Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
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160
by ChristopherYavelow
While the concept of the personal computer is already relatively old, the
concept of the personal-computer
music studio is relatively new. First,
we describe the elements in a microcomputer-controlled
setup. Next, the
stages of turning sound into music are examined. Finally, music
available examples of each type of application are examined in greater
applications
of personal
computers
classified,
and commercially
detail. One sidebar
contrasts
makingaremusic
five years
ago with a typical
day in a home microcomputer-controlled
music studio in 1987; a
second provides a glossary of music and computer terms.
A listing of "Where to Go for More Information" is included.
MICROCOMPUTERS
IN THE MUSIC STUDIO
//
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Computer
I
The typical home personal-cornputer music studio centers on a single
personal computer (Fig. 1). The
hardware of the personal computer
typically includes a card cage con-
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Algorithmic composition
MIDI sequencing
Patch and sampled sound editing
FM and additive sound
Patch and sound librarian
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Networks,
database,
and archives
MiDi-controlled
digital effects processor
rack-mounted
synthesizer or Sampler
Modular
or
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music studio
Eng.Soc.,Vol.35,No.3, 1987March
descendingmusic
computer
order,studio,
are: the
ranked
Apple
in
Macintosh Plus or Macintosh 512K;
the Atari 520ST or Atari 1040ST; the
Apple II+ or Apple IIe; the Cornmodore 64 or Commodore 128; and
the IBM PC and clones. At the time
of this writing,
the Commodore
Amiga and the Apple IIGS are too
new to have attracted a wide enough
musical user base or to have engendered a suitable variety of musical
software. Nonetheless,
the Apple
IIGS (the G and S stand for graphics
and sound) and the Atari ST (520ST
or 1040ST) may well come out on
top. Both have built-in dedicated
sound chips, although Apple's is far
more powerful. The IIGS incorporates a digital oscillator chip (DOC)
made by Ensoniq (the manufacturers
of the Mirage sampling keyboard)
that can theoretically play up to 15
sinmltaneous parts of internally synthesized sound or up to 2.2 seconds
of 12-bit sounds sampled at up to 30
kHz using 32 digital oscillators. In
deference to musical applications, the
new Ataris have built-in MIDI interraces (discussed below) and a
dedicated sound chip that allows up
to three-part hhrmony.
Software
IJ
J
MIDI Adapter
J
Hard Disk
applications
by
fast MC68000
normally
processors,
have amusic
high
computational overhead, so most
setups will include a hard disk of 20
or more megabytes instead of the
more familiar floppy disks which
usually store less than one megabyte
and have a longer access time. Computer programs with their associated
data must usually reside in the computer's RAM before they can be
worked with, and the quicker access
time of a hard disk means that programs and data stored on the disk are
loaded into the computer's RAM at
speeds of often six to 24 times that
of floppies. To get a picture of how
much data 20 megabytes is, consider
the following: one kilobyte is often
thought of as one double-spaced
typewritten
page--thus
20 megabytes provide enough storage capacity for 20 000 pages.
Although a hard disk is vastly more
speedy and spacious than a floppy
(but often not much bigger in physical
size), the user interacts with a hard
disk in much the same way as with
a floppy: files can be created, examined, modified, and deleted. The
hard disk can contain other kinds of
information in its files such as synthesizer patches, sounds, and the
the
chaining
of MIDI
can in-a
MIDI-thru
into thedevices
because
it may
be box
necessary
tolink,
introduce
troduce timing delays into the network. A thru box will usually guarantee that MIDI messages are at least
received at their designated sources
simultaneously; then, the only major
delays are produced by the varying
times that it takes different devices
to process incoming MIDI data.
Other MIDI processing devices often
found at this point in the studio network include MIDI matrix switchers
(which are used to route different
MIDI inputs to any of a number of
different MIDI outputs) and MIDI
mergers (which use a microprocessor
to mix several incoming MIDI data
streams),
memory-hungry
(just onecan
ofcommerthe
four
cial
keyboards
be very
like.sampling
Sample soundfilesfor
RAM banks of the Kurzweil 250
holds 658 kilobytes of samples [3]).
As with the computer memory chips
mentioned above, hard diskscontinue
to become less expensive and of
larger capacity--40to 80-megabyte
hard disks are becoming more and
more popular among serious homecomputer users.
Even though certain sampling
keyboard manufacturers
have discovered ways to transfersmall sample
soundfiles via MIDI by using systemexclusive control codes, and some
have found a way to go into a double
MIDI speed mode, these are far too
slow for the file sizes employed by
163
high-end machines such as the Kurzweil 250 and the Emulator II, both
of which have their own high-speed
proprietary data transfer systems,
Furthermore, the Emulator II has an
interface to soundfiles stored in CD
ROM--a read-only type of memory
thatlooks likethe morefamiliaraudio
Linotronics
phototypesetter
(1270
and 2540 dpi). (Fig. 2.) Daisy-wheel
or impact printers are designed for
letter writing and do not provide the
graphic capabilities
required
by
conventional music notation,
a
I
I
instrumentalist
may control a MIDI
device without having to know anything about the traditional
piano
keyboard. This does not mean that
one can play symphonic audio recordings through a pitch tracker and
have all the notes transcribed into
their appropriate MIDI codes. Cur-
CD.
rent pitch-tracking
really
only successful technology
at tracking isa
Printer
Synthesizers
multivoiced
polyphonic textures is
still
in solomelodic
the future.
single
line.Following
Some artists,
such as Michel
Waisvisz, from The Netherlands, are
inventing new MIDI controllers that
bear no resemblance whatsoever to
traditional musical instruments. For
language,
timbral synthesizers
PostScript,
many
musi-
laser
($4000
and expensive
up). This
cians printers
are opting
for more
is largely due to the recent development of a publishing-quality
laser
music font, Sonata, from Adobe
Systems (who also manufacture the
Apple LaserWriter).
Unlike earlier
bitmapped music fonts, Sonata defines symbols as vectors or Bezier
curves. Using the Adobe Systems
music font with software such as
Deluxe Music Construction Set for
the Macintosh, a music file may be
printed on an Apple ImageWriter
(160 dots per inch) and other kinds
of printers such as the Apple LaserWriter (300 dpi), or a Mergenthaler
have started to
multi-timbral
synthesizer
become the new
standard.or sampler
With a
it is possible for a single instrument
to listen to specific MIDI channels,
each assigned to a separate patch or
soundfile, and to have the different
sounds played simultaneously,
For people without keyboard ability, many new MIDI controllers are
beginning to appear. These range
from guitar controllers, aimed at the
large market of guitar players who
desire to manipulate external soundgenerating devices, to pitch trackers
that can convert normal audio into
the appropriate MIDI note codes.
Using a pitch tracker, any singer or
I
Telecommunications
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164
166
Jl
II
(AND BACK)
FROM SOUND TO MUSIC
crack
at fixing
it in
mixanother
using
this case,
the user
canthe
have
state-of-the-art
digital mixing software running on microcomputers,
Fig. 3 illustrates this continuum in
detail,
process Ironically,
is necessary
that ofrequires
them.
a sort
hybrid
these sounds to be saved into a file
that is compatible with the digital
sampling keyboard's file format, thus
allowing the sound to be transferred
into the sampling keyboard for play-
Sound Creation
the
filelater--in
is keyboard
one which
it created
itself.
back
sampling
essence,
into
thinking
tricking
that
the
First
foremost
is the
organization
of'the
ware and
may
sound
serve
library.
several
Librarian
purposes.
softof soundfiles or patches into larger
groups or banks that are associated
I[
using elec-
material
from one usually
of two domains:
tronic
instruments
draws its
samplingor synthesis. The first possible introduction of a personal computer into the music process is in the
actual creation or capturing of sonic
material through the techniques of
either sound generation or sound
sampling. While software and related
peripheral analog-to-digital hardware
devices exist that can convert many
personal computers into veritable
digital sampling machines, micros
are not at this time capable of attaining the minimum level of fidelity
required by professionals oreven by
most amateurs and hobbyists. On the
other hand, personal computers with
16-bit CPUs are perfectly capable of
synthesizing
high-quality
complex
sounds using additive or FM synthesis or other techniques. Sounds created in this manner may sometimes
be tested using the hardware of the
generating microcomputer, but due
to physical limitations, they ire not
often played back for musical pur168
I
I
I
Sound
Editing
[
Sound
Libraries
siderations.
Although
together on the
basis of most
musicalsoundcongenerating devices include stock
patches or sampled soundfiles in their
ROM chips, most of these devices
also provide RAM into which userdefined banks of individual usersampled soundfiles or user-created
patches may be loaded as a unit.
More and more sound-generating
devices allow the user to create a Iibrary consisting of configurations of
the instrument's keyboard mapping.
In such cases, the musical keyboard
may be divided at split-points into
separate regions, each of which may
have different patches or soundfiles
associated with it. The actual musical
keys are losing their scale-associated,
do-re-mi-fa-sol-la-si-do
function and
becoming merely triggers. Consider
the most extreme case, the Kurzweil
250. This sampling keyboard allows
each of its 88 keys to be tuned to any
frequency (expressed in cents) triggering any instrument or sound, and
has its own effects file (a group of
J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 35, No. 3, 1987 March
Synchronization
MIDI-controlled
Step-time
input
Real-time
input
effects
Sequencer
MIDI-controlled
mixer
Disk-based digital
recording
Digital mixing
Digital or analog
tape
Algorithmic
generation
Notation
conversion
its own unique digital processing effects) associated with it. As if that
were not enough, Kurzweil keyboard
setups may include configurations
that consist of up to six layers, each
of which may be divided into 88 regions in the same manner. With 449
configurations
on-line in a fully
loaded machine, librarian software
is a welcomeaid.
MIDI Sequencers
The most common use of MIDI information is to record and store sequences of musical events played on
a microprocessor-controlled
soundgenerating device such as a synthesizer. Both hardware devices and
software programs that record MIDI
data are called MIDI sequencers,
When MIDI data are recorded in this
they are often compared to pianoroll data. This is because in neither
case are sounds actually recorded,
only the information that triggers a
sound to occur. Thus, each playing
of a MIDIsequenceresultsin an actual reperformance of what was
played initially
with no signal degradation
from multiple-generation
recording. In addition to channel
designation (MIDI translates these
data over 16 MID1 channels simultaneously),MIDIcommunicatessuch
information
as pitch, key-on and
-off velocity,
duration,
program
(patch or soundfile) change, and the
J.AudioEng.Soc.,Vol.35, No.3, 1987March
I
I
I
Input
and Editing
Methods
musical is
material
into a aMIDI
quencer
by generating
streamseof
MIDI data algorithmically. This is
becoming increasingly popular as
computers become more and more
user-friendly and the user-interface
to complex compositional algorithms
becomes simpler. Recent software
releases permit the generation of
169
racy.
Editing practices such as cut, copy,
paste, merge, and insert are powerful
MIDI sequencer operations and have
TRADITIONAL
(31/!Pl
VVI1/V/1-_I
Composing:
Then and Now
I am a composer. I compose music
in many genres. However, for the
past decade most of my efforts have
been devoted to opera. My studio is
in my home so l often start preparing
for a day of composing while l'm
drinking my morning coffee. Five
years ago, these preparations entailed
cleaning up the erasure dust accumulated from the previous day,
sharpening several dozen pencils, and
opening up the piano. At that time.
my only high-tech
compositional
tools consisted of an electric pencil
sharpener, used during rough drafts,
170
MIDI.Controlled
Mixing
and Effects
II
I
and
I
CtqlqTl:::r3
1%lk,.._Ik,.Jll_.,,,I/hl,.,,J
COMPOSITION
Personal computers are being used
for many musical applicanons ranglng from the custom design and editing of sounds to conventional music
notation and direct-to-disk
digital
audio systems. Perhaps the greatest
impact of microcomputers upon music will be in the area of CAC (computer-assisted composition).
Day
instanta-
Throughout
the Day
Throughout any day, I will inevitably spend more time at the computer keyboard than at the musical
one. This is because once I have the
musical source material
themes,
motives, melodies, etc.
recorded
into storage tracks within my MIDI
sequencer (which can support up to
350 virtual tracks}. I can use the
Macintosh mouse to cut and paste,
modify, rearrange,
and otherwise
experiment with orchestrations, or to
redirect material to any or all of the
sixteen MIDI channels on my samplingkeyboard. Because of th e nature
of the opera I am composmg, I have
separate MIDI channels set for each
instrument of the orchestra and the
solo voices, but this still leaves me
with several extra channels that I reserve for special or changing articulations (such as the various types
of string bowing or plucking).
Lunchtime
Sometimes i set the Macintosh up
to generate variations on my morn-
Before Bedtime
Besides being time-consuming,
printing drafts on the dot-matrix
printer is noisy
this activity is reserved for sleeping hours. The day's
music files, after having been converted into a format for printing conventional music notation, are transferred to a storage area on the hard
disk that is specifically designated
for printing as a background task.
Once the printing begins, the computer is left to divideits timebetween
printing and running automatic telecommunications macros, tasks which
continue throughout the night.
171
:'
' DisR_Based
D[gllal ReCOrding
_
[
:1
.1
Ii
aided ear
clude
instruction)
training (with
applications
pacing geared
in-
I
.....
Syncing to Digital or
Analog Tape
,
II
.:
OF
COMPUTERSTOMUSlC
,
I
]
toeachstudent),harmonyinstruction
(with automatic correction and feedback), and orchestration (as an orchestral "sketch pad").
7) Telecommunications.
As mentioned above, telecommunication
is
becoming a standard part of the home
microcomputer
music studio and is
used to communicate
with music
J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 35, No. 3, 1987 March
sampled sounds
_=_
(As a soundgenerating/
editing/
analyzing
networks,
FM synthesis
laboratorySUnd
H_II_
tOOl
Editing
sounds''
Generatingsoun0s
ir_r
j_
Patchsynthesis
editing
Additive
['q
J_J
BBSs,
software
packages that are
typical of the various kinds of microcomputer music applications.
resentative
Real time
generation of
music
Non-real time
Composition
dertace to
Sound Laboratory
front canalsofcomplex
(CAC:
composition
computerassisted
r!.
etc.)
generation,
patchilbraitans
librarian/database
Click*trackconversion 1
j _
programs
)
ES File format conversion ]
I_
utilities
J
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Jt mouse.d,giti*er,
pe_)J
t
Inout
editisconrgef
for
eventual
Drlnteo
J'[ _Ue?._>[_:[_
in the
L[
Pitch-rtacking
.J
approach
is to convert soundfiles
from differentmanufacturers
into a
(160 dpi)
Low-resolutionlaser
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L_
High-resolutionlaser
1
_
phototypesetter
J
'-[
-MIDI
sequencing,
editing,1
synchronization
J
MIDI-basedeffects
g..... ting
devices
and
other
devices)
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MIDIreverb J
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j.
I_
Control of digitaleffects J
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Control of light,rig
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Room acoustics
L_Control of other perform.1,j _,
ance
parameters
i
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_ EL Real-timecontrol of
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computeranimation J
L_lnterface
for nonstandard]
[,
MIDIcontrollers
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Mixingdisk-based
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Mixing
PostDreduction
sounaeonmg
sj
Filtering
Delays
Other digitalsignalprocessingeffects
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-[
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recordings
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ReverDerauon
Flanging j
Chorusing I
$100
000
range,
Digidesign's
whether
the
original sample resolution is 8, 10, 12, 14, or 18 bits.
The soundfiles are reconverted
to
of
whatever format the playback instrument requires. Sampling instruments currently supported by Digi-
Interactiveautomatic
imorovisation
J!
(controlof
sounaPerfo......
powerfulwaveformeditorcurrently
Brooks of Digidesign, is the most
available on a microcomputer.
For
around
$300, its features
rival
those
of professional digital audio systems
1
J
[k
_J'
Cutout
written by Evan
Opticalcharacter
rocognition
J t
ScoreEditing(copying
and
cutout)
Sound Designer,
rage
DSSII,1 Ensoniq's
Sequential'sMi' Korg's
E-mu's
Emulator
Prophet 2000, and the Kurzweil 250.
One side effect of converting all of
thesemanufacturers'fileformatsinto
a single standard for editing is that
previously
may be passed
incompatible
from samplersoundfiles
to sampler via Sound Designer.
Sound Designer displays
sampled
File
/'_
Edit'
Display
Calibrate
Tools
,"-I
L_J
Mode
CELINASD
or
18-bit format
demanded
by the
sampler
being used for playback
(Fig.
6).
Theotherconvention
borrowed
_B
__
fromSound
Designer
is thepreview
mode
for playing
back
sounds
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Because
the soundsaregenerated,
as
opposedpresent
to having
originally
been
sampler
to work
on sounds.
through
that
it isthe
not
necessary
This
to havethe
means
sampled,
the computer.
program also
creates
small (30-kilobyte)
parameter fled
that contain the information
necessary to regenerate a specific sound
ratherthanthe actualsounddata.
i_ _
Thesehavetheadvantage
of being
__
sively
on the to
telecommunications
smallenough
circulateinexpennetwork.
shot
shows
The additive
two views
of a soundfile
being
edited
with Digidesign's
Sound
problem with Sound Designer. Finally, provisions are made for sound
synthesis from within the program
(although at this time, the only
method implemented is the KarplusStrong plucked-string
algorithm),
Display cfa three-dimensional
spectral frequency analysis (or FFT-fast Fourier transform) is also available although editing the spectrum
in a three-dimensional form is not
possible. Because transferring
the
soundfiles to the sampler can take up
to a minute, there is a preview function that will play back the sound
through the computer at a fixed sample rate.
One important feature of sound
sampling that is handled very ciegantly by Sound Designer is looping,
When used musically, portions of
sampled soundfiles are usually looped
over and over to allow the sampled
sound to be sustained for any desired
length. This can be a problem because
an audible click or pop can be heard
if both the start and end points of a
loop are not at zero crossings or if
174
Generating Sounds
with Softsynth
synthesis
portion of
Patch Editor is by far the most versatile, easy to use, and edit-efficient
of patch editors available for any
microcomputer,
IRCAM (Institut de Recherche
Acoustique
Musique) in Paris is
working on FM patching from a
unique standpoint. In their prototype
the on-screen display is a bar-graph
FFT, and the relative values of individual frequency spectra are transformed to initiate the corresponding
FM operator changes needed to produce the FFT.
Composition
,
File Edit
SmartSynth
Options
Sampler
Frequency:
Hz
22_
Sample
Rate:
Syntillating
31["-"_
HZ
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Editing
efficiency Digidesign
increases provides
because
puter keyboard.
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File length:
60[-0-_ Samples
d"
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...........
'-
is available
_'?'u-'--_.'-_},._.'.'.u:__}}_}?.._
.
on a computer
character
LCD and
screen
clumsy
thannavigation
in a 2420 ...}-__-z__--___--z_-__-_-_-_-__-__-___-_-_________-_-___--_--____-____:___________-_____:_-________-___:_
....
through a synthesizer's menu tree can
2s__-__________--____________-___----____-____________-______-_:_-_-___-__________-----_--_--_--___--_-_--__----------_--.
be made invisible
to the user. Graphic
"
3o ____---__-_-___-___--_-_-__-_____________-_-___-____________-_______--_-_--_--_-_---_--_---------_----_
interfaces for the manipulation
of
o.o,,c
-.9,eo
certain parameters that lend them-
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4Jr_.L[[l_l_.L
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 _215141516171819202122252425262728293031
L 1. /
32
Fig. 6. Softsynth
Softsynth'sscreenpresentsa three-dimensional
displayof a waveformresemblingan FFT
(seetext).Thechangingamplitudes(expressedvertically)of theconstituentharmonicpartials
(expressed from front to back) are plotted over time (expressed horizontally in milliseconds).
On thebottomportionof thescreenare 32 fadersthat can be adjustedby slidingthemouse
arrowover them.Thesecontrolthe overallgainof eachseparatepartial,
176
L_
r 4_ File
tditl
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digitizer (the MacNifty Audio Digitizer) that records sound into the
microcomputer
in a way similar to
that employed by dedicated sampling
keyboards. The software uses linear
' ,_
on/off
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interpolation
ofthesoundsamples
to recompute
the sampled soundfiles,
which are then played back at various
pitches to create melodies.
Feedback 5 Rate I O I O I 0 J O
Regions of tracks (essentially
_e_
S_cO. _e_e_l_ol_ol_ol_o lodic
fragments) can be looped
me-
for
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s,..Spd De]PMDAMDPM$Sync
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varying
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can be used
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File:
doe's Sounds 5
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places
____________
__________
Fig. 7. MIDIMAC patch editor
This graphic patch editor from Opcode Systems illustrates several standard user-interface
components.Thehorizontalbar underthe words"Op5 KeyboardRate Scaling"is knownas
a scroll bar.Touchingthe arrowsat eitherend of the scrollwith the mousearrowcausesthe
white box to move in the direction of the arrow, simultaneouslyupdatingthe indicatedvalues
in the "Operator 5"windowat the center right portionof the screen. Large skips in values can
be accomplishedby touchingthewhitesquareboxwith themousearrowandpullingthe box
quicklytowardeitherend.
on separate
tracks
simulta-
PERSONAL
File Edit
COMPUTERS
AND MUSIC
MIDI
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1-1_
Yamaha D7
: Program
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Untitled
Channel
1 Modem Port
17
1 :YES BUNK2
2 :YES BUNK 1
3 !ELECPIANO
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6 :STRINGS
2
7 iBRI.PIANO.
8 iBRI.PIANO.
9:
Algorithmically Generated
Music: M
_o:
Fig. 8. MIDIMAC patch librarian
This patch librarian software from Opcode Systems displays a number of windows--some
representing patch banks and another, the patch library. In the upper center of this screen
shot, a menu has been pulled down under the "Load Send" menu. The little arrow represents
the currentpositionof the cursorbeingcontrolledby the mouse.To pull downthe menu.the
menu's title is touched, then the mouse button is depressed while the menu is pulled (or
dragged)down. As the arrow movesdownthe menu,the text on each next line is inverted
to displayas white letterson a blackbackground.Liftingthe buttonwhilethe cursoris on a
menuoptionso inverted will causethat commandto execute(note:in this case "LoadBank
from Synthesizer").
178
HookUp/
HookUp! is being developed by
David Levitt at the Computers and
Entertainment
Department
of the
Massachusetts
Institute of Technology's Media Laboratory. The user
connects icons, representing
user
input (currently: MIDI keyboard,
computer keyboard, or mouse), output devices (MIDI keyboard, Macintosh screen, a radio-controlled
helium blimp, etc.), timing clocks,
datastructures
(memory cells and
vectors), as well as arithmetic, logical, and comparative
operators,
Many icons may be opened up to reveal their personal control panels or
operating circuitry for user customization. Icons may be picked up,
dragged around the screen, and interconnected (using a "wiring tool")
to create functional algorithms for
the real-time control of, and/or interaction with, data from external
devices,
typically
MIDI-addressable sound-generating
devices.
Eventually, the complex algorithms
so created will be accessible from
progressively
higher levels of ab-
and Programming
Environments
MIDI-Lisp
Lisp is a computer language as old
as the well-known FORTRAN. Some
things are easy to do in Lisp that are
more difficult in other computer languages. For example, a melody can
be treated as a list of notes and durations. The company called ACT
Informatique in Paris has developed
a dialect called Le-Lisp. Paris's renowned music research institute,
IRCAM, in turn, has joined this dialect with MIDI to make a programming environment
that they call
MIDI-Lisp. Within this environment
they are now developing PREFORM,
an object-oriented graphic programming tool kit, with which the user
can select and arrange the constituent
parts of MIDI programs as visual
building blocks. IRCAM's David
Wessel, a co-developer of MIDILisp, is using it to teach the principles
of programming to music students at
the Paris Conservatory.
instrumentsl
_nguages
straction: that is, within larger systems of interactive modules or modules within modules.
Pattern
Windows
Untitled
Input
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Fig. 9. M
This screen shot of M shows many icons used for many purposes. Usingthe mouse pointer
to click on any of them will bring up otherboxes that will requireadditionaluser inputor
clarification. In the center of the screen is a little mouse waiter, "taking an order"--and
this
is exactly what that portion of the screen controls: note order--exclamation
points indicating
that melodic patterns are to be played back in the same order they were played in, and
question marks indicating various degrees of randomness applied to the order of pitches
makingup theoriginalmelody.Slightlyabovethis areaaretwo feetthatindicatethatthetrack
was recorded instep time. Above that is an icon of a.little tape recorder indicating that the
trackwasrecordedin realtime.
179
transposition,
automatic part extraction with rest concatenation,
automatic instrumental
range checking,
automatic rhythm checking, n-tuplets, automatic text reformatting
(when the music is reformatted),
a
usable symbol complement, a rudimentary form of rhythmic polyphony, and the ability to merge staves
for the purpose of creating functional
piano reductions
of larger works.
Notes and symbols may be entered
in a variety of ways: using the symbol
palette and the mouse, the computer
keyboard and the mouse, or in real
or step time using their companion
MIDI sequencer software, Performer
(discussed below).
cumbersome
as
how a typewritermusic
workstypewriters
and there are
well. What we call word processors
are really computerized typewriters.
People believe that so-called music
not currently
support the Adobe
PostScript music font (it uses its own
music symbols of significantly lower
resolution) it nonetheless is the only
notation package with the minimum
number of features
required
by
professional
musicians. These inelude the ability to handle orchestral
scores of 40 staves, automatic part
Score Editing
I
180
Professional
Deluxe Music
Construction Set
Composer
High Score
onecorrespondence"
[7].
After the computer
'
"
Future: Instan t "1ntelhgent
Notation Conversion
important
element in a personalcomputer music setup. When MIDI
first
dedicated
sizer, appeared,
MIDI sequencers
are hardware
the most
sequencing devices were common,
Now it is much more common to fulfill this function with sequencing
software that offers the advantages
of more power and flexibility, a better
user interface, and easy updatability
over its hardware counterparts. Today, software sequencers are used not
only for the capture of performance
data or to assume the role of the mas-
The
The conversion of MIDI data into
professional publishing-quality
conventional music notation that we have
described in this article has been a
two-stage process for the most part.
MIDI data files are subsequently
converted into a file that may be read
and modified by a notation editor. It
is everyone's dream to create a sys-
File
Edit
Basics
Symbols
and synthe-
Uariations
Extras
Groupings
C-IBSY
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these
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NOT, selection
OR, etc.) criteria
may beto applied
to
further zeroing in on specific data to
be modified. Edit operations such as
cut, copy, or paste, and transpose,
invert, retrograde, or scale by ratio
are common to many sequencers, but
Another popular user interface element is illustrated by this screen shot from Mark of the
Unicorn's Professional Comooser. The six vertical columns on the left of the screen represent
Performer
also provides
such necessary
editing
options
as the ability
to
"'_
to
^ /(
range,
within
range,
or
within aa given
given durational
pitch range,
notes
a specified number of part layers.
Some Boolean operators
(AND,
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the mouse pointer on any symbol inserts the selected symbol at the
current insertion point on the musical score. Note: the vertical and horizontalscroll bars with
white arrows are for movingforward and backwam in the compositionor up and oown the
musical
score,
182
set
to a constant,
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Mark of the Untcorn's Performer as a MIDI sequencer software package that includes some
emulabonof thecontrolsof an analogtaperecorder.Acrossthetopquarterof the screenare
some large triangles and squares that function exactly like physical buttons when they are
touchedbythe
mousecursor.That
leftis
Rewind
to the right of that
Js the Stop button, is,the
to thetrianglefacing
right of that, the
Playthebutton.
Tobutton,the
the right ofsquare
these
buttonsarethe Pause,Record,Waitfor Note,andAuto-record(punchin)buttons.Thecounter
windowat the left of the screendisplaysthe currentlocationm measures,beats,and ticks
(fractions of the beat), as well as the beginning and ending of the current edit points and the
beginningandendingofthe currentpunch-mpoints(theseareall set to 1111000
inthisscreen
shot).In the centerOfthe screenis an edit windowintothe pianotrack(notethat Pianois
selectedand thus appearsas white letterson blackin the trackswindowat the lowernght),
The
editwindowprovidesa
noteswiththeiroflocations,
velocityof
keyedited
downstrokeand
velocityof
key upstroke,andhstof
notedurationsAny
this informabon
canbe
fea-
" Intelligent
or likely
of the Input musical materlal are created.The user manipulates graphic sliders on the screen
to determine the mixing of the first-,
second-, third-, and fourth-order
Markov chains generating the output.
Velocity ranges and durational ranges
are also user defined, as are cyclical
accent patterns. It is possible to have
variations
provides
ira CKS
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Piano
gent Music
Interactive
Automatic Improvisation
with Jam Factory
Real-Time Control of
Computer Animation:
HookUp!
of entertainment
many applications
It _
File Edit
Options
control ofApplications
system.
video animation
of via
real-time
MIDI
are just beginning to be explored.
The author has used
HookUp! to
construct a system in minutes that
sile_
PI
2_P,t
om our_:,oo.]Iii!i!
so.
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..._Skip
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listens
incoming
MIDI score
data and
turns thetopages
of a musical
onscreen at the appropriate moments.
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MusicMouse
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][_"inally
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//C,
'_
ELECTRONIC
simple-to-operate,
r
OPER
is an inexpensive,
_'_
jmc_
there
(213)
473-8771 Avenue
TLX: 5101001679JL
1931 Pontius
West Los Angeles,COOPER
CA 90025
185
PERSONAL
File
Edit Special
COMPUTERS
AND MUSIC
motion within the grid. Other Macintosh keys control program change,
speed of the melodic embellishment
patterns,
volume,
transposition,
modulation wheel, breath control,
and foot controls.
HookUp!is a visualprogrammingenvironment
whoseoperationis almost100%intuitive.The
leftside of the screendisplaysa paletteof optionsthat turn intoiconswhenthey are pulled
out intothe programareawith themouse.Inthe upperleft corneris a wiringtoolthat is used
to "wire"thevariouselementstogether.Inthe programshown,wecanseeslidericons(which
functionlikephysicalslidersfor changingvaluesfrom0 to 100),a MIDIinputicon(likea little
pianokey),anda lengthoperatorthat passeson the numberof notesplayedto an equals
operatorto checkif the numberof notesplayedis equalto one, 17, or 31.Whenit senses
that thesemany notes havebeen playedit sendsa putseto the selectorswitch (farright),
whichinc[ementsto frames _1,2, o[ 3, of an associatedscreen animation"sprite"(upper
i:enter),Inthis ca-setheanidiati6hframesare actuall_)picturesofpagesof muSic--thusthe
programlistensto MIDlinputandturnsthepagesofmusicattheappropriatetimeforsomeone
whois readingthe musicoff thecomputerscreen,
0.01% distortion,
Help
equivalent to the
Options Controls
configurations
of fourvoicesare
available grouped as three-plus-one
or two-plus-two in contrary or similar
motion. Vertical motion means that
ii.
4_ File Edit
MixSend View
Play
......
Adrian Freed has created MacMix (Fig. 15), a program for mixing
soundfiles and tracks on the Dyaxis
direct-to-disk
digital recorder (discussed earlier). The object is to provide a graphic
interface
for mixing
Corporation
187
also be mouse-adjusted).
There is a
gain control for each track. Cut,
copy, and paste are fully implemented. Mixes, which may last from
a few samples to several hours, can
be auditioned along the way. Dan
Timis of the University of California,
Santa Barbara (and formerly of IRCAM), has reimplemented MacMix
on the Sun Workstation. Finally, a
graphic interface for adding rever-
CONCLUSIONS
I[
REFERENCES
[1] MIDI 1.0 Detailed Specification
1983. (International MIDI Association,
11857 Hartsook St., North Hollywood,
CA 91607, USA.)
_,
[2] R. A. Moog, "MIDI: Musical Instrument Digital Interface," J. Audio
Eng. Soc., vol. 34, no. 5, pp. 394-404
(1986 May).
[3] D. Byrd and C. Yavelow, "The
Kurzweil 250 Digital Synthesizer,"
Computer
Music
Journal,
vol.
10,
no.
juxtapositions
of musical material
1986 International Computer Music
through cut, paste, and copy operaConference,pp.413-421.(ComputerMuperimentquicklywithmanyalternatetrlinReal-TimePerfrmance'''Prc'
tions,
sicAssociation,
SanFrancisco,1986.)
Microcomputers,
communication
with sound-generating
devices, and
nuof
'_1
188
'
CHOOSE
_
TOROIDALUNETRANSFORMERS '_'_''':_
from the _Averstandardstock range
or custom engineered
o _,_,"_:.-73r
'_._:;;;-_
//_i
_W
4j
-------mni
L_7==
LZ:_'
t__. .:_
PERSONAL COMPUTERS
AND MUSIC ... continued
-- GLOSSARY
, ~
Additive Synthesis
Sounds are synthesized by adding
two or more simple waveforms together to create one of greater complexity.
ADSR
Attack-Decay-Sustain-Release.
This refers to a sound's amplitude
envelope--the
changing degrees of
amplitude a sound goes through. In
the Attack phase there is usually a
quick rise to maximum volume followed by a fairly short Decay; the
Sustain phase describes how long the
volume is sustained; finally, the Release segment indicates how long a
sound takes to get to zero volume,
With synthesizers
an envelope
will
often automatically jump to the Release segment if the note is released
before any of the other segments has
completed. Instead of a simple fourstage ADSR envelope, some electronic instruments provide for up to
256 envelope segments,
Algorithmic
Composition
Generally taken to mean composlng music using formulae. When accomplished
with computers,
the
computer often applies a specified
degree of randomness
(within userproscribed limits) to different musical
parameters, or makes choices based
J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 35, No. 3, 1987 March
upon statistical
siderations,
or probabilistic
con-
Bank
A computermemorystoragearea
in which a number of patches or sequences may be saved for loading as
a single unit.
BBS
Bulletin-Board
System. Acompurer with typically 20 to 40 megabytes of storage that may be dialed
up from a home computer via a modem connected
to the telephone.
A
BBS usually revolves around a public
message board where messages can
be posted to be read by other members
of the BBS. Many also include data
libraries that the user _an download.
CAI
Computer-Aided
Instruction.
Using a computer in some way to assist
in teaching. Sophisticated
systems
are often designed as self-learning
aids, sometimes tracking a student's
progress and adjusting each lesson
accordingly.
_'
CRT
Cathode-Ray Tube. Another term
for the computer screen.
Cursor
A point on the computer screen that
is considered to be the active or current insertion point.
Decrescendo
A musical term that indicates a
gradual decrease in volume. S);nonymous with diminuendo.
Digital Mixing
Analogous to the mixing of analog
sound on conventional tape record189
GLOSSARY
ers--in this case the data are in digital form.
Graphic Interface
A type of user interface that permits a person to interact with a com-
Direct-to-Disk
MIDI Merger
Ahardware
Hard Disk
A sealed disk storage medium that
MIDI Sequencer
A software package or dedicated
hardware device that captures MIDI
DOC
Digital Oscillator Chip. A special
computer chip dedicated to processing digital sound--sampled
or synthesized. In doing so, the CPU is left
free for other tasks,
Dragging
A mouse technique through which
objects are moved from one location
Menu
A list of control options or program
features requiring user selection prior
to execution.
Dynamics
MIDI
The Musical Instrument Digital
Interface. An industry specification
of device-control
protocols created
in 1982 to allow synthesizers of different manufacturers to communicate
editing
and/or
MIDI Sync
A timing standard through which
various MIDI devices can be locked
in perfect synchronization.
MIDI-Thru Box
A hardware device which accepts
a single MIDI input and passes it
along through a number of MIDI
outputs to get around situations that
might otherwise generate perceptible
delays between
various
devices
linked in the MIDI setup.
Modem
MOdulation
DEModulation.
A
hardware device for converting computer data to and from audible tones
that can be sent along the normal
telephone lines.
Monophonic
A passage of music consisting of
a single melodic line with only one
note sounding at a time. Contrasted
to polyphonic.
Mouse
loudness.
A hardware
FM Synthesis
Frequency-modulation
synthesis
creates sounds by modulating one
waveform with another rather than
adding sound waves together as in
additive synthesis,
190
screen.
Multi-timbral
Refers to the ability of a synthesizer to play different sounds or
patches simultaneously.
J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 35, No. 3, 1987 March
Operator
A software module that simulates
a sine-wave oscillator, an envelope
generator, and a VCA (voltage controlled amplifier).
In Yamaha synthesizers, operators are combined
into FM algorithms for the generation
of sound via FM synthesis,
Patch
A setting of a synthesizer's useraddressablecontrolsthat producesa
given sound, and that can be sorted
and recalled for future use. Now al-
RAM
Random Access Memory. This is
the portion of computer memory that
the user can read and write to. Usually, anything
stored in RAM will
disappear
when the computer
is
turned off. Most computers must load
programs and data into RAM before
eithercanbeworkedwithbytheuser,
Contrasted to ROM (read-only memory)--see below,
on one long roll of which only a certain part is visible at any given moment.
SCSI
Small Computer Systems Interface. An industry standard computer
port protocol that transfers data at an
extremely high rate of speed and
permits devices of different manufacturers to be attached to a variety
of computers.
Real Time
Events that occur in real time are
Sequence
ROM
SMPTE
unit.
Sampling
Digital recording. The process is
analogous to film: whereas it only
PostScript
A page-description
language for
controlling laser printers and laser
phototypesetters
(among other
things) that describes the printed
material as vectors and Bezier curves
rather than as a one-to-one corre-
Sound Library
A library of available soundfiles
(usually samples) from which the user
may pick one or more for loading
into a sampling keyboard or modular
sampler.
sampling
Step Time
Refers to the entry of MIDI data
into a sequencer a note at a time, by
specifying in advance what rhythmic
value the next note or notes played
will assume rather than recording it
(as opposed to real time--see above).
Polyphonic
Music consisting of several parts
or voices that retain individuality,
Concerning
synthesizers,
n-voice
polyphony refers to the actual physical number of notes that can sound
simultaneously at any given moment.
Eight-, 12-, and 16-voice polyphonic
Quantization
A sort of rhythmic rounding off
that, when applied to MIDI data,
moves every note to the nearest
quantum unit (specified by the user)
thus correcting for any human rhythmic errors as well as those created
by the fact that, in some circumstances, the rhythmic resolution of
MIDI is much finer than necessary,
O.Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 35, No. 3, 1987 March
or digital sampling.
Sampling
Keyboard
Sampling keyboards
samplers are different
sizers in that, rather
(synthesizing)
sounds,
or Sampler
or modular
from synthethan creating
these instru-
Sound Editing
The process through which a user
modifiesthe characteristicsof sound.
with
Telecommunications
The process by which computers
communicate with other computers,
networks, databases, or BBSs. Typically a modem is used to convert
computer data into audible tones for
transmission through the telephone
lines.
191
continued
PERSONAL COMPUTERS
WHERE TO GO
INFORMATION
PRECISION_
FOR
MORE
MAGNETIC.oo,s
Anderton,
TEST
IAPES
MlDl
meWyork,
forMusicians(AMSCOPress,
1986)
428890064'
826-(telecoms)
(213) 826-3777
Chamberlin,
Hal
Musical Applications
of Microprocessors
(Hayden, Rochelle Park, NJ, 1980)
MusicNET
BBS
Box 274, Beekman,
DeFuria,
PAN (Performing
SEC.
1/4"
1/2"
1000
30
40
60
4000
10
12
20
8000
15
20
30
20
10
25
12
31.5 10
40
63
Steve,
Dominic,
Publishing
Co.,
Synth
PAN,
12080
(503)
20
PERIODICALS
(800)336-0437
10
12
20
10
12
20
100
10
12
20
Computer MusicJournal
MIT Press, Journals Dept.,
Cambridge,
MA 02142
125
10
12
20
ElectronicMusician
250
10
12
20
500
10
12
20
Mix Publications,
947 ]0
26089th
55 Hayward
St., Berkeley,
1000
10
12
20
Keyboard
10
10
12
12
20
20
CPI Publications,
CA 95015
8000
10000
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12500
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20000
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25
INC.
Road #5,
94545
California
U.S.A.
(41 5) 786-3546
Tymnet
(800) 336-0149
(AMUG)
IBM PC
International
Business Machines,
P.O. Box
1328, Boca Raton, FL 33429. (305) 998-2000
Macintosh
512K, 512E, Macintosh
Plus,
Apple lI+/e,
IIGS (with built-in sound
chip)
Apple Computer, Inc., 20525 Mariani Ave.,
Cupertino, CA 95014. (408) 996-1010
BBS
Synthesizers
Akai
Box 2344,
5114
Systems
International)
(212) 757-0320;
ESI; Australia:
2749
Casio,
(213) 937-0347; (800) FAST02-5163622;
U.K.: 01-221
MIDI Connection
(212) 594-2646 (telccoms)
Los Ga-
Digidesign
BBS
(415) 494-0264 (telecoms)
(Entertainment
for Music
Commodore/Amiga,
983 University,
tos, CA 95030. (408) 395-6616
Esi Street
Network)
Personal Computers
Applications
Amiga
Hayward,
CA
Music Technology
Music Maker Publications, Inc., 7361 Topanga
Canyon Blvd., Canoga Park, CA 91303
American
LABORATORY,
St.,
NETWORKS
TAPE
Artists
LIST OF MANUFACTURERS
2000
4000
STANDARD
Bank (a special-interest
group on
among other things)
S.W. Parkway, Portland, OR 97225.
626-9084
12
(213)
ed.
Synthesizers '86.' MIDI, Programming, Software [excerpted from Keyboard] (CPI Publications, Cupertino, CA, 1986)
Synth-Net
(212) 757-0521
Telenet
Program
used on new series of
test tapes at 7V2, 15 & 30 IPS.
(office);
CA
P.O. Box 162, Skippack, PA 19474. (215) 4894640 (voice); (617) 576-0862 (telecoms); Europe: (PAN's host ID) 311-061-703093
40
20
1000
Los Angeles,
(914) 724-3668
16000
1000
192
4006;
Hz
Craig
Inc.
15 Gardner
575-7400
Rd.,
Fairfield,
NJ 07006.
Scotts
Valley,
(201)
CA
Ensoniq Corp.
263 Great Valley Parkway,
19355.
(215)
647-3930
Malvern, PA
Fairlight Instruments
2945 Westwood Blvd., Los Angeles, CA
90064.(213)470-6280
Korg USA, Inc.
89FrostSt., Westbury,NY 11590.(516)3339100
KurzweilMusicSystems
411 Waverly Oaks Rd., Waltham, MA 021548464.
(617)
893-5900
Mellotron
36 Main St., Port Washington, NY 11050.
(516) 944-6789
Roland Corporation
7200 Dominion Circle, Los Angeles, CA
90040. (213)685-5141
Oberheim
11650 W. Olympic Blvd., Los Angeles, CA
90064. (213) 479-4948
P.P.G.
7250 Beverly Blvd., Suite 207, Los Angeles,
CA 90036. (213) 827-0952
Sequencing/Patch
Editing
Bacchus
2210 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 330, Santa Monica,
CA 90403. (213) 820-9145
Caged Artist Productions
64 Griggs Rd., Brookline, MA 02146. (617)
731-1948
Cherry Lane Music
110 Midland Ave., Port Chester, NY 10573.
(914)937-8601
Club MIDI Software
P.O. Box 93895, Hollywood, CA 90093. (818)
788-3963
Creative Solutions
4701RandolphRd., Suite 12, Rockville,MD
20852. (301) 984-0262
Dr. T's Music Software
Musicworks, Inc.
18 Haviland, Boston, MA 02115. (617) 2662886
Nexus Computer Consultants
212 Main St., Toronto, Ontario M4E 2W1,
Canada.(416)368-3462
Passport Designs, Inc.
625 MiramonteSt., Half Moon Bay, CA
94019. (415) 726-0280
SouthworthMusicSystems
91 Ann Lee Rd., Harvard, MA 01451. (617)
772-9471
Steinbog/The Russ Jones Marketing Group
17700 Raymer St., Northridge, CA 91325.
(818) 993-4091
Voyetra Technologies
(Formerly Octave Plateau) 426 Mt. Pleasant
Ave., Mamaroneck, NY 10543. (914) 6983377
(617)244-6954
Electronic Arts
1820 Gateway Dr., San Mateo, CA 94404.
(415) 571-7171
Hybrid Arts, Inc.
11920 W. Olympic Blvd., Los Angeles, CA
90064. (213) 826-3777
Notation
Editing
Adobe
Systems
1870 Embarcadero Rd., Palp Alto, CA 94303.
(415) 852-0271
Bogas Productions
520 Cashew Ct., San Ramon, CA 94583. (415)
829-2444
Intelligent Music
P.O. Box 8748, Albany, NY 12208. (518) 4344110
654-3687 in California
Miscellaneous Hardware
MacroMind, Inc.
1028 W. Wolfram, Chicago, IL60657. (312)
327-5821
Garfield Electronics
P.O. Box 1941, Burbank, CA 91507. (213)
434-6643
Magnetic Music
R.D. 1, N. Smith Rd., LaGrangeville,
12540.
(914)677-8586
NY
MimeticsCorporation
Box 60238, Station A, Palp Alto, CA 94306.
(415)741-0117
Mewsprint
119 Queen's Cres., Kingston, Ontario K7L
2S9,Canada.
(613)548-7468
JL Cooper Electronics
1931 Pontius Ave., West Los Angeles, CA
90025. (213) 473-8771
Opcode Systems Musicware
444 Ramona, Palp Alto, CA 94301. (415) 3218977
THE AUTHOR
Digital Sample Editing/Digital
Synthesis
BlankSoftware
2442Clay St., SanFrancisco,CA 94115.(415)
863-9224
Digidesign Inc.
920 Commercial, PalpAlto,CA,94303.(415)
494-8811
NorthwestVisions
68ManorDr., Glenmont,NY 12207.(518)
439-0967
Sonus
21430StrathernSt., SuiteH, Canoga Park,
CA 91304.(818) 702-0992
TurtleBeachSoftware
1912AlcottRd.,R.D.22,York, PA17402.
(717) 741-4972
J. AudioEng.Soc.,Vol. 35, No.3, 1987March
study in
CORRECTION
~ i r e c t - t o - ~ i s k ' "is a trademark of New England
Digital for its digital multitrack recorders. We regret
that this was not noted when the trademark was used
on pages 172 and 190 of the article "Personal Computers
and Music7' by Christopher Yavelow, which was published in the Journal, 1987 March (vol. 35, no. 3).