Information Technology grade 8

A COMPUTER is an electronic device that accepts data (input), manipulates data (processing), holds processed data (storage) and
display a result or information (output). A computer is really a system of many parts working together. The physical parts, which
you can see and touch, are collectively calledhardware. (Software, on the other hand, refers to the instructions, or programs, that
tell the hardware what to do.)
A COMPUTER SYSTEM refers to all the hardware and software working together to process data.

Parts of a computer

System unit

Storage

Mouse

Keyboard

Monitor

Printer

Speakers

Modem

The following illustration shows the most common hardware in a desktop computer system. Your system might look a little different, but it probably has
most of these parts. A laptop computer has similar parts but combines them into a single, notebook-sized package.

Desktop computer system

Let's take a look at each of these parts.

System unit
The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually it's a rectangular box placed on or underneath your desk. Inside this box are many electronic
components that process information. The most important of these components is the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor, which acts
as the "brain" of your computer. Another component is random access memory (RAM), which temporarily stores information that the CPU uses while
the computer is on. The information stored in RAM is erased when the computer is turned off.

Almost every other part of your computer connects to the system unit using cables. The cables plug into specific ports(openings), typically on the back of
the system unit. Hardware that is not part of the system unit is sometimes called aperipheral device or device.

System unit
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Storage
Your computer has one or more disk drivesdevices that store information on a metal or plastic disk. The disk preserves the information even when your
computer is turned off.

Hard disk drive

Your computer's hard disk drive stores information on a hard diska rigid platter or stack of platters with a magnetic surface. Because hard disks can
hold massive amounts of information, they usually serve as your computer's primary means of storage, holding almost all of your programs and files. The
hard disk drive is normally located inside the system unit.

Hard disk drive

CD and DVD drives

Nearly all computers today come equipped with a CD or DVD drive, usually located on the front of the system unit. CD drives use lasers to read (retrieve)
data from a CD; many CD drives can also write (record) data onto CDs. If you have a recordable disk drive, you can store copies of your files on blank CDs.
You can also use a CD drive to play music CDs on your computer.

CD

DVD drives can do everything that CD drives can, plus read DVDs. If you have a DVD drive, you can watch movies on your computer. Many DVD drives can
record data onto blank DVDs.

Tip

If you have a recordable CD or DVD drive, periodically back up (copy) your important files to CDs or DVDs. That way, if your hard disk ever
fails, you won't lose your data.

Floppy disk drive

Floppy disk drives store information on floppy disks, also called floppies or diskettes. Compared to CDs and DVDs, floppy disks can store only a small
amount of data. They also retrieve information more slowly and are more prone to damage. For these reasons, floppy disk drives are less popular than
they used to be, although some computers still include them.

Floppy disk

Why are these disks called "floppy" disks? The outside is made of hard plastic, but that's just the sleeve. The disk inside is made of a thin, flexible vinyl
material.

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Mouse
A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer screen. Although mice come in many shapes, the typical mouse does look a
bit like an actual mouse. It's small, oblong, and connected to the system unit by a long wire that resembles a tail. Some newer mice are wireless.

Mouse

A mouse usually has two buttons: A primary button (usually the left button) and a secondary button. Many mice also have a wheel between the two
buttons, which allows you to scroll smoothly through screens of information.

Mouse pointers

When you move the mouse with your hand, a pointer on your screen moves in the same direction. (The pointer's appearance might change depending on
where it's positioned on your screen.) When you want to select an item, you point to the item and then click (press and release) the primary button.
Pointing and clicking with your mouse is the main way to interact with your computer. For more information, see Using your mouse.

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Keyboard
A keyboard is used mainly for typing text into your computer. Like the keyboard on a typewriter, it has keys for letters and numbers, but it also has special
keys:

The function keys, found on the top row, perform different functions depending on where they are used.

The numeric keypad, located on the right side of most keyboards, allows you to enter numbers quickly.

The navigation keys, such as the arrow keys, allow you to move your position within a document or webpage.

Keyboard

You can also use your keyboard to perform many of the same tasks you can perform with a mouse. For more information, seeUsing your keyboard.

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Monitor
A monitor displays information in visual form, using text and graphics. The portion of the monitor that displays the information is called the screen. Like
a television screen, a computer screen can show still or moving pictures.

There are two basic types of monitors: CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors and the newer LCD (liquid crystal display) monitors. Both types produce sharp
images, but LCD monitors have the advantage of being much thinner and lighter.

LCD monitor (left); CRT monitor (right)

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Printer
A printer transfers data from a computer onto paper. You don't need a printer to use your computer, but having one allows you to print e-mail, cards,
invitations, announcements, and other material. Many people also like being able to print their own photos at home.

The two main types of printers are inkjet printers and laser printers. Inkjet printers are the most popular printers for the home. They can print in black
and white or in full color and can produce high-quality photographs when used with special paper. Laser printers are faster and generally better able to
handle heavy use.

Inkjet printer (left); laser printer (right)

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Speakers
Speakers are used to play sound. They can be built into the system unit or connected with cables. Speakers allow you to listen to music and hear sound
effects from your computer.

Computer speakers
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Modem
To connect your computer to the Internet, you need a modem. A modem is a device that sends and receives computer information over a telephone line
or high-speed cable. Modems are sometimes built into the system unit, but higher-speed modems are usually separate components.

Cable modem

To understand the difference between an input and output device, you must understand the
difference between input and output. Any information or data that is entered or sent to the
computer to be processed is considered input and anything that is sent from the computer to an
internal or external device is output.
An input device, such as a computer keyboard or mouse, can send information (input) to the
computer, but it cannot receive information (output) from the computer.
An output device, such as a computer monitor or printer, can receive information (output) from
the computer, but it cannot send information (input) to the computer.
An input/output device, such as a CD-RW drive or USB flash drive, can send information
(input) to a computer and receive information (output) from a computer.

Examples:
Input Devices:
a)
Graphics Tablets
b) Cameras
c) Video Capture Hardware
d) Trackballs
e)
Barcode reader
f)
Digital camera
g) Gamepad
h) Joystick
i)
Keyboard
j)
Microphone
k) MIDI keyboard
l)
Mouse (pointing device)
m) Scanner
n) Webcam
o) Touchpads
p) Pen Input
q) Microphone
r)
Electronic Whiteboard
OUTPUT DEVICES:
1.
Monitor
2.
Printers (all types)
3.
Plotters
4.
Projector
5.
LCD Projection Panels
6.
Computer Output Microfilm (COM)
7.
Speaker(s)

1.
2.
3.

Both Input-OutPut Devices:

Modems
Network cards
Touch Screen

Processor
Definition

A computer processor, or CPU, is the central processing unit in the computer. The processor is composed of a
microchip which connects to the computer motherboard.

Function

Computers processors are used to direct the operation of all other hardware devices and execute application
instructions. Processors carry out these functions by processing digital information, receiving data and providing data.

Process

When an application is opened, the processor pulls the digital information from computer memory. The data can
be stored in RAM, random access memory, or ROM, read only memory. The processor reads the digital information and
determines the best processing method via its ALU. The ALU, or Arithmetic/Logic Unit, is a circuit that enables the processor
to execute complex mathematical computations. The processor then sends the digital information back into memory
storage. A computer processor also routes data through the system bus, or primary data channel, located between the
memory and processor.

A computer processor, also known as a microprocessor or central processing unit (CPU), is a component in a computer system
that functions as the brains of a computer. It is mainly responsible for processing instructions of a computer program and carrying
out computer operations.

The CPU has two main components, the arithmetic/logic unit and the control unit. The control unit directs other portions of the
computer system to carry out or execute program instructions. The arithmetic/logic unit executes all the arithmetic and logical
instructions.

The four core functions of the CPU are to fetch, decode, execute and store. The first thing the CPU does is to fetch the instruction
from the program memory. It decodes the instruction, which is then moved to the arithmetic/logic unit.

The arithmetic/logic unit then executes the instruction. At this stage, the processor can do one of three things: perform
mathematical operations, move date from one memory location to another or jump to a bunch of new instructions based on the
decision it makes. Finally, the arithmetic/logic unit stores the output of the operation into the computer's memory.

The performance and speed of the CPU depends on the clock rate, which is the speed at which a processor executes
instructions, and the instructions per clock.

4 primary functions of a CPU

As it was mentioned before, CPU process instructions. Instructions are taken in process of decoding various data from programs. CPU has to implement 4 basic
functions during instruction cycle: fetch, decode, execute, store.

Fetch

All the instructions are stored in memory. Each instruction has is address. The processor takes this address number from the program counter. Program counter is
responsible for tracking what instructions CPU should execute next. So fetching basically means taking the instruction from the memory.

Decode

CPU understands instructions, that are written in Assembly programming language. All the programs, that must be executed, are translated to Assembly
instructions. Different CPUs understand different instructions, so Assembly code must be decoded into binary instructions which are understandable to your CPU.
This step is called decoding.

Execute

During the procedure of instruction execution, tree things can be done. Firstly, CPU can do some calculations. To execute calculations ALU is used. Secondly, CPU
can move data from one memory location to another. And thirdly, CPU can jump to different address if it is needed. So basically, one of those three options is
executed during this step.

Store

CPU must give some feedback after executing the instruction. The output data is written to the memory. In this phase program counter is incremented.
Examples include: washing machines; camera; calculators; hi-fi systems; telephones; microwave ovens; burglar alarms etc. etc.

Software
The term 'software' refers to the set of electronic program instructions or data a computer processor
reads in order to perform a task or operation. In contrast, the term 'hardware' refers to the physical
components that you can see and touch, such as the computer hard drive, mouse, and keyboard.
Software can be categorized according to what it is designed to accomplish. There are two main types of
software: systems software and application software. Computer hardware and software require each
other and neither can be realistically used without the other.

Systems Software
Systems software includes the programs that are dedicated to managing the computer itself, such as
the operating system, file management utilities, and disk operating system (or DOS). The operating
system manages the computer hardware resources in addition to applications and data. Without systems
software installed in our computers we would have to type the instructions for everything we wanted the
computer to do!
Applications Software
Application software, or simply applications, are often called productivity programs or end-user
programs because they enable the user to complete tasks such as creating documents, spreadsheets,
databases, and publications, doing online research, sending email, designing graphics, running
businesses, and even playing games! Application software is specific to the task it is designed for and
can be as simple as a calculator application or as complex as a word processing application. When you
begin creating a document, the word processing software has already set the margins, font style and size,
and the line spacing for you. But you can change these settings, and you have many more formatting

options available. For example, the word processor application makes it easy to add color, headings, and
pictures or delete, copy, move, and change the document's appearance to suit your needs.

Application software are computer programs that allow users to perform specific tasks. These programs are commonly referred to as
"apps," and are usually completely self-contained and commercially produced.
Some of the most widely used application software are web browsers, such as Internet Explorer, Google Chrome and Mozilla Firefox. These
allow users to access the Internet. Word processing, database, spreadsheet and presentation software are productivity software which
simplifies the process of preparing documents for the workplace or school. There are numerous application software for entertainment
seekers, including gaming software such as World of Warcraft for the avid gamer, iTunes for music lovers and YouTube for the video
aficionado.

Examples of types of software

Below is a list of the different varieties of software that a computer may have installed, alongside examples of each
program. Click the links for additional information.

Antivirus (AVG)
Audio / Music program (iTunes)
Database (Access)
Device drivers
E-mail (Outlook)
Game (World of Warcraft)
Internet browser (Firefox)
Movie player (VLC)
Operating system (Windows XP)
Photo / Graphics program (CorelDRAW)
Presentation (PowerPoint)
Programming language (Perl)
Simulation (Flight simulator)

Spreadsheet (Excel)
Utility (Compression, Disk Cleanup, Encryption, Registry cleaner, Screensaver)
Word processor (Word)

Types of computers

Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

Sr.No.

Type

Specifications

PC (Personal
Computer)

It is a single user computer system having moderately powerful

microprocessor

WorkStation

It is also a single user computer system which is similar to

personal computer but have more powerful microprocessor.

Mini Computer

It is a multi-user computer system which is capable of

supporting hundreds of users simultaneously.

Main Frame

It is a multi-user computer system which is capable of

supporting hundreds of users simultaneously. Software
technology is different from minicomputer.

Supercomputer

It is an extremely fast computer which can execute hundreds of

millions of instructions per second.

PC (Personal Computer)
A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables
manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running
spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is playing games and surfing Internet.

Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are normally linked together to form a network. In terms of power, now-a-days
High-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, HewlettPackard, and Dell.

Workstation
Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software development, and other such types of applications which
require a moderate amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities.

Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large amount of RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface. Most
workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive.

Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC, Workstations are also single-user computers like PC but are typically linked
together to form a local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.

Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.

Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes
many programs concurrently and supports many simultaneous execution of programs

Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that
require immense amount of mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid
dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).

Server The servers main purpose is to provide certain services to other computers or a whole network of
computers. It is much larger than any average computer and generally a whole room is necessary to fit the
whole server. It has powerful processors, additional amount of memory and bigger hard drives.
Netbook This is similar to a laptop, the only difference being that it is smaller in size, which makes it even
more portable. It is also less expensive and performs the basic functions, but its internal parts are not as
powerful as a desktop or laptop.
PDA A Personal Digital Assistant is a small, highly integrated computer usually using flash memory for
storage instead of a hard drive. It uses touchscreen technology and doesnt have a keyboard. Those which
use a digital pen for input are called handheld computers. It is light, portable, has good battery life and fits
within your palm, because of which it is also called a palmtop.
Laptop or Notebook A PC that can be moved around is called a laptop. It gets its name from the fact that
you can keep it on your lap and use it. It is also called a notebook because you can carry the batteryoperated device to classes or meetings conveniently and store any notes or information in it. It integrates
the monitor, keyboard, pointing device, CPU, memory and hard drive in one system.

Information Processing Cycle

To understand how a computer functions you must understand the
information processing cycle.
What is the information processing cycle? The sequence of events in processing information,
which includes (1) input, (2) processing, (3) storage and (4) output. These processes work
together and repeat over and over.
1. Inputentering data into the computer.
2. Processingperforming operations on the data.
3. Storagesaving data, programs, or output for future use.
4. Outputpresenting the results.

Programming
Algorithm
An algorithm is a well-defined procedure that allows a computer to solve a problem. Another way to describe an algorithm is a
sequence of unambiguous instructions. The use of the term 'unambiguous' indicates that there is no room for subjective
interpretation. Every time you ask your computer to carry out the same algorithm, it will do it in exactly the same manner with
the exact same result.

The taxi algorithm:

1.

Go to the taxi stand.

2.

Get in a taxi.

3.

Give the driver my address.

The call-me algorithm:

1.

When your plane arrives, call my cell phone.

2.

Meet me outside baggage claim.

The rent-a-car algorithm:

1.

Take the shuttle to the rental car place.

2.

Rent a car.

3.

Follow the directions to get to my house.

The bus algorithm:

1.

Outside baggage claim, catch bus number 70.

2.

Transfer to bus 14 on Main Street.

3.

Get off on Elm street.

4.

Walk two blocks north to my house.

Flow charts
A flowchart is a graphical representation of decisions and their respective results mapped out in individual shapes
that were first developed by Herman Goldstine and John von Neumann in the 1940's. Flowcharts provide a step-bystep diagram for mapping out complex situations, such as programming code or troubleshooting problems with
acomputer. The picture to the right shows an image from Microsoft Visio, a popular program used to design and
create flowcharts and diagrams.
Flow charts are easy-to-understand diagrams that show how the steps in a process fit together. Their simplicity makes them useful tools for communicating how processes work, and for
documenting how to do a particular job. Furthermore, the act of mapping out a process using a flow chart can clarify your understanding of it, and help you improve it.

You can use flow charts to:

Define and analyze processes.

Communicate steps to other people involved in a process.

Standardize a process.

Improve a process .
Identify bottlenecks , or troubleshoot a problem.

Also, by drawing a flow diagram, you can zoom in on each individual stage, without feeling overwhelmed by the rest of the process.

Flow Chart Symbols

Many flow charts consist of four types of symbols:

1. Elongated circles, which signify the start or end of a process.

2. Rectangles, which show instructions or actions.

3. Diamonds, which highlight where you must make a decision.

4. Parallelograms, which show input and output. This can include materials, services or people entering or leaving the process.

You label each symbol appropriately to show the information it displays. For example, this could show the start of the process, the action to take, or the decision to make.

Arrows connect the symbols, and show process flow.

Tip:

There are many other flow-chart symbols, in addition to the four highlighted above. However, remember that flow charts are used for communication. If you use
symbols that only a few people understand, there's a good chance that your message will fail. As always, keep things simple !

Uses
Here are several examples of how you can use flow charts to document or improve a business process:

Software developers can use flow charts to map out a process that needs to be automated. This helps developers visualize individual steps, as well as
the big picture.

Managers can use flow charts to record the sequence of tasks in a process. This helps inexperienced team members understand the process, and
complete activities in the right order.

A Fairtrade organization could use flow charts to map how it sources ingredients, and to show the way that these move through the manufacturing
process to become a final product. This documentation could help the organization confirm whether each supplier or manufacturer involved in
production has complied with safety and fair wage standards.

As you can see, flow charts have a wide variety of uses. They're simple to construct, and easy to understand. They are also highly informative, because they illustrate the decisions that you
have to make, and the steps that you need to take.

They can also help you estimate time, and identify who you should involve in any decisions. In some environments, such as quality management, flow charts may even be required for industry
or government certification.

Tip:

If your process or project involves several people or teams, you might find it more useful to use Swim Lane Diagrams instead of flow charts these help you show
process flows between people and teams. You can also use Storyboards to show the steps in your process in a visually engaging way.

How to Create a Flow Chart

Draw your flow chart by following the steps below.

Step 1: Identify Tasks

Begin by listing all of the tasks in a process in chronological order. Ask questions such as "What happens next in the process?" or "Do you need to make a decision before the next step?" or
"What approvals are required before you move on to the next task?"

Put yourself in the shoes of the person using the process. Better yet, take a hands-on approach and go through the process yourself, or talk to team members who work with the process
directly.

Use Customer Experience Mapping if your flow chart focuses on customer service, so that you can gain a better understanding of the process.

Step 2: Organize and Document Tasks

Next, start your flow chart by drawing the elongated circle shape and labeling it "Start."

Then, work through your whole process and show the actions and decisions in the order that they happen. Link them with arrows to illustrate the flow of the process.

Where you need to make a decision, draw arrows from the decision diamond to each possible solution, and then label each arrow with the decision made. Remember to show the end of the
process by using an elongated circle labeled "Finish."

Step 3: Test the Flow Chart

When you've completed your flow chart, double-check it to make sure that you haven't overlooked anything.

Work through each step and ask yourself whether you have correctly represented the sequence of actions and the decisions involved in the process. Show your flow chart to other people,
especially those who work directly with the process, and ask them whether it is comprehensive, and to test that it works.

Step 4: Challenge the Flow Chart

If you want to improve the process, look at the steps you have identified and check whether any of them are unnecessary, or whether they are duplicated. Are there any other steps that you
should include? And have you assigned jobs to the right people?

Then, continue to challenge the steps in the diagram to improve efficiency. You should ask yourself whether each of the steps is needed, whether the requirements they address still exist, and
whether new technologies can improve the process. Identify any major bottlenecks , and deal with them to improve performance.

Flow Chart Apps

Although you can draw flow charts by hand, it's often much more convenient to use diagramming apps, because your flow charts will be easier to amend, and you can store them in a format
that you can retrieve easily.

Use programs like Microsoft Visio or SmartDraw to create simple and visually appealing flow charts; or use browser-based apps like Lucidchart or Gliffy these can produce flow
charts on any device that connects to the Internet.

Tip:

Flow charts can quickly become long and complicated, so that you can't represent them on a single piece of paper. This is where you can use "connectors" (shown as
numbered circles) to link the flow when moving from one page to another. The user can follow the matching numbers to trace the flow of the process.

Example

The diagram below shows part of a simple flow chart illustrating how the receptionists in an example company route incoming phone calls to the correct department:

Part of an Example Flow Chart Showing how to Route Incoming Phone Calls

Key Points
Flow charts are simple diagrams that map out a process, so that you can easily communicate it to other people. You can also use them to define and analyze a process,
build a step-by-step picture of it, and define, standardize or improve it.

To draw a flow chart, identify the tasks and decisions that you make during a process, and write them down in order. Then, arrange these steps in the flow-chart format,
using the appropriate shapes for actions to take and decisions to make. Complete with "Start" and "Finish" symbols to show the beginning and end of the process.

Finally, test your flow chart to make sure that it accurately represents the process, and that it shows the most efficient way of doing the job.

Terms and definitions

Data communications
Data transmission, digital transmission, or digital communications is the physical transfer of data (a digital bit stream) over a
point-to-point or point-to-multipoint communication channel. Examples of such channels are copper wires, optical
fibres, wireless communication channels, storage media and computer buses. The data are represented as an electromagnetic
signal, such as an electrical voltage, radiowave, microwave, or infrared signal.
In computer networks, bandwidth is used as a synonym for data transfer rate, the amount of data that can be carried from
one point to another in a given time period (usually a second). Network bandwidth is usually expressed in bits per second

(bps); modern networks typically have speeds measured in the millions of bits per second (megabits per second, or Mbps) or
billions of bits per second (gigabits per second, or Gbps).
the rate of data transfer, bit rate or throughput, measured in bits per second (bit/s)

Bandwidth describes the maximum data transfer rateof a network or Internet connection. It measures how much data can be sent
over a specific connection in a given amount of time

The Hardware Components Of A Computer System

The hardware components that make up a computer system include:

A peripheral is a device that is connected to and controlled by the central processing unit (CPU).

Primary Storage Devices

Types of Primary Storage Devices

There are two types of primary storage:

1.

Random Access Memory (RAM) Volatile primary storage

2.

Read Only Memory Non-volatile primary storage

Types of Read Only Memory (ROM)

Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)

Primary Storage Functions

Measurement Of Data

Units of storage

The capacity of memory or a storage medium is measured in bytes (unit of storage). A byte is made up of eight (8) bits. A bit is short for binary digit. Take for
example the measurement of liquid, we say litre or the measurement of weight, we do so in grams.

Its the same thing we mean when we say the measurement of storage. That is how much data can be stored in memory or on the storage medium at any one time.

Types of Storage Units

There are different types of storage unit:

Bit (b)
Byte (B)
Kilobyte (KB)
Megabyte (MB)
Gigabyte (GB)
Terabyte (TB)
Word

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

A word is a fixed sized group of bits that are handled together by the system; the basic unit for accessing computer storage, for example, a computer that can access
32 bits of data in one operation, means that the computer can process 4 characters at a time.

The number of bits in a word is called the word size.

Example 4.1: How many KB are in 2 MB?

Answer:

1000 KB

KB

2 MB

2 * 1000

1 MB

Therefore,

2000/1

2000 KB (remember, these are approximate figures)

Lets try another example.

Example 4.2: How many MB are in 2.8 GB?

Answer:

1 Gigabyte

2.8GB

MB

2.8 * 1000

2800/1

Therefore,

1000 megabytes

2800 MB (again, these are approximate figures)

Example 4.3: How many characters can be stored on a 6 Gb secondary storage medium?

Answer: Approximately 6 billion characters or exactly 6 * 1,073,741,824 which equals to 6, 442, 450, 944 characters.

1.1 Calculating disk storage capacity

Disk storage capacity depends on a number of things:

1.
2.
3.

The number of recording surfaces (platter)

The number of cylinder (tracks)
The recording density (bytes per track)
For example, calculate the capacity of the following disk pack:

Number of bytes per track = 8500

Number of tracks per platter = 700
Number of platters = 12

Answer: 8500 bytes per track * 12 platters * 700 tracks per platter would give a total storage of 71.4MB or approximately 70 MB (70 million characters).

Keyboard: The oldest and most widely-used computer input device is the keyboard. It is available with desktop computers,
laptops, etc. The computer keyboard contains all the alphabetical and numerical keys for input of data and commands. The
keyboard is generally connected to the computer with a wire, but nowadays, wireless keyboards are also very common.

Mouse: The small hand-held computer device that helps make selection and navigation of the screen easy, is the mouse. The
mouse displays a cursor on the screen that serves as a guide for opening files and folders, as well as making selections. The
mouse, like the keyboard, is either connected with the computer through a wire, or has a wireless connection.

Stylus: The tablet uses a pen-like computer input device known as a stylus. This helps one write on tablets or touchscreens like
a pen. Some tablets and styluses have buttons, that make their usage as a mouse possible. Many latest tablet models allow the
user to use their fingers, instead of a stylus.

Joysticks: If you are an ardent fan of gaming, then you may be aware of what a joystick is. This is a movable stick with a
button or two, that helps one control the movements of characters in a game. Many latest joystick models come with different
buttons to help you make complex movements, with just a push of your fingers.

Scanners: Scanners help you make virtual photocopies of your documents or even a photograph. You can copy a digital image
of the document you wish to copy, and save it on the computer, or take prints. This copy can be edited by running a graphics
program.

Headsets: Headset devices have an earphone, as well as a microphone. This helps you record your voice, dictate data, or even
send commands to the computer. Some headsets help you keep your hands free for working on different tasks. You can even add
voice recognition software, so that only your voice will be accepted by the computer to dictate commands.