbySachidanandanandAyyappa
Paniker,etc.intoHindi,SudhamshuChaturvediintoHindi,NileenaAbraham
122
intoBengali,C.RaghavanintoKannada,NeelaPadmanabhanintoTamil,
KurinchivelanintoTamilandothers.
MalayaliauthorsalsowriteinEnglish,especiallyonnonliterary
topics(astherewerepeopleinthepastwhousedtowriteinSanskriton
literaryandnonliterarythemes),butthereareafewwhowritepoetryand
fictioninotherlanguages:ShashiTharoor,ArundhatiRoy,AnitaNair,Jayashri
Mishra,andothers,onwhomMalayaliscanhaveaclandestineclaim,for
theirsisacompositeandcosmopolitanculture,andtheexoduseveryyear
ofliteratepopulationtootherpartsoftheworldisontheincreasefrom
God'sowncountry,whereintheolddayspeoplefromotherlandsusedto
comeandsettledownandwerereceivedwithwarmthandaffection.Inthe
yearstocomethiscosmopolitanismislikelytodevelopfurther.Consistent
withtheinternationalpresenceoftheMalayalis,theirliteratureisalsolikely
tobemoreandmoreinclusiveandopentoinfluencesfromabroad.Butno
culturecanaffordtoforgetorneglectitsroots.Itistobehopedthatevery
contactwiththeoutsideworldwillfurtherstrengthentheroots,thereby
promotingthegeneralgrowth.
TheNewCentury
Aswegreetthenewcentury,theturbulenceandanxietiesfaced
bypeopleallovertheworldseemtobeontheincrease.Wemayhave
learnedtolookatlifeandliteraturefromaglobalangle,butasmallpopulation
inhabitingasmallpartoftheearthwithalittleknownlanguagehasitsown
shareofaspirationsanddifficulties.Tobepartofalargersystemandyetto
maintainitsownindividualityandlocalidentityinthishighlycompetitiveset
upisamajorproblemaffectingthelifeofeveryseriouswriter.Therapid
changestakingplaceineveryfieldoflifeinourtimefamily,economy,
education,largescalemigration,culturalencountersandsoforthleave
theirmarkonthetuneandtemperofliterature,andMalayalamliteratureof
the21s1century,nowbeingshapedbythecreativefavourofouryoung
writers,willbeanadequaterecordofallthesedevelopmentsalongwith
theirownanguishanduncertainties.Ourreadersandcriticseagerlylook
forwardtotheirnewgenerationofwriterstoredefinethelifeandliterature
ofthenewcentury,whichtheyhavestarteddoinginrightearnest.
123
ASELECTBIBLIOGRAPHY
Chaitanya,Krishna,AHistoryofMalayalamLiterature,NewDelhi:
OrientLongmans,1971.
George,K.M.ASurveyofMalayalamLiterature,Bombay:Asia
PublishingHouse,1968.
Iyer,UlloorS.Parameswara,KeralaSahityaCharitram,Trivandrum:
UniversityofKerala,19531955.
Nair,P.K.Parameswaran,MalayalaSahityaCharitram,NewDelhi:
SahityaAcademi,1958.
Nambiar,P.Sankaran,MalayalaSahityaCharitaSamgraham,1922
rpt,Kottayam:SahityaPravarthakaCooperativeSociety,1964.
Pillai,N.Krishna,KairaliyudeKatha,1958,Rev.ed.Kottayam:
SahityaPravarthakaCooperativeSociety,1975.
Pillai,P.K.Narayana,ThunchathuEzhuthachan,1930Trivandrum:
P.K.MemorialPress,1953.
Logan,WiUiam.MalabarManual,Madras,GovernmentofMadras,
1887.
Menon,O.Chandu.Indulekha.Trans.W.Dumergue.1980.Rev.ed.
Kozhikode:Mathrubhumi,1965.
Santhanam,K.ed.AnanthologyofIndianLiterature.
NewDelhi:GandhiPeaceFoundation,1969.
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