Tanzania 2nd State of The Envrionemnt Report 2014

The United republic of Tanzania
State of the Environment report
Vice Presidents Office
2014
CONTENTS
PREFACE .............................................................................................................. vii
FOREWORD ......................................................................................................... ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................... xi
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................. xiv
CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Background................................................................................................................. 1
Objectives of the Report ............................................................................................ 1
Analytical Framework .............................................................................................. 2
Preparation Process ................................................................................................... 3
Structure of the Report .............................................................................................. 4
CHAPTER TWO .....................................................................................................5

GEOGRAPHY .........................................................................................................5
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
Location and Size ....................................................................................................... 5

Physical Features ....................................................................................................... 6
Climate ...................................................................................................................... 14
Agro-ecological Zones ............................................................................................ 17
CHAPTER THREE ...............................................................................................20

SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES ...........................................................................20
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
Overview................................................................................................................... 20
Demography ............................................................................................................. 20
Human Settlements ................................................................................................. 23
Social Services .......................................................................................................... 24
State of the Economy ............................................................................................... 38
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................43

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES..................................................................43
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
Introduction .............................................................................................................. 43
Forests........................................................................................................................ 43
Water ......................................................................................................................... 45
Freshwater and marine resources ......................................................................... 48
Wetlands ................................................................................................................... 54
Land ........................................................................................................................... 59
Wildlife ...................................................................................................................... 60
Natural gas ............................................................................................................... 64
Minerals..................................................................................................................... 68
Renewable energy sources ..................................................................................... 71
CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................78

POLICY, LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK........................78
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5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
Overview................................................................................................................... 78
Policies ....................................................................................................................... 78
5.2.1
National Environmental Policy, 1997 ..................................................... 78
5.2.2
Sectoral Policies ......................................................................................... 79
Legislation................................................................................................................. 83
5.3.1
Environmental Management Act (Cap. 191)......................................... 83
5.3.2
Other Sectoral legislation ......................................................................... 83
Strategies ................................................................................................................... 86
Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs)............................................... 88
Institutional Framework ......................................................................................... 91
Challenges................................................................................................................. 92
CHAPTER SIX ......................................................................................................94

LAND DEGRADATION ....................................................................................94
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
Introduction .............................................................................................................. 94
Drivers ....................................................................................................................... 94
Pressure ..................................................................................................................... 99
State.......................................................................................................................... 101
Impacts .................................................................................................................... 105
Response ................................................................................................................. 109
CHAPTER SEVEN .............................................................................................119

DEFORESTATION AND FOREST DEGRADATION ..............................119
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
Background............................................................................................................. 119
Drivers ..................................................................................................................... 119
Pressure ................................................................................................................... 122
State.......................................................................................................................... 125
Impacts .................................................................................................................... 125
Response ................................................................................................................. 125
CHAPTER EIGHT .............................................................................................129

LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY ...............................................................................129
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
Introduction ............................................................................................................ 129

Drivers ..................................................................................................................... 129
Pressure ................................................................................................................... 131
State.......................................................................................................................... 132
Impacts .................................................................................................................... 139
Response ................................................................................................................. 140
CHAPTER NINE ................................................................................................144

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION ................................................................144
9.1
9.2
Overview................................................................................................................. 144
Water Pollution ...................................................................................................... 144
9.2.1
Drivers ...................................................................................................... 144
9.2.2
Pressure .................................................................................................... 146
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9.3
9.4
9.2.3
State ........................................................................................................... 148
9.2.4
Impacts ..................................................................................................... 152
9.2.5
Response ................................................................................................... 152
Air Pollution ........................................................................................................... 154
9.3.1
Drivers ...................................................................................................... 154
9.3.2
Pressure .................................................................................................... 155
9.3.3
State ........................................................................................................... 156
9.3.4
Impacts ..................................................................................................... 156
9.3.5
Response ................................................................................................... 157
Noise Pollution....................................................................................................... 157
9.4.1
Drivers ...................................................................................................... 157
9.4.2
Pressure .................................................................................................... 158
9.4.3
State ........................................................................................................... 158
9.4.4
Impacts ..................................................................................................... 161
9.4.5
Response ................................................................................................... 162
CHAPTER TEN ..................................................................................................163

DETERIORATION OF AQUATIC SYSTEMS ............................................163
10.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 163
10.2 Drivers ..................................................................................................................... 163
10.3 Pressure ................................................................................................................... 164
10.3.1 Freshwater systems................................................................................. 164
10.3.2 Coastal and marine systems .................................................................. 165
10.3.3 Wetlands ................................................................................................... 168
10.4 State.......................................................................................................................... 168
10.4.3 Wetlands ................................................................................................... 173
10.5 Impacts .................................................................................................................... 173
10.6 Response ................................................................................................................. 174
10.6.3 Wetlands ................................................................................................... 176
CHAPTER ELEVEN...........................................................................................177
WATER QUALITY DEGRADATION AND ACCESIBILITY ..................177
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
Introduction ............................................................................................................ 177

Drivers ..................................................................................................................... 177
Pressure ................................................................................................................... 178
State.......................................................................................................................... 180
Impacts .................................................................................................................... 184
Response ................................................................................................................. 186
CHAPTER TWELVE ..........................................................................................188

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CLIMATE CHANGE .........................................................................................188

12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
Introduction ............................................................................................................ 188

Drivers ..................................................................................................................... 188
Pressure ................................................................................................................... 189
State.......................................................................................................................... 190
Impacts .................................................................................................................... 196
Response ................................................................................................................. 203
CHAPTER THIRTEEN .....................................................................................207

NATURAL DISASTERS ..................................................................................207
13.1 Overview................................................................................................................. 207
13.2 Floods ...................................................................................................................... 212
13.2.1 Drivers ...................................................................................................... 212
13.2.2 Pressure .................................................................................................... 212
13.2.3 State ........................................................................................................... 213
13.2.4 Impacts ..................................................................................................... 214
13.2.5 Response ................................................................................................... 215
13.3 Drought ................................................................................................................... 216
13.3.1 Overview .................................................................................................. 216
13.3.2 Drivers ...................................................................................................... 217
13.3.3 Pressure .................................................................................................... 217
13.3.4 State ........................................................................................................... 218
13.3.5 Impacts ..................................................................................................... 218
13.3.6 Response ................................................................................................... 219
13.4 Epidemics ................................................................................................................ 220
13.4.1 Overview .................................................................................................. 220
13.4.2 Drivers ...................................................................................................... 220
13.4.3 Pressure .................................................................................................... 221
13.4.4 State ........................................................................................................... 221
13.4.5 Impacts ..................................................................................................... 224
13.4.6 Response ................................................................................................... 225
13.5 Pest Infestation ....................................................................................................... 226
13.5.1 Overview .................................................................................................. 226
13.5.2 Drivers ...................................................................................................... 226
13.5.3 Pressure .................................................................................................... 226
13.5.4 State ........................................................................................................... 226
13.5.5 Impacts ..................................................................................................... 227
13.5.6 Response ................................................................................................... 228
13.6 Earthquakes and Volcanoes ................................................................................. 229
13.6.1 Overview .................................................................................................. 229
13.6.2 Drivers ...................................................................................................... 229
13.6.3 Pressure .................................................................................................... 229
13.6.4 State ........................................................................................................... 229
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13.6.5 Impacts ..................................................................................................... 232

13.6.6 Response ................................................................................................... 234
13.7 Landslides ............................................................................................................... 234
13.7.1 Overview .................................................................................................. 234
13.7.2 Drivers ...................................................................................................... 234
13.7.3 Pressure .................................................................................................... 234
13.7.4 State ........................................................................................................... 235
13.7.5 Impacts ..................................................................................................... 235
13.7.6 Response ................................................................................................... 237
13.8 Windstorms ............................................................................................................ 237
13.8.1 Overview .................................................................................................. 237
13.8.2 Drivers ...................................................................................................... 238
13.8.3 Pressure .................................................................................................... 238
13.8.4 State ........................................................................................................... 238
13.8.5 Impacts ..................................................................................................... 238
13.8.6 Response ................................................................................................... 238
CHAPTER FOURTEEN ....................................................................................240

EMERGING ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES..................................................240
14.1 Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (E-waste) ..................................... 240
14.1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 240
14.1.2 Drivers ...................................................................................................... 241
14.1.3 Pressure .................................................................................................... 241
14.1.4 State ........................................................................................................... 242
14.1.5 Potential Impacts ..................................................................................... 242
14.1.6 Response ................................................................................................... 243
14.2 Invasive Alien Species (IAS) ................................................................................ 244
14.2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 244
14.2.2 Drivers ...................................................................................................... 244
14.2.3 Pressure .................................................................................................... 245
14.2.4 State ........................................................................................................... 245
14.2.5 Impacts ..................................................................................................... 251
14.2.6 Response ................................................................................................... 251
14.3 Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) ......................................................... 253
14.3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 253
14.3.2 Drivers ...................................................................................................... 253
14.3.3 Pressure .................................................................................................... 253
14.3.4 State ........................................................................................................... 254
14.3.5 Impacts ..................................................................................................... 254
14.3.6 Response ................................................................................................... 255
14.4 Biofuels .................................................................................................................... 256
14.4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 257
14.4.2 Drivers ...................................................................................................... 257
14.4.3
14.4.4
14.4.5
14.4.6
Pressure .................................................................................................... 257

State ........................................................................................................... 258
Impacts ..................................................................................................... 260
Response ................................................................................................... 260
CHAPTER FIFTEEN ..........................................................................................262

SCENARIO ANALYSIS ...................................................................................262
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7
15.8
15.9
15.10
Introduction ............................................................................................................ 262

Land Degradation .................................................................................................. 263
Deforestation and Forest Degradation ............................................................... 263
Loss of Biodiversity ............................................................................................... 264
Environmental Pollution ...................................................................................... 264
Water Pollution ...................................................................................................... 265
Air Pollution ........................................................................................................... 265
Noise Pollution....................................................................................................... 265
Deterioration of Aquatic Systems ....................................................................... 266
Water Accessibility and Quality Degradation................................................... 266
Climate Change ...................................................................................................... 267
Natural Disasters ................................................................................................... 268
Emerging issues (GMOs, E-waste management, biofuels) .............................. 268
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) ......................................................... 268
E-waste management ............................................................................................ 269
Biofuels 269
Invasive Alien Species (IAS) ................................................................................ 270
CHAPTER SIXTEEN .........................................................................................271

POLICY OPTIONS FOR ACTION .................................................................271
REFERENCES .....................................................................................................283
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PREFACE
Tanzanias continued economic and human development depends highly on the state of
the countrys environmental resources. In order for Tanzanians to make informed
decisions about their development path, it is necessary to be able to continually assess
the health of the natural resources that sustain the country. This Second State of the
Environment Report (SoER) provides a key mechanism for doing so. The purpose of the
SoER is: to inform and influence policy and planning processes such as the
implementation of the Tanzania Development Vision 2025; Tanzania Five-year
development plan (2010 2015); National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of
Poverty (NSGRP II); and the Millennium Development Goals regarding issues of
sustainable natural resources management.
The report uses a thematic approach, evaluating a broad range of factors that influence
environmental change in Tanzania. Themes such as land and agriculture, forestry and
woodlands, biodiversity and water resources were assessed using the Drivers,
Pressures, State, Impact, and Response (DPSIR), and the opportunities frameworks.
These were selected because of their capacity to highlight the interlinkages between
state of the environment and the quality of development.
This Report was developed through a participatory and consultative approach.
Stakeholders from the government, civil society organizations, and research and
academic institutions were consulted throughout the process, and contributed to the
selection of themes, development of scenarios and policy analysis, drafting process, and
final analysis. As such, this report is owned by a wide range of key stakeholders who
have the ability to transform Tanzanias environmental management and direct the
country towards a sustainable future.
This report establishes an authoritative baseline for the attainment of Tanzanias
Development Vision 2025 (which aims at achieving a high quality livelihood for its
people, attain good governance through the rule of law and develop a strong and
competitive economy). The primary goal of the countrys long-term development
blueprint is to transform Tanzania into a globally competitive and prosperous nation
with its citizens enjoying a higher standard of living by 2025. It is envisaged that this
will translate into a higher proportion of Tanzanians transitioning from crippling
poverty to middle income. Vision 2025 aims to progressively realize these goals by
implementing a number of five years medium-term rolling plans such as the Tanzania
Development Plan 2011-2016 which focuses on five key priority areas: infrastructure,
agriculture, industry, human capital and tourism. It is anticipated that the report will
act as a timely reminder that environmental integrity and economic development
should go hand-in-hand.
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The information contained in this report is an invaluable resource for individuals,

business entities and government ministries and agencies, which are keen to contribute
to the attainment of Tanzania Development Vision 2025 in an environmentally
sustainable manner. The report is also a useful resource for those who are looking to tap
a range of opportunities offered by seemingly insurmountable environmental
challenges such as Climate Change. The underlying message of this Report is that longterm development such as that anticipated by Vision 2025 cannot be achieved without
prioritizing environmental imperatives.
It is therefore incumbent upon all Tanzanians to value the environment as the goose
that lays the golden egg and support its sustainable use for the benefit of present and
future generations.
Dr. Mohamed Gharib Bilal

VICE PRESIDENT
UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA
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FOREWORD
The Government of Tanzania is so much concerned about environmental problems the
nation is facing today, and is therefore fully committed to ensuring that these problems
are effectively addressed. As a testimony to its commitment, the government among
other things enacted the Environmental Management Act (Cap. 191) to ensure that
environmental protection in the country is a legal requirement and through that, the
state of the environment is improved for sustainable development. This Report has been
produced in fulfillment of section 175 (1) of the EMA (Cap.191), which requires the
preparation of a State of Environment Report after every two years. The aim of SoE
reporting is to capture and present accurate and timely information on the environment
and natural resources, that is relevant to development in order to inform decisionmakers. The Report also forms the basis for the preparation of operational sector
policies, enhancement of the integration of environmental concerns into development
processes and preparation of environmental action plans.
The need to protect the environment is absolutely crucial for Tanzania since the
Nations natural resources and environment are the main source of peoples livelihoods
and are the backbone of the Countrys main productive sectors such as agriculture,
tourism, fisheries and mining. The challenge, therefore, is to ensure sustainable use of
the countrys natural resources by striking a balance between its utilization and
conservation.
Environmental issues can no longer be considered in isolation with other human
activities whose impacts on the environment are increasingly being recognized in the
country. Social and economic drivers such as population growth, economic activity and
consumption patterns cause pressures on the environment. Such drivers must be
managed and controlled in order to minimize their impacts on the environment, and
avoid serious environmental damage.
Addressing environmental problems effectively requires informed decisions. In this
regard, up-to-date, accurate and timely information on the state of the environment
must be made available. Cognizant of this fact, the government prepared the first State
of the Environment Report in 2008, which, among other things, provided an overview
of the progress the Government has made in addressing environmental issues as
stipulated in the National Environmental Policy (NEP) of 1997.
The Second State of Environment Report provides an integrated assessment of the
overall quality of the Tanzanias environment, the pressures being placed on it and the
societal responses to current and emerging environmental issues. This Report, not only
gives a snapshot of the environment at a particular time, but also allows trends and
changes in the environment to be tracked from one report to the next; gives progress in
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meeting the main environmental challenges to be evaluated; and provides an

assessment of whether national policies are being implemented and working as
intended.
Production of this Report comes at a time when the country is facing difficult economic
challenges. Nonetheless, within the context of sustainable development, economic wellbeing is intrinsically linked to protection of the environment and it is vital at this time
not to lose sight of the environmental priorities. The environment is a key strategic
resource and asset for the countrys development, and should therefore be protected
and managed to ensure that it continues as the basis for a healthy society and a strong
economy into the future.
Clear, accurate, appropriate and timely information is a vital part in raising awareness
among the public, policy and decision makers, and this report is a critical part of the
process. It is therefore my hope that this report will broaden our understanding of the
complexity of environment and development issues for the country, and at the same
time facilitates implementation of any remedial or rehabilitation programmes to ensure
that the degradation of Tanzanias natural resources and the environment is reversed.
Dr. Eng. Binilith S. Mahenge (MP)
MINISTER OF STATE - VICE PRESIDENTS OFFICE (ENVIRONMENT)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The process of preparing this Second Report on the State of Environment was
spearheaded by the Vice Presidents Office, through a wide consultative process with
various stakeholders. The process involved a number of dedicated individuals who
worked tirelessly to ensure that the preparation of this report is a success. It is not
possible to mention them all, but I would like to record my sincere gratitudes for their
valuable efforts and contribution, and that the Vice-Presidents Office values their
cooperation and support.
I would like to express my gratitude to the following team of experts who were
involved in the preparation of this report: Prof. G. Kassenga (Ardhi University), Prof. R.
Kangalawe (IRA), Prof. P. Munishi (SUA), Dr. F. Kilahama and Mr. Nkuhi (MNRT), Dr.
B. Lugendo (UDSM), Dr. V. G. Lugomela (Ministry of Water) and Mr. P. Tarimo
(Ministry of Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives), Mr. C. Shengena (DoE), Mr.
J. Enock (DoE), Mr. T. Bwana (DoE) and Dr. R. Ntakamulenga (NEMC).
I am grateful to the Vice Presidents Office Secretariat which synthesised and edited this
report for their commendable efforts and inputs under the supervision of Ms. E.
Makwaia (Assistant Director). I am equally indebted to all stakeholders who through a
consultative process provided their valuable inputs in the course of further
improvement of this Report. I am also thankful to Dr. J. Ningu, the Director of
Environment Vice Presidents Office, who provided the overall guidance and
coordination of the process.
Last but not least, I acknowledge financial support from DANIDA and CIDA Canada in
preparation of this Report.
Sazi B. Salula
PERMANENT SECRETARY
VICE PRESIDENTS OFFICE
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AIDS
BPI
CBD
CC
CFR
DoE
DPSIR
EMA
EMA-ISP
FBO
GDP
GMO
HIV
HBS
IAS
IRA
ITCZ
IWMI
LGAs
MNRT
NEMC
NEP
OUT
PTR
ToR
SAUT
SoE
SoER
SUA
TRL
TAZARA
MSCL
TPA
TCAA
TCRA
PSTN
NWFP
EEZ
NCA
Acquired Immuno Defficiency Syndrome

Basic Plate Interface
Convention of Biological Diversity
Climate Change
Case Fatality Rate
Division of Environment
Drivers- Pressure- State- Impact - Response
Environmental Management Act
Environmental Management Act- Implementation Support
Programme
Faith Based Organisations
Gross Domestic Product
Genetically Modified Organisms
Human Immuno Virus
Household Budget Survey
Invasive Alien Species
Institute of Resource Assessment
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
International Water Management Institute
Local Government Authorities
Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism
National Environment Management Council
National Environmental Policy
Open University of Tanzania
Pupil-Teacher Ratio
Terms of Reference
Saint Augustine University of Tanzania
State of the Environment
State of the Environment Report
Sokoine University of Agriculture
Tanzania Railways Limited
Tanzania Zambia Railway Authority
Marine Service Company Limited
Tanzania Ports Authority
Tanzania Civil Aviation Authority
Tanzania Communication Regulatory Authority
Public Switched Telephone Network
Non Wood Forest Products
Exclusive Economic Zone
Ngorongoro Conservation Area
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IBAs
MSCFD
MEM
EWURA
TDBP
REA
NSGRP
MEAs
NAWAPO
LPG
WRMA
IWRM
PEI
NBSAP
NEAC
NEMC
REME
NAPA
VPO
TDV
URT
UDSM
Important Bird Areas

Million Standard Cubic Feet per Day
Ministry of Energy and Minerals
Energy and Water Utility Regulatory Authority
Tanzania Domestic Biogas Programme
Rural Energy Agency
National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty
Multilateral Environmental Agreements
National Water Policy
Liquefied Petroleum Gas
Water Resources Management Act
Integrated Water Resources Management
Poverty Environment Initiative
National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
National Environmental Advisory Committee
National Environment Management Council
Regional Environment Management Expert
National Adaptation Programme of Action
Vice Presidents Office
Tanzania Development Vision
United Republic of Tanzania
University of Dar es Salaam
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
The existing and emerging national and global environmental challenges require a
comprehensive and integrated analysis and reporting that is crucial for appropriate
interventions. Preparation of State of Environment Reports (SoERs) is a fulfilment of the
Environmental Management Act (Cap. 191) that provides for preparation of the
national SoER every two years and tabled at the National Assembly. The Reports
(SoERs) are meant to highlight key environmental challenges and associated human
and ecosystem vulnerabilities; their trends and impacts to the socio-economic aspects
and ecosystems and propose intervention measures. The Reports are also required to
provide clear, relevant, accurate and up todate information on environmental issues to
the public and decision-makers.
The Second Report on the State of the Environment (2014) is a follow up of the First
Report which was published in 2008. The Second Report has been prepared taking into
account emerging environmental issues as well as environmental changes and trends.
Further, this Report has adopted analytical approach based on causal chain framework
popularly termed as DPSIR (Drivers Pressures-State-Impacts -Response) framework.
The Framework describes the interaction between the society and the environment in
which key environmental issues are analyzed as well as identification of interventions
for action.
GEOGRAPHY
Tanzania is located between Latitude 1 S and 12S and Longitude 29E and 41E and a
total area of 945,087 km2. The topography of Tanzania comprises coastal plains
extending for about 800 km along the coast; a plateau in the central area that ranges
between 1000 and 1500 meters above sea level (m.a.s.l.); highlands in the north-east and
south-west characterized by mountain ranges and peaks; river and lake basins and the
Great East African Rift Valley. Tanzania vegetation ranges from grasses to shrubs,
miombo woodland and montane to rich forests that contain more than 2000 plant
species.
The climate of Tanzania is characterized by varied rainfall patterns dominated by two
main seasons. The annual rainfall varies from 550 mm in the central part of the country
up to 3,690 mm in Kagera and Southern highlands regions. The long rains (masika)
begin in mid-March to end of May, while the short rains (vuli) begin in the mid of
October and continues to early December. Temperature in the country varies according
to the geographical location, relief and altitude. Along the coast and in the off-shore
xiv
islands the average temperatures ranges between 27C and 29C, while in the central,
northern and western parts temperatures range between 20 C and 30C.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES
Tanzania has a population of about 44.9 million people of which 21.9 million are males
and 23 million are females. Out of the total population, 43.6 million from Tanzania
Mainland and 1.3 million from Zanzibar, with an annual average intercensal growth
rate (2002-2012) of 2.7%. About 73.7% of the total population live in rural areas, while
26.3 % live in urban areas.
By June 2012, water supply coverage in Tanzania was 56.6% in rural areas, 86% in urban
regional headquarters, 53% in district headquarters and small towns and 67% in Dar es
Salaam. Wood fuel accounts for up to 90% of total energy consumption in Tanzania,
with about 2% from electricity and 8% from petroleum products. The health facilities
for both public and private sectors include 4,679 dispensaries, 481 health centres
distributed throughout the country .The formal education services is provided by both
public and private institutions from Pre-primary Education Secondary Education;
Technical and Vocational Education to Tertiary Education.
The state of economy indicates that in 2011, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of
Tanzania amounted to TZS 37.5 trillion and per capita income was TZS 869,436.3. About
34% of Tanzanians live below basic needs poverty line and therefore they directly
depend on natural resources for their livelihoods.
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES
Tanzania is endowed with various environmental resources which have significant
contribution to the socio-economic development of the country at various levels. These
resources among others include forests, water bodies, biodiversity, land, wildlife,
wetlands, renewable energy sources, natural gas and minerals.
Forests: The total forest area in Tanzania is 48 million ha of which 93% of this is
woodland and only 7% are classified as coastal forests, mangroves, humid montane
forests and plantations.
Water: Water resources in the country include rivers, lakes, wetlands, springs,
reservoirs and groundwater aquifers. Some of these are shared with neighbouring
countries. The total area of freshwater cover is about 54,337 km2 which is about 6.1% of
the total countrys surface area. Renewable groundwater resources are estimated at 40
km3/yr, of which 36 km3/yr are considered to be overlap between surface water and
groundwater.
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Land: Tanzania possesses about 94,508,700 ha of territorial area out of which nearly 89
million ha is dry land and the remaining is covered by water. About 44 million ha are
classified as suitable for agricultural production and only about 24% of arable land is
under cultivation. Land under medium and large-scale farming is 1.5 million ha and
land under smallholder farmers is about 8.6 million ha.
Wildlife: Tanzania is rich in different species of birds, plants, amphibians and reptiles. It
has over 310 animal species and is the fourth in Africa with the highest number of
animal species. It also accounts for about 20% of the species of Africas large mammal
population; uncritical endemic species of flora and fauna such as the Sanje Mangabey
monkey (Lophocebus kipunji) in Udzungwa mountains. The country also has over 1,100
species of bird, including nearly 100 species of hawks, eagles, vultures and owls. The
biological diversity and degree of endemism consist of primates (20 species and 4
endemic), antelopes (34 species and 2 endemic), reptiles (290 species and 75 endemic),
amphibians (40 endemic) and plants (around 11,000 species including many endemic).
Wetlands: Wetlands cover about 88,300 km2, which is equivalent to 10% of the total
surface area of Tanzania Mainland, of which 58% are lakes and swamps. Tanzania has
designated four Ramsar sites namely Lake Natron Basin, Malagarasi-Muyovozi, the
Rufiji-Mafia-Kilwa and Kilombero Valley Flood Plain.
Freshwater and Marine resources: Freshwater resources in the country include lakes,
rivers, springs, man-made reservoirs, natural ponds and groundwater. Major lakes are
Victoria, Tanganyika and Nyasa, while the minor ones are Lake Rukwa, Manyara,
Natron, Eyasi, Jipe and Chala. River systems that exist include Kagera, Ruvuma,
Songwe, Rufiji, Malagarasi, Wami, Ruvu, Ruaha, Pangani and Mara. There is also a
wide range of important and valued marine species, including 150 species of corals,
80,000 of invertebrates, 1,000 species of fishes, 5 species of marine turtles, 9 species of
mangroves and many seabirds. Coral reefs are located along 600 km of the countrys
continental shelf, accommodating about 25% of all marine species and 65% of marine
fish.
Natural gas: Natural gas is an important economic resource used to generate electricity,
thermal applications in industrial production, commerce and other socio-economic
activities. Gas fields have been discovered in Songo Songo, Mnazi Bay, Mkuranga,
Kiliwani and Ntorya and in the deep sea off the coast of Tanzania. Natural gas reserve
in the country is estimated to be over 40 trillion cubic feet. Out of the five discoveries,
only two gas fields, Songo songo and Mnazi bay are under production.
Minerals: Tanzania has a great potential of minerals particularly gold, base metals,
diamonds, ferrous minerals and a wide variety of gemstones, some of which are unique
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such as tanzanite. Coal, uranium, natural gas and various industrial minerals such as
soda, kaolin, tin, gypsum, phosphate and dimension stones are also available.
Renewable energy sources: Renewable energy sources in the country include: biogas
with technical potential estimated at 165,000 households/installations in a 10-year time
frame; wind where more than 120 windmills have been installed (equivalent to about 10
kWe); geothermal with an estimated potential of 650 MW; and solar PV whose market
potential is estimated at 20.2 MW while the potential for grid-tied solar is about 800
MW.
POLICY, LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
Environmental management in the country is guided by several policies, legal and
institutional frameworks. Key guiding instruments include the National Environmental
Policy 1997, Environmental Management Act (Cap. 191) and the National
Environmental Action Plan (NEAP), 2013. Others include strategies such as the
National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP II), 2010; Tanzania
Development Vision 2025; and Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs).
Ministry Responsible for Environment (Vice Presidents Office) is mandated with the
overall coordination and policy articulation of environmental management in the
country while the National Environment Management Council (NEMC) has the
enforcement and compliance role. Sector Environmental Units and Local Government
Authorities have the role to oversee environmental management issues within their
mandates and jurisdiction.
LAND DEGRADATION
Land degradation appears in various forms including soil degradation and siltation;
deforestation and loss of vegetation cover, and loss of biodiversity.
Drivers: The drivers for land degradation in Tanzania include poverty; rapid
population growth; economic growth; climate change; cultural beliefs; land tenure;
social instability in some neighbouring countries; and unsustainable economic activities.
Pressures: The problem of land degradation is aggravated by inadequate livestock
infrastructure; overgrazing; rapid urbanization; unsustainable farming practices; and
inadequacies and lack of enforcement of land-use plans.
State: It is estimated that about 61% of land in Tanzania is mostly degraded in semi arid
areas including Dodoma, Shinyanga, Manyara, Singida, Simiyu, Geita and Kilimanjaro
Regions. The state of degradation caused by salinization accounts for 1.7 million ha and
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the problem noted more in Dodoma, Singida, Kilimanjaro and Shinyanga. Urbanization
shows that population increases at a rate of 4.6% per year resulting in higher demands
for land which results in growth of unplanned settlements accounting to about 60-70%
of the urban settlements.
Impacts: Land degradation in some parts of Tanzania has caused various impacts
which include: decline or loss of land productivity and food insecurity; water and soil
pollution; desertification; migrations and land conflicts; more frequent disaster
incidences and loss of biodiversity.
Response: Several initiatives have been taken by the Government to control land
degradation. These include preparation and implementation of National Land Use
Framework Plan 2011-2031 and National Agriculture Land use Planning and
Management Master Plan (2011); mainstreaming environment into NSGRP II;
implementing projects and programmes for Sustainable Land Management; and
promotion of agro-forestry and soil erosion control.
DEFORESTATION AND FOREST DEGRADATION

Drivers: Deforestation and forest degradation are driven by poverty, unsustainable
population growth, economic growth, energy demand, political and social instability in
neighbouring countries, biofuel development and unsustainable farming practices.
Pressure: The pressures include: climate change, cultural beliefs related to bushfires,
land tenure, inadequate enforcement and compliance of relevant laws and regulations
and overgrazing.
State: Between 1990 and 2000, Tanzania lost an average of 412,300 ha of forest cover per
year. Recent studies by Tanzania Forest Services Agency (TFS) show that Tanzania loses
about 400,000 ha of forest cover per year.
Impacts: The impacts of deforestation and forest degradation are loss of biodiversity
due to land clearance and economic loss (poverty, employment) associated with
unreliable power supply have been estimated at about US$330 million for 2006
representing about 2 per cent of GDP.
Response: Various government initiatives have been undertaken including National
Tree Planting Campaign; preparation and implementation of policies, legislation, plans,
strategies and programmes; strengthening of institutional set up (Establishment of TFS)
and promotion of alternative energy sources and energy efficient technologies and
traditional management practices.
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LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
Tanzania is among the countries in the world which possess important populations of
biodiversity species. Some of such species are globally endangered and threatened by
various factors mainly related to human activities.
Drivers: Biodiversity loss is driven by increasing demand for natural resources and
trade for plant and animal species; human population growth; trade in plant and
animal species and their products; climate Change; and Invasive Alien Species (IAS).
Pressure: The pressures on biodiversity loss is attributed mostly from socio-economic
activities including over-exploitation of resources for various uses (such as forest
resources for timber, food, medicine and energy; and wildlife for meat and trophy;
birds for food and petty trade); and increasing demands for land for agricultural
production characterized by unsustainable practices.
State: Tanzania has diverse terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity located including the
marine and coastal ecosystems, freshwater and wetlands, coastal lowland forests,
Miombo woodlands, Montane forests, and Dry lands and Grasslands. It is one of the
richest countries in biodiversity in the world. The country has Africas fourth largest
number of mammals with at least 310 species. It also has species richness in birds,
plants, amphibians and reptiles. Key animal species that are under this pressure
include the larger carnivores such as lions, leopards, cheetahs, wild dogs and the
herbivores group includes populations of elephants, giraffe, zebra, buffaloes, antelopes,
wildebeests, and black rhinoceros. Forest resources are also encountering tremendous
pressure due lack of alternative sources of energy for cooking and lighting, land
clearance for cultivation and timber and charcoal production. Likewise, the loss of
aquatic resources is evidenced by declining yields of fish, deteriorating conditions of
coral reefs, and continuing reduction in mangrove and coastal forests.
Impacts: Loss of biodiversity has lead to increased costs for conservation; loss of
revenues; and increased poverty among the societies dependent on natural resources
for their livelihoods.
Response: Various initiatives have been taken by the government to curb the problem of
biodiversity loss including designation of new protected areas; establishment and
implementation of sectoral policies, legislations, strategies and plans; participating in
international and regional cooperation; and the engagement of non-state actors such as
NGOs and the private sector in conservation initiatives.
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
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Environmental pollution is one of the major environmental problems that result in the
deterioration of quality of life.
Water Pollution
Drivers: Driving forces for water pollution are rapid population growth; industrial and
agricultural development; climate change; and poverty where poor people cannot
afford to invest in appropriate sanitation facilities.
Pressure: Pressures for water pollution include: poor wastewater treatment; inadequate
solid waste management; inadequate industrial waste management; inappropriate and
excessive use of agrochemicals; and unregulated mining activities where both large and
small-scale mining activities are carried out.
State: Water pollution is evident in many water bodies countrywide. Urban rivers are
being indiscriminately used as dumping sites for solid and untreated wastewater from
various sources rendering them unsafe for domestic and other purposes. Major Lakes
including Victoria, Tanganyika and Nyasa are also under the influence of pollution in
their catchment areas, from anthropogenic activities associated with industrial
discharges, municipal waste disposal and agrochemical run off.
Impacts: Water pollution has caused serious impacts that include: increase in incidences
of water borne diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery and cholera; increased water
treatment costs; and decrease of water sources, thus affecting availability and
accessibility of water.
Response: Some of the efforts undertaken to address water pollution include adoption
of national policies and legislation; implementation of cleaner industrial production
initiatives; and disposal of obsolete pesticide stockpiles.
Air Pollution
Major sources of air pollution in the country include: burning of agricultural wastes,
fossil fuels and wood; open field burning of solid wastes; and transportation activities.
Drivers: Air pollution is driven by fast growing economy which triggers the increase in
consumption of fossil fuels for transportation and industrial processes. Other drivers
include rapid urban growth in major urban centres which is associated with limited
road infrastructure and traffic congestion.
xx
Pressure: Pressures for air pollution include inadequate enforcement of relevant

legislation and regulations and inadequate urban planning to cope with the rapid
urbanization rate.
State: The air pollution problem is evident in major urban areas. This is contributed
mainly by emissions from the rapidly increasing number of vehicles, particularly used
ones and their poor maintenance. Furthermore, industrial air pollution is also common
in urban areas where most of the industries are concentrated.
Impacts: Common health problems caused by air pollution include respiratory diseases
and lung cancer. Air pollution also causes nuisance to urban population.
Response: The Government has formulated air quality standards and implementing bus
rapid transit in Dar es Salaam which will help reduce traffic congestion and air
pollution.
Noise Pollution
Most urban areas have significant concentrations of factories and firms as well as
ongoing physical development which contribute to noise pollution.
Drivers: Noise pollution is driven by several factor including inadequately guided
unplanned urban development and industrial expansion such as construction activities
and informal sector activities such as car repair, carpentry and metal workshops within
residential areas.
Pressure: The pressures of noise pollution include inadequate enforcement of relevant
legislation and regulations; and limited awareness of the existence of noise prevention
laws among the public.
State: Observed noise levels especially in urban areas are generally much higher than
national standards. The ever-increasing number of motor vehicles and air traffic, as well
as industrial establishments and workshops, aggravate the noise pollution.
Response: In response to noise pollution, the Government has formulated the noise
pollution standards with the aim of controlling noise pollution. In addition, awareness
campaign is being carried out to educate the public noise pollution issues.
DETERIORATION OF AQUATIC SYSTEMS
Tanzania has vast aquatic systems of fresh and marine waters and numerous wetlands.
xxi
Drivers: The drivers of change for aquatic systems of Tanzania include population and
economic growth; and poverty and climate change. These drivers are causing intense
pressure on the aquatic systems beyond their natural carrying capacity leading to
habitat degradation and consequent loss of biodiversity.
Pressure: The deterioration of freshwater system is pressured by deforestation and poor
agricultural practices, indiscriminate disposal of domestic and industrial wastes,
unsustainable agriculture practices, unsustainable fishing practices, pollution, climate
change and invasive alien species. Pressures that lead to deterioration of coastal and
marine systems include:- unsustainable fishing practices, climate change effects,
deforestation on mangrove forests, traditional lime making, pollution, erosion and
uncontrolled gas and oil explorations. In the wetlands, the pressures for deterioration of
aquatic systems emanate from population growth, poor agricultural and pastoral
practices, pollution and encroachment of the wetlands.
State:
Freshwater systems: Most of the rivers experienced significant decrease in mean annual
run off over the last four decades. Some rivers have changed inflow regimes (from
perennial to seasonal), particularly downstream areas and others are polluted; the main
sources of pollution being industries, domestic wastes as well as from agricultural
practices. Siltation with consequent increased turbidity and reduced water depth
characterize some freshwater bodies.
Coastal and marine ecosystems: Mangrove tree densities have been found to be lowest in
Muheza and highest in Kinondoni. Available information indicates high concentrations
of well-developed coral reefs (i.e. reefs with High Live Coral cover) along the coast of
Mkinga, Tanga, Mafia, Kilwa and Mtwara. The most degraded coral reefs are those in
shallow waters (1-10m), especially near urban centres of Tanga, Mtwara and Dar es
Salaam. The closeness of the reefs to land makes them particularly prone to human
impact, either from overexploitation or indirect terrestrial influence such as pollution.
Marine Fisheries: Marine fisheries are predominantly subsistence and artisanal and
concentrate in shallow waters (less than 30m). Fish catches are dominated by a few
species groups which together account for over 50% of the total landed catch and
commercial marine species forms 30-50% of the total fish landing. Recent surveys on
Prawns have indicated slow recovery of the fishery where by a mean catch rate of 31
kg/hr for 2009 and 2011 was recorded compared to the catch rate of 25 kg/hr prior to
the closure in 2007.
Wetlands: Generally, due to water abstraction activities on the upstream areas, most
wetlands are characterised by reduced freshwater inputs and changing flow regimes
xxii
with consequent decline in area of the wetlands especially during the dry seasons.
Apart from reduced inflows, wetlands are also characterised by falling ground water
tables, salinated soils and pollution from fertilizers and pesticides leaching from farms.
Similarly, Lake Jipe, Lake Rukwa and Kilombero wetlands are reported to be declining
at an alarming rate.
Impacts: Deterioration of aquatic systems, be it freshwater, coastal and marine, or
wetlands results to several impacts such as decrease in productivity, reduction in fish
yields and biodiversity loss, water shortages, increase in potential health risks such as
vector-borne diseases. Considering the rate of degradation of aquatic systems in
Tanzania, it is convincing that both economic and ecological values of most of these
systems will be or has already been reduced, with subsequent effect on the livelihoods
of local communities and their environment. Loss or degradation of the aquatic systems
may imply high costs to the people in obtaining related goods and/or services.
Response: The Government formulated a Strategy on Urgent Actions for the
Conservation of Marine and Coastal Environment, Lakes and Rivers Ecosystems and
Dams in order to control most of the pressures threatening aquatic systems. In addition
to that, sectoral policies, strategies and programmes, have also been formulated to
address pressures threatening aquatic systems.
WATER QUALITY DEGRADATION AND ACCESSIBILITY
The availability of and access to water is fundamental to life and sustenance of the
environment, and plays a central role in the social and economic development.
Drivers: The drivers for water quality degradation: to both rural and urban inhabitants
include increase in agricultural and industrial activities, mining operations,
uncontrolled uses of agrochemicals, poor agricultural practices, climate change and
population growth.
Pressure: The pressures for water quality degradation include improper waste disposal,
limited capacity to invest in water supply and sanitation, increasing demand for water,
encroachment of water sources and unsustainable human activities in water
catchments.
State: Water quality and accessibility varies significantly in the country. Water supply
coverage in Tanzania is 86% and 57% for urban and rural areas, respectively. Overall,
52% of the entire population had access to water within 30 minutes in 2010 as to 39% in
2007. In year 2011/2012, the Ministry of Water analysed a total of 5,107 water samples
collected from both urban and rural areas to determine whether they met national water
quality standards acceptable for various uses. Out of 3,866 samples, only 2,986 samples
xxiii
(76%), were found to be of acceptable standards and the remaining samples were found
to have various pollutants thus unfit for human consumption.
Impacts: Some of the impacts of water quality degradation in the country include
increased water borne diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery and cholera. Poor
sanitation and hygiene cost the country about USD 206 million per year or equivalent to
1% of annual GDP, other impacts include burden on time spent to fetch water and
water use conflicts.
Response: Response to the impacts of water quality degradation and accessibility
include formulation of a number of policies, plans, pieces of legislation, strategies and
programmes. Other initiatives include exploration and development of new water
sources; establishment of water quality monitoring, environmental inspection, and
identification, demarcation and protection of water sources.
CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate change is already having significant impacts in developing countries and will
affect their ability to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
Drivers: The drivers of climate change in Tanzania include: dynamics of land use, land
use change and forestry and reliance on fossil fuel for energy.
Pressure: The pressures for climate change include the rapid population growth and
poverty.
State: Analysis of recent climatological data and observational evidence from local
communities are overwhelmingly indicating some signals of increased climate
variability and climate change over most parts of the country. Increasing temperatures,
notably over highland areas are observed in most parts of the country, late rainfall onset
and early cessation, decreasing amounts of rainfall and seasonal shifts in rainfall
patterns are becoming more common in most parts of Tanzania. The central and
northern zones, experience semiarid conditions and are vulnerable to climate
variability. Such zones will be more vulnerable to the projected increase in frequency
and amplitude of extreme climatic events.
Impacts:
Agriculture sector: Unreliable rainfall and frequent droughts over the years have resulted
into massive crop failure and livestock loss in many parts of the country, especially in
the arid and semi-arid areas. For example, Tanzania has experienced six major droughts
over the past 30 years with the most recent one in 2009 having ravaged agricultural
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production with massive deaths of livestock in northern Tanzania which is estimated to

have cut the GDP growth by 1%.
Energy sector: The country has been relying on hydropower generation for many years
but natural gas is increasingly taking the lead. The hydropower generation has been
severely affected in recent years due to recurrent droughts in the past few years that
have triggered devastating power crises in the country. Due to climate change and
variability, all major hydropower dams which are the main source of electrical power in
the country have continuously dropped below their lowest water level during the dry
season resulting in long hours of power black-outs.
Infrastructure: Incidences of floods in recent years had also tremendously impacted
infrastructure and human lives. The floods that occurred in 2011 and 2014 in Morogoro
(Kilombero and Kilosa) and 2011 in Dar es Salaam caused considerable property and
infrastructure damage. These floods damaged more than 886 km of roads and 26
bridges which costed the national about 17 billion Tanzanian shillings for repair.
Furthermore restoration costs of infrastructural loss in the 2009 flooding in Kilosa was
estimated at about 200 billion Tanzanian shillings equivalent to about 0.02%, of the
GDP.
Tourism: Climate change impacts have serious effects on different businesses such as
tourism, which is considered to be a highly climate sensitive economic sector. Climate
affects a wide range of the tourism attractions virgin beaches, snow conditions, wildlife
and biodiversity; and water levels and quality.
Livestock sector: As a result of increasing climate variability, in recent years, the country
has experienced increasing incidences of recurrent and prolonged droughts with severe
implications in the livelihood activities of the communities particularly those dependent
on livestock. For instance, the drought which occurred in 1996 in 14 regions affected
about 3.9 million people, while the one which occurred between 2009 and 2010 killed a
total of 316,437 cattle, 236,359 goats and 92,640 sheep in Arusha region alone.
Health sector: Several health hazards related to climate change have been reported in
Tanzania including malaria which has spread to non-traditional areas, dysentery,
cholera, meningitis, typhoid, malnutrition and trachoma. Majority of the central regions
of Tanzania already face significant exposure to drought related diseases. Malaria is the
largest cause of loss of lives in the country accounting for about 16% of all reported
deaths and 19% of national health spending is on Malaria. These cases are likely to
increase under the different scenarios of climate change.
Water sector: There has been a 68 percent decrease in dry season flow in Mara River
since 1972 suggesting possible collapse of the herbivore population dependent on the
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Mara river water in the Serengeti ecosystems. It is reported that annual flows in the
Kilombero/Rufiji Rivers have decreased by 8 percent since 1972. Further to this, water
levels of Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Manyara and Lake Jipe have been
reported to drop in recent years.
Fisheries sector
Sea level rise and changes in sea water temperature, salinity, acidification, wind speed
and water current direction, strength of upwelling, mixing layer thickness and predator
response to climate change, have the potential to substantially alter fish breeding
habitats and food supply for fish.
Aquaculture activities are mostly affected as a result of climate change during drought,
supply of water in fish ponds and dams decrease leading to disappearance of fish
habitats and shortage of fish feeds. Also, during floods, fish from farm ponds are swept
away, resulting to economic loss to aqua-farmers and thus deprive their livelihood.
Forestry and Wildlife sectors: Climate change impacts on forestry and wildlife sectors are
diverse and indirect. It has been shown that sub tropical dry forests and subtropical
moist forests life zone are changing to tropical very dry forests, tropical dry forest and
tropical moist forest and subtropical thorn woodland (Acacia Commiphora woodlands)
are being replaced or have disappeared in some areas. The negative effects of climate
change have generally affected wildlife in Tanzania by affecting the availability and
quality of rangelands and forage thus influencing the animal biomass in protected
areas.
Economic loss: Tanzania is expected to have its GDP reduced by U$ 6.67 billion (TZS 9.0
trillion) between 2009 and 2060, an annual loss of about $ 0.13 billion (TZS 180 billion)
due to climate change impacts. The value of loss of agricultural GDP from the impacts
of climate change over the coming 50 years is estimated at about US$ 27 billion which is
an annual average of about US$ 540 million. Recurrent drought has been leading to
inadequate hydropower supply which is the major source of electricity in the country.
This has led into significant additional costs for Tanzania including the additional costs
of power generation using expensive thermal technologies. For example, firms that do
not have their own generators, experience 40% production losses during power cuts or
interruptions.
Response: To address the challenges associated with climate change, already various
initiatives have been undertaken which include preparation and implementation of
policies, legislation, plans, strategies and programmes (including awareness and
capacity building, community involvement); and preparation and implementation of
projects and programmes for mainstreaming of climate change and its implementation.
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NATURAL DISASTERS
Tanzania has experienced a variety of natural disasters. Experience has shown that
drought, floods, epidemics, windstorms, landslides, earthquake, pest infestation and
volcanic eruptions are major types of natural disasters in Tanzania.
Floods
Drivers: The drivers of change for floods include climate change and improper land use
in many parts of the country.
Pressure: The pressures for floods are improper land use planning, rapid urbanisation
and uncontrolled population, as well as haphazard construction practices that expose
people to flood hazards.
State: Rufiji plains have experienced severe floods for more than a century. The most
recent severe floods occurred in 2002 and destroyed infrastructure and cut off
communications between Dar es Salaam and Southern Tanzanian Regions. Kilosa
District has been subjected to the worst flooding events in the country. The most recent
one occurred in February 2010 when the banks of River Mkondoa busted inundating
Kilosa town forcing about 23,980 residents out of their homes with devastating damage
on crop fields. The most recent worst floods to hit Dar es Salaam City in 50 years
occurred in December 2011.
Impacts: Floods have serious impacts to the economy and livelihood of people. Loss of
lives and properties, displacement and destruction of infrastructure are some of serious
impacts of floods that occurred recently in Morogoro, Dodoma and Dar es Salaam.
Response: The Government has formulated a number of policies and legislations to
address issues pertinent to flood control such as National Environmental Policy (1997),
The National Human Settlements Development Policy (2000), The National Water
Policy (2002), The Water Resources Management Act (2009) and the National
Environmental Management Act (Cap. 191).
Drought
Tanzania has been facing serious drought conditions since 1990, when the rains strayed
from their traditional pattern. In some areas, the rains began too early or too late, while
in some, they have simply been insufficient.
Drivers: The drivers of change for drought include deforestation, climate change, land
use and land use change.
xxvii
Pressure: Pressures for drought are population growth exacerbated by various

underlying causes such as increase in the demand for forest products, poverty and
unequal access to land. Wild fires, clearing forests for agriculture, charcoal burning and
timber harvesting, have contributed to the drought situation.
State: Drought accounts for about 92% of natural disaster victims in the past twenty
years in Tanzania. Tanzania normally experiences recurring droughts every four years;
the recent one occurred in 2009. The central parts of Tanzania extending to the northeastern parts have a high probability of drought.
Impacts: Impacts of drought inflict a heavy toll on the economy of the country. Drought
also contributes to the reduction in carrying capacity of rangelands.
Response: The Government established the Tanzania Meteorological Agency (TMA) for
provision of forecasting and early warning services. Drought-resistant crops have been
introduced in drought prone areas. The National Food Reserve Agency (NFRA) has
been established with the aim of maintaining a national optimal level of food reserve to
address local food shortage.
Epidemics
Epidemics strike fairly regularly and are among the leading disasters in the country
accounting for 31% of all disaster occurrences. The most common killer diseases are
malaria, HIV/AIDS-related illnesses, cholera, dysentery, typhoid and other water-borne
diseases. Other epidemics include bubonic plague, meningococcal disease and Rift
Valley Fever (RVF).
Drivers: Major drivers of epidemics are poor environmental sanitation, lack of clean
drinking water, inadequate awareness on health issues, rapid growth of human
populations and poorly planned and uncontrolled urban development.
Pressure: Pressures for epidemics include unproportional increase of human population
to available health and sanitation services in most areas in Tanzania. Inadequate solid
waste management services and unsanitary practices/behaviour also contribute to the
outbreak of epidemics. Epidemic impacts are directly linked to loss of lives and
reduction of labour productivity.
State:
Malaria: Global malaria mapping ranks Tanzania as a very high malaria endemic area
(as defined by WHO) with 10 percent of its urban and rural population at risk, the most
xxviii
vulnerable groups being pregnant women and children under 5 years of age. Lifethreatening malaria is reported to occur largely in children, commonly those under a
year old.
Cholera: In 2006, a total of 14,297 cases including 254 deaths (CFR 1.8%) were reported
from 16 regions (out of 26). The most affected region was Dar es Salaam with 8,965 cases
representing 62.7% of the total cases and 101 deaths (39.8% of total deaths).
Human Immune Deficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS):
HIV/AIDS pandemic has seriously affected the country since 1983. According to the
Third Tanzania HIV and Malaria Indicator Survey (THMIS-III) (2011-2012), 5.1% of
Tanzanians aged between 15-49 years are HIV-positive. HIV prevalence is higher
among women (6.2%) than men (3.8%). HIV prevalence is higher in urban areas for both
women and men than in rural areas. A comparison of the 2007-08 and 2011-12 reveals
that HIV prevalence has declined slightly from 5.7% to 5.1% among adults aged 15-49
years. Similarly, HIV prevalence has declined among women, from 6.6% to 6.2%, and
among men, from 4.6% to 3.8%.
Rift Valley Fever (RVF): RVF (an acute, mosquito-borne viral disease) occurred for the
first time in Tanzania in 1930. This was followed by periodic epidemics of 10-20 years
i.e. 1947, 1957, 1977, 1997 and 2007. During the latest disease outbreak in 2007, 52.4% of
regions in Tanzania mainland were affected and majority (72.7%) of the regions had
concurrent infections in human and animals.
Avian Influenza: Although no death has been reported so far, Tanzania is at high risk of
introduction and spreading of Avian Influenza, based on the migratory birdfly ways
passing through the country and interactions of people and goods through trade and
other movements.
Impacts: Economically, the increased incidences of communicable diseases especially,
HIV/AIDS, malaria and cholera add to the costs of medical treatment for the
household, community and the country as whole. Diseases also reduce labour
productivity. Malaria has been and continues to be a major cause of illness and death.
The devastating impact of HIV is almost incomprehensible. At the community level,
poverty imposes enormous strains on the extended family structure, leading to a
substantial burden on orphans and vulnerable children (OVCs) estimated at 17 percent
in Tanzania (2007-08 Tanzania HIV/AIDS and Malaria Indicators Survey). The
economy has been adversely affected by the premature death of women and men in
their prime years of productivity. RVF has caused serious effects on rural peoples food
security and household nutrition and on direct and indirect losses to livestock
producers in the country. During the 2006/2007 outbreak, 309 human cases with 142
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deaths (46% case fatality rate) were reported in the country, whereby Dodoma region
experienced the highest death rate of 64%.
Response: The Government is implementing the National Malaria Control Program
(NMCP). One of the strategies being employed is universal coverage with long-lasting
insecticide treated nets (LLITNs). The Government has been organizing emergency
strategy to combat cholera country wide. The National Policy on HIV/AIDS and
guidelines have been formulated to guide HIV/AIDS control. Awareness campaigns
are carried out on radio, TV, newspapers, posters and leaflets, with the aim of educating
the general public on various issues pertinent to the prevention and control of diseases.
Pest Infestation
Pest infestations account for about 2 % of all disaster events in Tanzania. Common pests
in Tanzania include locusts, rodents, Quelea Quelea, cassava mealy bugs, tsetse flies
and armyworms.
Drivers: Pest infestation is driven by natural phenomena such as prevailing wind
direction that dictate migration and spread of pests such as locusts, quelea quelea and
army worms.
Pressure: Pressures for pest infestation include inadequate effective strategies for pest
surveillance, absence of adequate contingency plans and rapid intervention during
outbreaks. Another pressure is inadequate financial and human resources for pest
prevention and control.
State: Pest occurrences are a problem in all agro ecological zones but are more
pronounced in the Eastern plateau and mountain blocks. Regions mostly affected by the
outbreak of pests are Dodoma, Tabora, Kigoma, Rukwa, Singida, Mbeya, Kagera,
Arusha, Dodoma, Singida, Shinyanga, Mwanza, Ruvuma, Iringa, Mtwara and Mara.
Rodents, particularly the multi-mammate shamba rat, (Mastomys natalensis), are major
pests to food crops. The most affected crops are maize, millets, paddy and cassava.
Quelea quelea is serious migratory pests that destroy cereal crops, namely wheat, rice,
sorghum and millet across the country. The quelea birds have been responsible for
famines of varying proportions in some areas. For example, in 2001, total loss (100%) in
700 ha of wheat was experienced in Basuto wheat farms, Hanang District. Between 1998
and 2002, about 8600 hectares of cereal were destroyed by Quelea quelea in 10 regions.
Locust breeding affects the regions that lie in the western part. Areas affected include
Bahi in Dodoma Region, Wembere in Tabora Region, Malagarasi in Kigoma Region and
Iku and Katavi in Rukwa Region. Adjacent regions of Singida and parts of Mbeya are
also affected. The African armyworm (Spodoptera exempta) is a major pest of cereal crops
(maize, rice, sorghum and millets) as well as pasture (grass family) and therefore a
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threat to food security and livestock. Armyworms affect all regions except Rukwa,
Kagera and Kigoma.
Impacts: The major implications of pest outbreaks include reduced level of crop
production, which lead to low economic gain (and sometimes famine) among
households in the affected areas. It is estimated that 30% of crops in the country is lost
annually due to pests and disease outbreaks.
Response: The Government has implemented a number of pest control initiatives
including:- the formulation of Integrated Pest Management Plan (IPMP) towards
responsible use of pesticides and effective management of potential pest occurrences;
strengthening the capacity for timely control of crop pests and disease outbreaks;
training farmers particularly on Community Based Armyworm Forecasting (CBAF);
and establishment of an Animal Disease Surveillance System.
Earthquakes and Volcanoes
Earthquakes and volcanoes are one of the rapid onset disasters that are common along
the great East African Rift Valley corridor. They account for 10% of all the natural
disaster events in the country.
Drivers: Vulnerability to earthquakes and volcanoes is attributed by poverty.
Pressure: Most of the population in earthquake and volcano prone areas are poor and
therefore unable to build structures especially residential houses that can withstand
seismic forces. In addition, inefficient early warning system and reluctance to resettle
away from the prone areas complicates the situation.
State: Earthquakes and volcanoes are reported to occur mostly in two zones: the
Rukwa-Ruaha rift zone and Northern rift valley including volcanic lands which are all
located in tectonically active areas. The earthquake prone areas are Mbeya, Kigoma,
Rukwa, Arusha, Kilimanjaro, Dodoma, Singida, Shinyanga (Bariadi) and Iringa regions.
There are 5 large volcanic mountains in Tanzania including Kilimanjaro, Meru,
Oldoinyo Lengai, Rungwe and Kyejo. Kilimanjaro and Meru Mountains are considered
to be dormant whereas Oldoinyo Lengai, Rungwe and Kyejo Mountains are regarded to
be volcanically active.
Impacts: The most recent earthquakes and volcanic activities, which occurred in
Rukwa, Mbeya and Arusha regions destroyed homes and properties while a number of
people had to be shifted away from an active volcano mountain.
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Response: The Government has established the Geological Survey of Tanzania (GST),
which is mandated to identify, assess and monitor geo-hazards. Also, during eruptions
of Oldoinyo Lengai volcano, a number of people were resettled
Landslides
Landslides are common in loose steep hilly lands and account for 4.2% of all disaster
occurrences in the country.
Drivers: The main driving forces causing landslides are geological, morphological, and
physical and human intervention.
Pressure: Construction of houses and roads without proper geological knowledge of an
area also increases the probability of landslides. Increase in the population and shortage
of arable land has forced people to cultivate on steep and unstable slopes of mountains.
Lack of awareness and poverty can indirectly lead to landslides in hilly regions.
State: Landslides pose a risk to a number of regions in the North and South of the
country including Kilimanjaro, Arusha and Mbeya regions. Rapid population growth
especially in mountainous areas of Kilimanjaro, Mwanza, Arusha, Morogoro and
Mbeya regions has caused establishment of settlements in areas prone to landslides.
Impacts: Socio-economic impacts of landslides include loss of arable land and damage
to infrastructure. Environmental impacts of landslides include excessive soil erosion,
nutrient depletion and loss of habitat and biodiversity.
Response: The government is promoting soil conservation methods such as contour
cultivation, crop rotation and agro-forestry in order to reduce landslides. Afforestation
programmes are also being implemented to reduce the risk of landslides.
Windstorms
Wind speeds during a windstorm typically exceed 55 km per hour. Wind damage can
be attributed to gusts (short bursts of high-speed winds) or longer periods of stronger
sustained winds.
Drivers: Main drivers for windstorms are the warming of the Indian Ocean. By virtue
of its location in the tropics and proximity to the Indian Ocean, Tanzania is prone to
tropical windstorms.
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Pressure: Poor building designs, inadequate awareness and lack of appropriate maps,
which show areas most prone to windstorms, hamper efforts to put in place measures
to curb effects of windstorms.
State: Windstorms occur more in the Eastern Plateau and mountain blocks, Southern
Highlands, inland sedimentary plateau, Ufipa plateau and western highlands.
Windstorms are often experienced in parts of Arusha, Tanga, Manyara, parts of
Dodoma, Lindi, Mtwara and Ruvuma Regions. In recent years, cyclones have also
affected Dar-es Salaam, Mwanza and Mbeya regions. In Mtwara, Mbeya and Lake
Regions (Kagera, Mwanza and Mara) it has been noted that strong winds especially
during long rains are accompanied with thunderstorms.
Impacts: Windstorms cause crop damages and thereby result in farm revenue losses.
The most recent devastating windstorm occurred in January 2012. About 60 residents of
Shambarai Village in Simanjiro District, Manyara Region were rendered homeless after
their houses were destroyed by strong winds, which swept through the area. In all
about 14 houses were flattened by the windstorm and trees were also uprooted.
Response: The Government in collaboration with other stakeholders have been giving
assistance to the victims of windstorms by providing shelter and food among other
necessities.
EMERGING ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Emerging environmental issues refer to topical environmental issues that are
continually evolving and expanding, but are yet to receive sufficient attention. A
number of emerging environmental issues are considered including electronic waste
(commonly termed as E-waste); Invasive Alien Species (IAS); Genetically Modified
(GM) Crops; and biofuels.
Waste Electrical and Electronic Waste (E-waste)
Tanzania is facing a rapid increase in use of electrical and electronic equipment, with
the amount of accumulating E-waste growing over time.
Drivers: There are two main drivers for electronic waste in the country including the
rapid changes in technology and changing lifestyles and consumption patterns.
Pressure: The problem of growing E-waste is caused by the increasing demand of
modern and convenient services and inadequate capacity for E-waste management.
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State: Projections based on the results of an inventory undertaken by Cleaner

Production Centre of Tanzania - CPCT (2011), indicate that the amount of e-waste
generated from computers alone in 2011 was about 2,300 tonnes annually, constituting
about 7-13% of total weight of the Electric and Electronic Equipment (EEE). This
indicates that amount of E-waste generated in the country is in the range of 18,000 33,000 tonnes annually. However, the amount of E-waste generated is considered to be
far less than 0.5% of municipal solid waste generated in the country.
Impacts: Most E-waste contains hazardous materials, most of which are likely to cause
cancer, respiratory illness and reproductive problems. Resource loss is another impact
where more resources will be required for new products, resulting in significant loss of
resources and damage to the environment.
Response: The government has prepared several policies, legislation and regulations
that have bearing on management of E-waste. Some of these include National
Environmental Policy (1997), National Health Policy (2007), Hazardous Waste
Management Regulations (2009) and Public Health Act (2009).
Invasive Alien Species (IAS)
Invasive Alien Species (IAS) are non-native species to the ecosystem under
consideration, which have been introduced accidentally or intentionally, and whose
introduction causes or is likely to cause adverse effects to socio-economic welfare,
environmental wellbeing and human health, and does not provide an equivalent
benefit. The IAS may be plants, birds, fungi, insects or animals and can affect almost all
types of ecosystems.
Drivers: IAS are introduced for social or economic purposes while others can be
introduced through increased movement and interaction of people which may result in
the transfer of species from one part of the world to another. Others may be due to the
effects of climate change.
Pressure: Pressures for IAS include the increasing food demand for the population. As
the population grows, increasing agricultural production becomes inevitable.
State: Tanzania has 67 reported IAS of different categories including plant pathogens,
pests, aquatic and terrestrial weeds, animals and trees. Several IAS have been identified
to affect agricultural sector including cassava mealy bug; Large Grain Borer (LGB) Prostephanus truncatus; Grey Leaf Spot of maize; and banana wilt. Some invasive
species, mostly trees and weeds, have been observed in protected areas, including
Datura stramonium and Argemone mexicana (Mexican poppy). In the forestry sector, there
are various IAS, mostly trees and shrubs, including Maesopsis eminii, Cedrella odorata and
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Senna spectabilis. In the fisheries sector, the introduction of Nile Perch (Lates niloticus) in
Lake Victoria is believed to have led to the disappearance of several indigenous cichlid
species mainly of haplochromines.
Impacts: Among the impacts of IAS in the agricultural sector include reduced cash
income from crop production, increased livelihood insecurity and increased public
expenditure e.g. on food relief and breeding of disease-resistant varieties. Other impacts
include loss of biodiversity e.g. the spread of Rubus pinnata is known to hinder forest
regeneration as observed in Uluguru Mountains.
Response: A number of national policies and legislation which have a bearing in
addressing the IAS challenge have been formulated. Also, phytosanitary inspections at
points of entry have been carried out. Additionally, promotion and application of
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) have been implemented.
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
Tanzania like many countries is facing challenges related to declining agricultural
productivity and impacts of climate change. In order to address these challenges,
genetic modification (or genetic engineering) has been sought. However, the
development and application of genetic engineering has been also associated with
concerns over the risks to human and animal health, biodiversity and the environment
at large.
Drivers: Drivers for Genetically Modified Crops include food insecurity and economic
benefits of GM crops such as pests and disease resistant GM crops as well as mitigating
the effects of climate change.
Pressure: Pressures for GM crops are rapid population growth and subsequent increase
demand for food, degraded environment and uncertainties resulting from the impacts
of climate change. Another pressure is the potential risk associated with GMOs.
State: Currently, only a few research activities are being undertaken involving genetic
modification mainly at laboratory (or contained) research level. These include
development of cassava varieties tolerant to Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD) and
Cassava Brown Streak Disease (CBSD). Commercial introduction of GM crops in
particular, is yet to take place in the country.
Impacts: The potential impacts of GM include the socio-economic and ethical concerns
in the application of GM crops where farmers will be forced to use the GM seeds from
the developer only. There is also environmental concern linked to negative impact on
biodiversity as well as the health risks associate with GMOs and products thereof.
xxxv
Response: There are initiatives undertaken by the government as policy and legal
response such as the National Environmental Policy (1997), National Biotechnology
Policy (2010) and Environmental Management Act (Cap. 191) and Biosafety Regulations
(2009). There are also institutional capacity building and awareness campaigns that
have been conducted for several target groups including media, agricultural researchers
and the judiciary.
Biofuels
Tanzania is at early stage in development of biofuels. The national vision for the
development of biofuel sub-sector is to contribute to the reduction of fossil fuels in
transport sector and to stimulate socio-economic development.
Drivers: The driving forces for biofuel sector development in the country include
energy security in which the rising prices for fossil fuels has strained the countrys
economy; and climate change mitigation particularly reduction of greenhouse gas
emissions.
Pressure: Pressures for biofuel production in Tanzania include growing energy demand
and associated climate change impacts.
State: Currently, biofuel industry is at early stages of development in the country. The
main feedstock being cultivated for production of biofuel including jatropha, oil palm
and sugar cane. Total land of more than 600,000 hectares has so far been allocated for
biofuel investments.
Impacts: Potential impacts of biofuel sector development include social risks and
conflicts that are associated with relocating local communities to give way for biofuel
crops, clearing of large areas of natural forest habitats, including coastal and miombo
woodlands, to give way to biofuels crop farming.
Response: The National Guidelines for Biofuels (2010) have been developed whose key
elements include land acquisition and tenure systems; resettlement and compensation
scheme; and Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for bio-fuel projects.
SCENARIO ANALYSIS
The scenario analysis has been developed for the identified key environmental issues.
Four types of scenarios have been considered to analyse plausible situations and policy
actions that may be useful to be undertaken. These are the Business as usual, Box
Planning, Policy Reform, and Sustainability scenarios. With eagerness of bringing
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change to environmental management in the country for the improvement of state of

the environment, only the Policy Reform and Sustainability Scenario have been applied in
this Report.
Land Degradation: Under Policy Reform Scenario, Land Use Framework Plan 2011-2031
is to be implemented by reviewing and/or putting in place relevant policies, legal and
institutional frameworks. However, to ensure an improved situation the Sustainability
Scenario is also applicable, where present policies, plans and strategies are adequately
integrated and implemented in the development process.
Deforestation and Forest Degradation: Under this topic, the Policy Reform Scenario is
applicable where relevant policies, strategies and guidelines need to be reviewed by the
government and other stakeholders. Mechanisms to enhance Public Private Partnership
to promote alternative energy sources and energy efficient technologies should be put
in place. Equally important, is the need to transform and utilize NAFORMA data in
forest management planning. Also, in order to ensure Sustainability, numerous
stakeholders need to be engaged in mainstreaming of forest management related
policies, plans and strategies. There is also a need to explore and promote traditional
management practices and alternative energy sources.
Loss of Biodiversity: Under the Policy Reform Scenario, relevant policies and guidelines
are reviewed to accommodate new and emerging issues in relation to biodiversity. The
review and implementation of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
(NBSAP) in line with the 2010 - 2020 Strategic Plan of the Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD) is important. In order to achieve sustainability, there is a need to
address the issues under drivers and pressures through involvement of key
stakeholders.
Environmental Pollution
Water Pollution: Under the Policy Reform Scenario, the National Waste Management
Strategy and Action Plan needs to be finalized and effectively implemented. There is
also a need to review the National Environment Policy (1997) and other relevant
policies. In achieving sustainability, relevant policies and appropriate legislation need to
be effectively implemented and enforced. Also, public awareness and participation on
environmental health and sanitation and cleaner production initiative need to be
promoted.
Air Pollution: The Policy Reform Scenario involves review or formulation of policies
related to management of air pollution. Such policies include the following sectors:transport, energy, industry and environment. Sustainability Scenario needs effective
implementation of the policies, guidelines, legislation and plans. Enforcement of the Air
xxxvii
Quality Standards and other relevant regulations need to be rigorously enforced in

order to reduce air pollution.
Noise Pollution: Under the Policy Reform Scenario, the Government and other
stakeholders are required to review policies (such as Environment and Transport),
strategies and plans. To ensure sustainability it requires stakeholders to be involved in
enforcement and compliance to the Noise and Vibration regulations to adherence to
strategic urban development plans. In addition, public awareness and community
participation needs to be promoted.
Deterioration of Aquatic Systems: Policy Reform Scenario in this regard, involves the
review and implementation of relevant sectoral policies such as those of water,
wetlands, fisheries, energy, industry and trade, in order to accommodate emerging
issues such as invasive alien species. To achieve Sustainability, the Government in
collaboration with other stakeholders need to implement the policies and strategies
such as the Strategy on Urgent Actions on Conservation of Marine and Coastal
Environment, Lakes, Rivers Ecosystems and Dams.
Water Quality Degradation and Accessibility: Under the Policy Reform Scenario, one
needs to review relevant policies and legal frameworks to incorporate issues that
address the increasing demand for water and improvement of its availability,
accessibility, quality. To achieve the Sustainability Scenario, all stakeholders should be
involved in the planning and implementation of policies and legislation related to water
management.
Climate Change: Under the Policy Reform Scenario, related policies need to be reviewed
in order to capture issues of climate change. Such reviews include the National
Environmental Policy 1997. Apart from these, the Government has developed some
strategies, plans and programmes, all aimed at addressing climate change. Some of
these include the National Climate Change Strategy; the National Climate Change
Adaptation Strategy and Action Plan; Strategy on Urgent Actions on Land Degradation
and Water Catchments; Strategy on Urgent Actions on Conservation of Marine and
Coastal Environment, Lakes, Rivers Ecosystems and Dams. In order to achieve
sustainability, it is imperative to have implementable policies/strategies/plans on
climate change.
Natural Disasters: The Policy Reform Scenario with regard to natural disasters, involves
putting in place relevant policies, strategies and plans, as well as instruments for
dealing with disaster and risk management, that relate to the National Disaster
Management Policy of 2010. There is also a need to establish an institutional framework
from the central government to local authorities where disaster and risk management
committees are formed to address disaster issues. Under Sustainability, all relevant
xxxviii
policies, strategies, programmes and plans should be implemented to minimise adverse

effects of natural disasters in order to allow people to live in harmony with the
environment.
Emerging issues
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): Policy Reform Scenario with regard to GMOs
concerns review of relevant policies that relate to sectors such as agriculture, livestock,
environment and science and technology. For Sustainability, use of GMOs requires
effective implementation of interventions that ensure the participation of key
stakeholders. Also, public awareness, capacity building and research on GMOs should
be given priority.
E-waste management: Policy Reform Scenario in relation to E-waste management, calls
for the formulation, implementation and review of relevant policies legislation and
programmes of relevant sectors such as environment, information and communication
technology, trade and industry and legislation. The Sustainability Scenario requires
stakeholders awareness-raising and participation on E-waste management and
establishment of E-waste management systems at all levels for effective segregation,
collection, recycling and disposal of such waste. Also information should be shared
among stakeholders to reduce adverse impacts of E-waste on human health and the
environment.
Biofuels: The Policy Reform Scenario calls for the urgent development of the National
Bioenergy Policy and review of relevant policies such as energy, agriculture and
environment and their legislation to fully address biofuel issues. In order to achieve
sustainability, the Government and other stakeholders need to effectively implement
the National Biofuel Guidelines and related policies and legislation. There is also an
urgent need to promote public awareness, research and information dissemination on
biofuels development to all stakeholders.
Invasive Alien Species (IAS): Under Policy Reform Scenario, there is a need to review
relevant sectoral policies in agriculture, wildlife, fisheries, forestry and environment
sectors, in order to adequately address IAS issues. In order to achieve sustainability in
management of IAS, there is a need for effective implementation of relevant policies
and strategies through involvement and awareness raising of key stakeholders, as well
as related capacity building initiatives.
POLICY OPTIONS FOR ACTION
Despite the fact that the Government and other stakeholders have been devising ways
and means of curbing the challenges of environmental degradation, more efforts are
xxxix
still required to address these challenges in a more concerted manner. A number of

broader policy and strategic interventions are being proposed to address these
environmental challenges including to:
i) review and/or implementation of policies, legislation, strategies and plans
related to environmental management;
ii)
strengthen institutional capacity, coordination and collaboration at local,
national, regional and international levels;
iii)
strengthen law enforcement and compliance to relevant environmental laws,
standards and guidelines;
iv) enhance public awareness programmes and participatory environmental
planning and management at all levels;
v) promote best environmental practices, indigenous knowledge and
environmental friendly technologies;
vi) mainstreaming of environment into local and national development policies,
strategies, plans and budgets;
vii) strengthen environmental early warning system; and
viii) strengthen environmental monitoring programmes.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background
The Second State of the Environment Report (SoER) is a continuation of the

Governments commitment to respond to the need to fulfil the requirement of the
National Environmental Action Plan of 2013; National Environmental Policy, 1997;
Tanzania Development Vision, 2025; and Environmental Management Act (Cap. 191).
Under Section 175 (1) of the Act, the Director of Environment is required to publish a
State of the Environment Report to be tabled before the National Assembly every two
years. Preparation of the Report is also in response to Governments desire to continue
implementing the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP II,
20102015) and the National Five Year Development Plan (2011-2015).
The first SoER which was published in 2008 provided environment trends in key sectors
and areas taking into account considerations in socio-economic, political and cultural
issues such as demography, production and consumption, poverty, trade, globalization
and financing. The Report analyzed the increase in the vulnerability to environment
change affecting the various sectors of the economy as addressed in NSGRP I targets
and Millennium Development Goals.
The Second SoER presents information for the reporting period from 2008 to 2013 and
considers changes since the first SoER including emerging environmental isuues such
as Invasive Alien Species (IAS), Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs), Biofuel,
Electrical and Electronic Equipment wastes (E-waste). Also, earlier baselines are used
where data are available and relevant for describing conditions, trends and changes in
Tanzanias environment.
The Second SoER is designed for use by the general public and policy makers to help
inform decision-making. It is also intended for use by scientists, students and resource
managers who require summary information and perspectives from relevant
disciplines. The Report can also be used to gain insights into some of the available
underlying databases and information sources.
1.2
Objectives of the Report
The main objective of this Report is to capture the prevailing picture of the countrys
environment and emerging environmental issues, so that appropriate actions are taken
to ensure a sustainable environmental, social and economic development.
Specific objectives are to:

i) establish current status of the environment and evaluate environmental
changes;
ii)
inform the public on the state of the environment in the country, particularly
on the importance of natural resources to society;
iii)
show major trends, as social and economic development pressures increase
on the environment and natural resources and identify areas that need
intervention and improvement;
iv) improve understanding of the causes and effects of environmental change,
and recommend appropriate responses and enable evaluation of
achievements in global goals and targets;
v) provide data for developing and monitoring the implementation of
sustainable development strategies, programmes and projects/plans; and
vi) provide inputs in the planning and implementation of government activities
and initiatives in environmental management, its achievements and
constraints, goals and opportunities for collaboration.
1.3
Analytical Framework
Preparation of this Report adopted the Global Environment Outlook (GEO) approach
which utilizes the Drivers-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework. The
DPSIR Framework analyses the impacts of the environmental change on human well
being and management options and it is a flexible framework that can be used in the
decision-making process.
According to the DPSIR framework, there is a chain of causal links starting with
driving forces (economic sectors, human activities) through pressures (emissions,
waste) to states (physical, chemical and biological) and impacts on ecosystems,
human health and functions, eventually leading to political responses (prioritisation,
target-setting, indicators). Therefore, this framework is seen as giving a structure within
which to present the indicators needed to enable feedback to policy makers on
environmental quality and the resulting impact of the political choices made, or to be
made in the future.
The DPSIR framework model used for the development of this Report is elaborated in
Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: The DPSIR Framework Model (Source: GEO Resource Book, 2007)
1.4
Preparation Process
Preparation of this Report adopted the following stages:i)
Preparatory stage: The objective of this phase was to establish consensus on

different aspects of the review, including scope, modality and issues for review
and management of the whole process. Key stakeholders at this stage were
government officials, Development Partners (DPs) and representatives from the
Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) through the Environmental Working Group.
The output of the preparatory stage was development of the Terms of Reference
including a road map for completion of the report.
ii)
Drafting and consolidating Phase: This phase involved literature review, drafting
and consolidating the draft report. This was done by a Team of Experts
(responsible with drafting individual chapters) in collaboration with the Task
Force (responsible for synthesis and finalization of the Report).
iii)
1.5
Stakeholders Consultations: The consultation process on the draft Report took into
account national level consultations in the country on development processes. The
objectives of these consultations were three fold; (i) to identify gaps in the draft
and improve data and information (ii) to enhance national ownership of the
Report, and (iii) to build capacity of the national stakeholders.
Structure of the Report
The Report is organized into sixteen (16) Chapters. Of these, nine (9) Chapters address
the major environmental issues which are:- Land degradation ; Deforestation and Forest
Degradation; Loss of biodiversity; Environmental pollution; Deterioration of aquatic
systems; Water quality degradation and accessibility; Climate Change; Natural
Disasters; and Emerging environmental issues (E-waste, Genetically Modified Organisms
(GMOs), Biofuels and Invasive Alien Species). Each of these issues is analyzed using the
DPSIR (drivers, pressure, state, impacts and responses) framework. Other Chapters
included in the Report are:- Country Brief; Geography; Socio-Economic Issues;
Environmental Resources; Policy, Legal and Institutional Framework; Scenario
Analysis; and Policy Options for Action.
CHAPTER TWO
GEOGRAPHY
2.1
Location and Size
Tanzania is located in Eastern Africa, between Latitude 1 and 12 South and Longitude
29 and 41 East (URT, 2012a). It is bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the North;
Rwanda, Burundi and Democratic Republic of Congo to the West; Zambia and Malawi
to the South West; Mozambique to the South; and Indian Ocean to the East (Figure 2.1).
It is constituted by Tanzania Mainland and Zanzibar with a total area of 945,087 km2
comprised of land area of 883,749 km2 (881,289 km2 mainland and 2,460 km2 Zanzibar
Islands), plus 59,050 km2 inland water bodies. Tanzania mainland encompasses major
island of Mafia (518 km2) and Zanzibar consists of Unguja (1,666 km2) and Pemba (795
km2).
Figure 2.1: The Map of Tanzania showing regional and international boundaries
2.2
Physical Features
Topography
The Tanzania terrain comprises plains along the coast; a plateau in the central area that
ranges between 1,000 and 1,500 meters above sea level (m a.s.l.); highlands in the northeast and south west characterized by mountain ranges and peaks; river and lake basins
and the Great East African Rift Valley.
i)
Coastal Plains and features
The coastline of Tanzania Mainland extends for about 800 km long from the border with
Kenya in the north to the border with Mozambique in the South. About two thirds of
the coastline has fringing reefs, often close to the shoreline, broken by river outlets such
as the Rufiji Delta, Pangani, Ruvuma, Wami and Ruvu. The continental shelf extends to
5.8 10 km offshore, with exception of the Zanzibar and Mafia channels where the shelf
extends for more than 25 km. The area of the shelf to the 200 m depth contour for both
mainland Tanzania and Zanzibar combined is about 30,000 km2. The islands within the
continental shelf include Unguja, Pemba and Mafia as well as numerous small islands,
islets and sand dunes surrounded by reefs such as Latham, Tutia, Songosongo and
Mbudya. Unguja and Mafia are limestone islands on the continental shelf and were
probably part of a Pleistocene inshore coral reef system now separated from the
mainland by relatively shallow water channels of about 30 50 m in depth.
ii)
Plateaux
Plateau is in the central area of the country, which is part of the East African Plateau. It
ranges between 1,000 and 1,500 meters above sea level (m.a.s.l.) and is characterised by
gently sloping plains and plateau broken by scattered hills and low-lying wetlands. The
southern half of this plateau is grassland within the Eastern Miombo woodlands
ecoregion, the majority of which is covered by the huge Selous National Park. Further
north the plateau is arable land and includes the national capital, Dodoma.
iii)
Highlands and mountains
Tanzania is characterized by highlands with several mountain ranges and peaks. The
northeast border with Kenya is dominated by Mt. Meru (4,565 m.a.s.l.) and Mt.
Kilimanjaro (5,895 m.a.s.l.) the latter being the highest point in Africa. Both of these
mountains are dormant volcanic mountains. In the eastern part of the country there are
two important block mountains, namely the Usambara and Pare Mountain ranges,
famously known as the Eastern Arc Mountains. In the south, the country is dominated
by the mountain range of the Southern Highlands which separates the Eastern plateau
from the rest of the country and they include Livingstone, Kipengere, Udzungwa and
Uluguru. Southwards, is the Central Plateau reaching elevations 2,000 m.a.s.l.
iv)
River and lake basins
Tanzania is divided into five major drainage systems: the Indian Ocean Drainage
System; the Internal Drainage of Lakes Eyasi, Natron and Bubu Depression Complex;
the Internal Drainage of Lake Rukwa; the Atlantic Ocean Drainage; and the
Mediterranean Sea Drainage System. These systems have been further divided into nine
river and lake basins. The nine drainage water basins are Pangani Basin, Wami/Ruvu
Basin, Rufiji Basin, Ruvuma and the Southern Coast Basin, Lake Nyasa Basin, the
Internal Drainage Basins of Lake Eyasi, Manyara and Bubu depression, Lake Rukwa
Basin, Lake Tanganyika Basin, and Lake Victoria Basin. Lake Tanganyika forms the
lowest point in the country, which is 358 meters below sea level (Figure 2.2). Tanzanias
main rivers include the Pangani, Rufiji, Wami, Ruvu and Ruvuma.
Figure 2.2: Tanzania Drainage Water Basins (Source: URT, 2012c)

v)
Rift valley
The Great Rift Valley that runs from north-east of Africa through Central Tanzania, is
another landmark that adds to the scenic view of the country. The rift valley runs to
south of Tanzania splitting at Lake Nyasa; The Eastern Rift Valley runs through central
Tanzania dotted with lakes such as Lake Natron, Manyara and Eyasi, while the
Western branch runs from Lake Nyasa along Lake Rukwa and Tanganyika and ends to
the western part of Uganda. Volcanics and carbonatites are associated with both the
Eastern and the Western Rift. Lacustrine sediments fill large parts of the rift valleys.
Vegetation
Tanzania vegetation ranges from grasses to shrubs, miombo woodland and montane to
rich forests that contain more than 2,000 plant species. The most typical vegetation is the
dry grassland scattered with thorny scrub and acacia that is found along the Eastern
Plateau, which makes up most of the countrys land area. This area includes open
grasslands, savanna as well as woodlands and comprises the Serengeti Plains. Most of
the Tanzania forest is montane vegetation which is located on the Eastern Arc
Mountains, forming an unbroken range between 50 and 200km inland. A belt of
miombo woodland stretches in southern and western Tanzania and is characterised by
brachystegia, acacia and baobab trees. Along the coast, mangrove swamps are fairly
common, with alpine moors on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro and Meru. These
ecosystems are famous habitats for diverse types of wildlife.
Geology
The general geology of Tanzania comprises mainly of the Precambrian. The Precambrian
rocks underlie most of central and western Tanzania. Archean granite and greenstone rock
assemblages form the central nucleus of the country, the Tanzania Craton. The craton is
surrounded by Proterozoic belts: the Paleoproterozoic Usagaran-Ubendian belt, and the
Mesoproterozoic Kibaran (Karagwe-Akolean). The Neoproterozoic Mozambique Belt occurs
in the eastern part of the country. Parts of the Usagaran-Ubendian belt were rejuvenated
during the Neoproterozoic to early Cambrian Pan-African thermo-tectonic event. Shallow
water sediments of the Neoproterozoic (900-800 million years) Malaragasi Supergroup
underlie parts of western Tanzania. The Karoo basin crosses southern Tanzania in a
northeasterly direction. Mesozoic and younger marine sediments occur along the coast
of Tanzania.
Soils: Soils are strongly influenced by the underlying geology and geomorphic history.
According to the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB), Tanzania has 19
dominant soil types (Table 2.1).
Table 2.1: Major soil types in Tanzania
Major soil group
Acrisols
Area (km2)
81,642.50
Percent
8.63
Andosols
Arenosols
Cambisols
Chernozems
Ferralsols
Fluvisols
Gleysols
Histosols
Leptosols
Lixisols
Luvisols
Nitisols
Phaeozems
Planosols
Regosols
Solonchaks
Solonets
Vertisols
15,904.46
21,926.33
337,353.69
4,734.96
59,852.62
26,223.13
1,486.19
3,791.45
76,738.02
46,888.61
68,706.15
21,001.11
22,190.10
28,197.84
1,196.15
2,750.92
19,626.46
47,497.85
1.68
2.32
35.64
0.50
6.32
2.77
0.16
0.40
8.11
4.95
7.26
2.22
2.34
2.98
0.13
0.29
2.07
5.02
(Source: URT 2012)
The dominant soils by percentage coverage include Cambisols (35.64%), Acrisols

(8.63%), Leptosols (8.11%), Luvisols (7.26%), Ferralsols (6.32%), Vertisols (5.02%) and
Lixisols (4.95%).These dominant soil types and their distribution are described as
follow:i)
Cambisols
Cambisols are the most extensive soils in the country, covering 35.64% of the area. They
occur mainly in the mid-western and south-eastern parts of the country. The parent
material include medium and fine-textured materials derived from a wide range of
rocks, mostly in colluvial, alluvial or aeolian deposits. Cambisols are characterized by
slight or moderate weathering of parent material and by absence of appreciable
quantities of illuviated clay, organic matter, aluminium and/or iron compounds.
Cambisols make good agricultural land to a variety of annual and perennial crops and
are used as grazing land.
ii)
Acrisols
Acrisol are second most extensive soils in the country covering 8.63% of soils. They
occur in Mara, Tabora, Singida, Dodoma, Tanga, Kilimanjaro, Morogoro, Iringa, Mbeya,
Ruvuma, Lindi and Mtwara regions. The Reference Soil Group of the Acrisols holds
10
soils that are characterized by accumulation of low activity clays in an argic subsurface
horizon and by a low base saturation level. Preservation of the surface soil with its allimportant organic matter is a precondition for farming on Acrisols. Adapted cropping
systems with complete fertilization and careful management are required if sedentary
farming is to be practiced on Acrisols.
iii)
Leptosols
Leptosols are the third largest soils in terms of covering 8.11% soils in the country. They
are mostly associated with mountainous landscapes and steep terrains, particularly in
Kagera, Arusha, Singida, Dodoma, Mbeya, Rukwa, Iringa and Lindi regions. Important
land uses are extensive grazing and stone quarrying. They are suitable for forestry and
nature conservation.
iv)
Luvisols
Luvisols are other important soils covering 7.26% of the soils in the country. They occur
in Morogoro, Dodoma, Arusha, Manyara, Kilimanjaro, Tanga and Ruvuma regions.
Luvisols have high activity clays and lack the abrupt textural change of Planosols,
albeluvic tonguing as in Albeluvisols, a mollic surface horizon as in steppe soils, and the
alic properties of Alisols. Luvisols are fertile soils and suitable for a wide range of
agricultural uses.
v)
Ferralsols
Ferralsols are the soils covering 6.32% of the soils in the country. They are scattered
throughout the country and occur mainly in Kigoma, Rukwa, Mbeya, Morogoro, Tanga,
Kilimanjaro, Dar es Salaam and Mtwara regions. Sedentary subsistence farmers and
shifting cultivators on Ferralsols grow a variety of annual and perennial crops. Low
volume grazing is also common and considerable areas of Ferralsols are not used for
agriculture at all. The good physical properties of Ferralsols and the often level
topography would encourage more intensive forms of land use if problems caused by
the poor chemical soil properties could be overcome.
vi)
Vertisols
Vertisols are soils covering 5.02% of the soils in the country. They occur in considerable
proportions in Mwanza, Shinyanga, Mara, Tabora, Kigoma, Coast and Lindi regions.
Vertisols are churning heavy clay soils with a high proportion of swelling 2:1 lattice
clays. They form deep wide cracks from the surface downward when they dry out,
which happens in most years. Vertisols become very hard in the dry season and are
sticky in the wet season. Tillage is difficult, except for a short period at the transition
11
between the wet and dry seasons. The soils are used for cultivation of annual crops such
as rice, maize, cotton, sugarcane and vegetables. They also serve as important source of
natural pasture for extensive grazing. Salt build up and overgrazing are major causes of
degradation in areas with vertisols.
vii)
Lixisols
Lixisols are soils covering 4.95% of soils in the country. They are important soils in
Iringa, Mbeya, Ruvuma, Lindi and Mtwara regions. Many Lixisols are polygenetic soils
with characteristics formed under a more humid climate in the past. Areas with Lixisols
that are still under natural savannah or open woodland vegetation are widely used for
low volume grazing. Tillage and erosion control measures such as terracing, contour
ploughing, mulching and use of cover crops help to conserve the soil. The low absolute
level of plant nutrients and the low cation retention by Lixisols makes recurrent inputs
of fertilizers and/or lime a precondition for continuous cultivation. By and large,
perennial crops are to be preferred over annual crops, particularly on sloping land.
Rotation of annual crops with improved pasture has been recommended to maintain or
improve the soil's organic matter content.Figure 2.3 is the soil map of Tanzania showing
the major soil types and their distribution.
12
Figure 2.3: Major soil groups of Tanzania (Source: MAFC cited in URT, 2012d)
13
2.3
Climate
Rainfall
The rainfall pattern of Tanzania is characterized by two main rain seasons namely the
long rains and the short rains which are associated with the southward and northwards
movement of the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The long rains (Masika) begin
in mid March to end of May, while the short rains (Vuli) begin in the middle of October
and continue to early December. The northern part of the country including area
around Lake Victoria Basin, North-Eastern Highland and the Northern Coast
experience bimodal rainfall regime, whereby the first maximum occur in the period of
March, April and May (MAM) while, the second maximum in the period of October,
November and December (OND). Central, South and Western areas have a prolonged
unimodal rainfall regime starting from November continue to the end of April. Annual
rainfall varies from 550 mm in the central part of the country up to 3,690 mm in some
parts of south-western highlands. Spatial distribution of mean annual rainfall is
presented in Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4: Spatial distribution of mean annual rainfall (1970 2000)

(Source: TMA cited in URT, 2012e)
14
The diversity of topography and other factors give rise to a wide range of average
rainfall from 250 2,000 mm per annum. Most parts of the country receive less than
1,000 mm, except highlands and parts of the extreme south and west where 1,400
2,000 mm can be expected. Average rainfall in the central regions is around 600mm.
Temperature
Temperature in the country varies according to the geographical location, relief and
altitude. Along the coast and in the off-shore islands the average temperatures ranges
between 27C and 29C, while in the central, northern and western parts temperatures
range between 20C and 30C. Temperatures are higher between the months of
December and March and coolest during the months of June and July. In the Southern
highlands and mountainous areas of the north and northeast, temperature occasionally
drops below 15C at night, and in the cold months on June and July sub-zero
temperatures can also be experienced. Spatial patterns of mean annual maximum
(Tmax) and minimum temperature (Tmin) are presented in Figure 2.5 and Figure 2.6
respectively. Distribution of Tmin is identical to that of Tmax, lower values of Tmin are
cantered on south-western and north-eastern highlands. Mbeya, Iringa, Njombe,
Arusha and Kilimanjaro are the coolest regions characterized by mean annual Tmin
values which are less than 15C. Coastal areas including Dar es Salaam, Tanga, Mtwara,
Zanzibar and Pemba are characterized by relatively higher values (>20C) of mean
annual Tmin (Figure 2.5).
15
Figure 2.5: Mean annual maximum temperature (C) (Source: TMA cited in URT,
2012e)
S
Bukoba
Musoma
Mwanza
Lyamungu
Moshi
Kilimanjaro
Arusha
Same
4
Singida
Kigoma
Tabora
Tanga
Pemba
Mlingano
6
Dodoma
Zanzibar
Ilonga
Dar es Salaam
Morogoro
Sumbawanga
Iringa
Mafia
8
Mbeya
9
Igeri
Lindi
Mtwara
10
Songea
11
12
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
Figure 2.6: Mean annual minimum temperature (C)

2012e)
38
39
40
41
(Source: TMA, Cited URT
Winds
The climate of Tanzania is influenced by the monsoon winds, the southerly monsoons
and the northerly monsoons. The southerly monsoons begin in April ending in
September and they are usually strong and predominantly southerly. They are
characterised with lower temperatures (approximately 25oC) and bring the long rains
(Masika) from March to May. The northerly monsoons begin in November ending in
February. These are lighter winds and are predominantly northerly. The northerly
monsoon are characterised with high air temperatures (>30oC) and bring the lighter
rains (Vuli) from November to December.
Humidity
The mean relative humidity in Tanzania for an average year is recorded as 44.6% and
on monthly basis, it ranges from 30% in September and October to 58% in March. The
coastal areas are more humid compared to the rest of the country.
16
2.4
Agro-ecological Zones
Based on altitude, precipitation and temperature pattern, dependable growing seasons

and average water holding capacity of the soils and physiographic features, Tanzania
has been divided into seven agro-ecological zones as presented in Table 2.2.
17
Table 2.2: Tanzania Agro-ecological Zones

Zone
COAST
ARID LANDS
SEMI-ARID
LANDS
PLATEAUX
Sub-Zone and areas

North: Tanga (except
Lushoto), Coast and Dar-esSalaam
South: Eastern Lindi and
Mtwara (except Makonde
Plateau)
North: Serengeti, Ngorongoro
Parks, Part of Masai land
Masai Steppe, Tarangire Park,
Mkomazi Reserve, Pangani
and Eastern Dodoma
Central Dodoma, Singida,
Northern Iringa, some of
Arusha, Shinyanga
Southern: Morogoro (except

Kilombero and Wami Basins
and Uluguru Mts).
Also Lindi and Southwest
Mtwara
Western: Tabora, Rukwa
(North and Centre), Mbeya
North: Kigoma, Part of Mara
Southern: Ruvuma and
Southern Morogoro
Soils and Topography
Altitude
(m)
Infertile sands on gently rolling uplands,

Alluvial soils in Rufiji, Sand and infertile
soils
Fertile clays on uplands and river flood
plains
Under 3000
North: Volcanic ash and sediments. Soils

variable in texture and very susceptible to
water erosion
South: Rolling plains of low fertility.
Susceptible to water erosion. Pangani
river flood plain with saline, alkaline soil
Central: Undulating plains with rocky hills
and low scarps. Well drained soils with
low fertility. Alluvial hardpan and saline
soils in Eastern Rift Valley and lake Eyasi.
Black cracking soils in Shinyanga.
Southern: Flat or undulating plains with
rocky hills, moderate fertile loams and
clays in South (Morogoro), infertile sand
soils in centre
1300-1800
Rainfall
(mm/yr)
North: Bimodal,
750-1200mm
South: Unimodal,
800-1200mm
500-1500
1000-1500
North: Unimodal,
unreliable, 500600mm
South: Unimodal
and Unreliable,
400-600mm
Central: unimodal
and unreliable:
500-800mm
200-600
South-eastern:
Unimodal 600800mm
Western: Wide sandy plains and Rift

Valley scarps
800-1500
Western:
unimodal, 8001000mm
Flooded swamps of Malagarasi and Ugalla

rivers have clay soil with high fertility
Southern: upland plains with rock hills.
Clay soils of low to moderate fertility in
south, infertile sands in North.
1,500-1,700
18
500-2,000
Southern:
unimodal, very
reliable, 9001300mm
Growing
season
OctoberDecember and
March-June
December- April
March- May
December March
November- April
Zone
Sub-Zone and areas
SOUTHERN AND
WESTERN
HIGHLANDS
Southern: A broad ridge of

from N. Morogoro to N. Lake
Nyasa, covering part of Iringa,
Mbeya
South-western: Ufipa plateau
in Sumbawanga
Western: Along the shore of
Lake Tanganyika in Kigoma
and Kagera
NOTHERN
HIGHLANDS
ALLUVIAL
PLAINS
Northern: foot of Mt.

Kilimanjaro and Mt. Meru.
Eastern Rift Valley to Eyasi
Granite Mts Uluguru in

Morogoro, Pare Mts in
Kilimanjaro and Usambara
Mts in Tanga, Tarime
highlands in Mara
Kilombero (Morogoro)
Rufiji (Coast)
Usangu (Mbeya)
Wami (Morogoro)
Soils and Topography
Altitude
(m)
Rainfall
(mm/yr)
Southern: Undulating plains to dissected

hills and mountains. Moderately fertile
clay soils with volcanic soils in Mbeya
1200-1500
Unimodal, reliable,
local rain shadows,
800-1400
December April
South-western: Undulating plateau above

Rift Valleys and sand soils of low fertility
Western: North-south ridges separated by
swampy valleys, loam and clay soils of low
fertility in hills, with alluvium and ponded
clays in the valleys
Northern: Volcanic uplands, volcanic soils
from lavas and ash. Deep fertile loams.
Soils in dry areas prone to water erosion.
1400-2300
Unimodal, reliable,
800-1000
Bimodal, 10002000
November- April
1,000-2,500
Bimodal, varies
widely 1000-2000
NovemberJanuary and
March-June
Granite steep Mountain side to highland

plateaux. Soils are deep, arable and
moderately fertile on upper slopes,
shallow and stony on steep slopes
1,000-2,000
Bimodal and very

reliable 1000-2000
OctoberDecember and
March-June
Cental clay plain with alluvial fans east

and west
Wide mangrove swamp delta, alluvial
soils, sandy upstream, loamy down steam
in floodplain
Seasonally Flooded clay soils in North,
alluvial fans in South
Moderately alkaline black soils in East,
alluvial fans with well drained black loam
in West
750-1200
Unimodal, very
reliable, 900-1300
Unimodal, often
inadequate 8001200
Unimodal, 500-800
November-April
Unimodal, 6001800
December-March
100-1800
<500
2,400-5,000
400-1,000
(Source: Modified from de Pawn, 1984)
19
Growing
season
OctoberDecember and
February- May
December-April
December-March
CHAPTER THREE
SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES
3.1
Overview
The Chapter describes briefly the countrys demography; human settlements; social
services provision; and the state of the economy. In general, it gives account on issues
related to population size, distribution, density, structure and urbanization; human
settlement patterns and land use planning; provision of social services such as
education, health, water, waste management, energy, transport and communication;
and the state of economy.
3.2
Demography
Population Size
According to the 2012 Population and Housing census, Tanzania has a population of
44,928,923 people of which 21,869,990 are males and 23,058,933 are females. The total
population is made of 43,625,354 from Tanzania Mainland and 1,303,569 from Zanzibar,
with an annual average intercensal growth rate (2002-2012) of 2.7% (URT, 2012f). This is
an increase of 10.5 million people and slight decrease in population growth rate by 0.3%
when compared with the 2002 Population and Housing Census (ibid 2012f). Since 1967,
Tanzania has been experiencing rapid population growth, with an increase of
population by 33 million people from 12,313,054 in that year. Figure 3.1 presents the
trend of population growth in Tanzania from 1948 to 2010.
Generally, high population growth and lower economic growth stem from dependent
variables that both contribute significantly to the countrys environmental health. Such
variables in Tanzania include overgrazing, usustainable agriculture coupled with
deforestation.
20
Figure 3.1: Tanzania population trend from 1948 2012 (Source: Modified from URT
2011c and URT 2012f)
Population Distribution
The 2012 Population Census showed that 31,809,808 people, equivalent to 73.7 percent
of the total population lived in rural areas, while 11,378,015 people equivalent to 26.3
percent lived in urban areas (URT, 2012 and 2011b). In terms of regional population
distribution, the estimates showed that, Dar es Salaam Region has the highest
population of 4.36 million equivalent to 10.0 % of the total population, followed by
Mwanza 2.77 million (6.4 %) and Mbeya 2.71 (6.2 %).The higher population in Dar es
salaam is mainly due to emigration from rural areas to major cities. Katavi Region had
a population of 564,604 people, which was the lowest population in Tanzania Mainland.
In Tanzania Zanzibar, the region with highest population is Mjini Magharibi (593,678),
while the lowest population is Kusini Unguja (115,588). The lowest population in Katavi
and Kusini Unguja Regions was mainly due to migration to other regions.
21
Population Density
According to 2012 Population Census, Tanzania is sparsely populated with population
density of 51 persons per square kilometre with variation across regions. Persons are
concentrated in Dar es Salaam and Mjini Magharibi regions with population densities of
3,133 and 2,581 persons per square kilometre respectively. Regions with lowest
population densities are Lindi (13 persons per square kilometre) and Katavi (15 persons
per square kilometre) (URT, 2012).
Population Structure
The majority of Tanzania population is composed of young people aged below 15 years
which is about 44% of the total population. This is followed by population aged
between 15-24 which is about 20%; then population aged between 25-64 years which is
about 33% and lastly population aged between 65 years and above which constitute
about 3% of the total population. The active labour force which constitutes population
aged between 15 and 64 is equivalent to about 53%. Table 3.1 provides detailed
population structure by age group, disaggregating between gender.
Table 3.1: Population by Age Group and sex, Tanzania mainland and Zanzibar
Age
<5
5 14
15 - 24
25 - 64
65+
Grand Total
Males
Females
Total
3,637,982
3,635,850
7,273,832
6,226,418
6,225,206
12,451,624
4,032,029
4,530,846
8,562,875
7,153,574
7,750,167
14,903,741
819,987
916,864
1,736,851
21,869,990
23,058,933
44,928,923
(Source: NBS, Census General Report, 2012)
Percent
16.2
27.7
19.1
33.2
3.9
100
Urbanization
Tanzania annual urban population growth rate is 2.8%, indicating that it is among the
most rapidly urbanizing countries in the region (United Nations Human Settlements
Programme, 2009). The 2002 Population and Housing Census reported increasing trend
of urbanization from 6.4 percent in 1967 to 23.1 percent in 2002. On the other hand, the
census reported that the percentage of people living in rural areas has been decreasing
from 93.6 percent in 1967 to 76.9 percent in 2002.
The average rate of growth for the period of 2002 2012 range from 0.8 5.6%. Regions
dominated by large urban population recorded the highest growth rates ( 4.2% Mjini
Magharibi and 5.6% Dar es Salaam).
22
In urban areas, increasing trend of migration of people from rural to urban areas for
socio-economic reasons leads to the rapid growth of unplanned settlements. The rapid
growth of cities and towns puts an ever increasing pressure on the urban infrastructure
(transport, housing, water, and sanitation, energy, etc). Urban housing is a good
example of the pressures that fast population growth will exert on the social and
physical infrastructure in towns and cities.
3.3
Human Settlements
Human Settlement Pattern/characteristics
In Tanzania Mainland, development of human settlements has not been sustainable

because it has not adequately combined socio-economic development with
environmental conservation and protection and thereby aggravating urban and rural
poverty. Rapid urbanization which has taken place over the last few years has increased
and will continue to increase the proportion of the countrys population living in urban
areas.
This rapid urbanization rate transforms the countrys settlements pattern that is
characterized by numerous scattered small villages to that of large villages, towns,
municipalities and cities. At the same time, the provision of shelter in urban and rural
settlements of Tanzania is inadequate and lacking infrastructure and services. This
situation leads to non-sanitary conditions that threaten the health and productivity of
people in both settings. The majority of urban population lives in unplanned
settlements with limited or no basic services. The unplanned settlements, which make
up 60-70% of Tanzania urban population, have inadequate service levels, tenure
insecurity and poor hygiene and sanitation (United Nations Human Settlements
Programme, 2009). Unplanned settlements have been increasing tremendously to
include developments of hazard-prone lands such as steep slopes, flood plains, river
valleys, and dump sites (URT, 2010). Commercial Business Districts of most urban
centers are also increasingly becoming congested.
Land Use Planning and Delivery
In Tanzania, land plays a great role in the process of poverty reduction through wealth
creation and hence uplifting the wellbeing of the people. Major categories of land
utilization include, land for human settlements, land rented from others for a limited
time period, National Parks, Reserved Areas for special purposes, land under
temporary or permanent crops, land under pastures, wood forest not classified
elsewhere.
23
Plot surveying is one of important steps in land delivery process to customers. In

Tanzania, although the process of surveying villages has been encouraging, the process
of plot surveying has been very slow when compared to demand leading to informal
settlements especially in urban areas. It has been revealed that up to 2009, only a total of
38,710 plots and 623 farms were surveyed and Title Deeds given to farms and plot
owners respectively (URT, 2011a). It also revealed that out of 10,165 villages in the
country, 8,704 (85.6 %) were surveyed and 1,461 villages were not surveyed (14.4 %). In
addition, until the end of 2010, 7,510 certificates and 157,968 customary land titles had
been issued to the surveyed villages and surveyed land in village areas respectively
(URT, 2012g). Table 3.2 shows number of village certificates and customary land titles
issued between 2005 and 2011.
Table 3.2: Number of Village Land Certificates and Customary Land Titles Issued
Between 2005 - 2011 by Region
Region
Coast
Morogoro
Dodoma
Singida
Mtwara
Lindi
Kagera
Shinyanga
Tabora
Mwanza
Mara
Kigoma
Kilimanjaro
Arusha
Tanga
Manyara
Mbeya
Iringa
Rukwa
Ruvuma
Total
3.4
Village Certificates Customary Land Titles

269
4,654
248
803
295
694
368
6,428
577
307
358
1362
386
104
862
62,668
225
0
557
134
268
4,072
190
0
237
2,714
161
156
361
2,057
247
28,526
727
21,467
651
14,265
261
984
262
6,297
7,510
157,692
(Source: URT, 2012g)
Social Services
24
Water Supply
Water supply in Tanzania is carried out by the Government through urban water
authorities in the urban areas and village water schemes in the rural areas. However,
due to inadequate Government capacity to supply water in the whole country, NGOs,
religious institutions, Development Partners and the private sector, have been
supplementing Government efforts by supplying water to communities and sometimes
for their own use. In some areas which have not been reached by any of these services
people fetch water from any nearest natural water source. Some of these people dig or
drill shallow or deep water wells to cater for their water needs.
Access to improved sources of water services (piped water, protected wells and
protected springs) is vitally important to the health and well-being of the population as
the use of un-improved sources (unprotected wells, rivers or streams, ponds, lakes or
dams) is directly related to transmission of waterborne diseases, such as diarrhoea and
dysentery. The existing plan for Tanzania is to increase access to clean and safe water
supply in rural areas from 58.7% to 65%;regional capitals from 84% to 95%; Dar es
Salaam from 55% to 75%; and Districts, small towns and national projects from 53-57%
between 2010-2015 (URT, 2010). By June 2012, water supply coverage was 56.6% in rural
areas, 86% in urban regional headquarters, 53% in district headquarters and small
towns and 67% in Dar es Salaam (URT, 2012h). Figure 3.2 shows percentage of rural
water supply coverage from 2005-2011. Lack of significant improvement in access to
clean and safe water supply in some areas is attributed to drying off of water sources as
a result of drought in various parts of the country, poor management of water schemes,
inadequate competent personnel to operate and maintain water infrastructures and low
level of investments that is not proportionate with the population growth.
25
Figure 3.2: Percentage Coverage of rural water supply between 2005-2011 (Source:
Modified from URT, 2012h)
Energy Services
Tanzania is endowed with diverse energy resources including biomass, natural gas,
hydropower, coal, geothermal, solar, wind and uranium, much of which are not
adequately tapped. Wood fuel accounts for up to 90% of total energy consumption,
with about 2% from electricity and 8% from petroleum products (URT, 2012i). Majority
of Tanzanians use biomass as a source of energy for cooking, and paraffin for lighting.
Electricity is mainly used in urban areas for lighting. National electricity connectivity is
about 14%. The country electricity installed capacity is about 1,219 MW, of which
hydropower comprise 561MW and thermal 658MW. The contribution of non-hydro
renewable energy for power generation is less than 5%. Renewable energy sources are
expected to play significant role in the supply of modern energy services in the country
in future. This is largely due to their availability and suitability in addressing global
concern on environment and the need to make energy services available to rural and
peri-urban areas where most of these resources exist.
At present, renewable energy technologies are being developed, promoted and
disseminated for public consumption. These renewable sources include:- Small scale
hydropower; modern biomass technologies (co-generation, improved stoves, improved
charcoal production, thermal chemical gasification, briquettes and production of liquid
26
biofuels); solar energy; wind for mechanical and electrical power; and development of
liquid biofuels to supplement use of petroleum fuels.
Waste Management
i)
Solid Waste Management
Municipal and district authorities are responsible for management of the solid waste
generated in their area of jurisdiction. With the current decentralization process, this
responsibility is constantly increasing. The Local Government (District and Urban
Authorities) Acts of 1982, details the responsibilities of district and urban councils, for,
among others, solid waste management. Refuse collection capacity of Municipalities
collection services is is too low to cope with the amount of waste generated in the urban
areas. Rapid population growth rate, coupled with the increasing growth of commerce
and trade, has exacerbated the challenge. It is estimated that more than 10,000 tonnes of
municipal solid waste is generated per day countrywide. On average, about 50% of
solid wastes generated in urban areas are collected daily and disposed at dump sites.
Due to inadequate capacity, some of solid wastes are disposed off by burning or
burying and others may end up in drains or dump sites, open spaces, along and across
streets, manholes, water bodies or onto beaches and river banks. In the rural areas solid
wastes are in most cases managed onsite by digging a dumping hole around the
homestead, institutions or public places which when filled up, the wastes are buried or
burnt. In some cases solid wastes are thrown back to nature.
ii)
Wastewater Management
The proper management of liquid waste has become one of the most pressing and
challenging environmental problems in the country. The Urban Water and Sewerage
Authorities (UWASAs) are responsible for managing liquid wastes in the urban areas.
In rural areas, management of wastewater is left to households and is mainly onsite.
Onsite Sanitation: About 90% of households in urban and rural areas use pit latrines
and septic tanks to dispose household wastewater, in particular human excreta. For
urban areas when the pit latrines and septic tanks are filled up, they are emptied by
trucks and disposed in dumpsites, whereas in the rural areas where emptying trucks
are not available, when a latrine or septic tank is filled up is abandoned and a new one
is constructed. Only 12% of Mainland Tanzania households have access to improved,
non-shared latrines, 74% use non-improved latrines, and 14% do not have access to a
latrine1 (URT, 2011; and Tanzania Demographic Health Survey, 2010). Almost one in
The categorisation into improved and non-improved latrines follows World Health Organisation
guidelines (WHO & UNICEF, 2006). Latrines with washable slabs are classified as improved, and those
without washable slabs as unimproved as they do not provide effective prevention against disease.
1
27
five households in rural areas has no access to a toilet (ibid, 2011). For schools, the
national average for Pupil Latrine Ratio (PLR) is 53 pupils per latrine, which when
disaggregated by sex is 1:51 for girls and 1:54 for boys (ibid, 2011). This is far below the
national target of 20 girls and 25 boys per drop hole by 2015 (URT, 2010 and NSGRP,
2010). The statistics clearly show the size of the challenge to provide hygienic and safe
sanitation for all Tanzanians.
Sewerage System: Sewerage systems cover a very small part of the municipalities and
about 10 15 % of the urban population have access to sewerage systems. Table 3.3
presents sewer system connections in municipalities of major towns and cities of
Mainland Tanzania. However, in some cases the systems are not properly maintained
leading to leaking and draining of wastes into the streets. In most municipalities, the
collected sewerage is treated in waste stabilization ponds before being discharged into
receiving water bodies. However, most of the ponds are not working properly, which
means that raw sewerage is discharged into surface and ground water resources.
Improper sewerage maintenance and discharge; and inadequate coverage of sewerage
systems, in most urban areas, contribute to incidences of water borne diseases. A lot still
is desired to improve sewerage system in the country.
Table 3.3: Sewerage System in Tanzania
S/N
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Name of the
City/Municipality
Dar es Salaam
Arusha
Babati
Kagera
Iringa
Kigoma
Lindi
Mbeya
Morogoro
Moshi
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
20
Mtwara
Musoma
Mwanza
Shinyanga
Singida
Songea
Sumbawanga
Tabora
Tanga
Length
in km
188
43
0
0
27.5
0
0
47
31
45.3
Percentage
Coverage
7
16.68
0
0
13
0
0
10
No information
45
0
0
28.20
0
0
36.4
0
18.9
33
0
0
9
0
0
12
0
8.2
16
28
Existing Wastewater Treatment

System
Waste Stabilization pond
None
None
None
None
None
Waste stabilization pond
Waste stabilization pond and
Constructed Wetland
None
None
Waste Stabilization Pond
None
None
None
None
None
Sea outfall
(Source: URT, 2012j)

Education Services
The formal education services in Tanzania are provided by both public and private
sector. It comprises pre-primary and primary education; ordinary level secondary
education; advanced level secondary education (high school); technical and vocational
education; and higher education. School facilities such as good, adequate and well
furnished classrooms; good and adequate sanitation facilities; adequate number of
qualified teachers; adequate and appropriate books and other studying facilities are
among others important elements for a conducive studying environment. Education
services and the environment under which is being provided, is described below.
i)
Pre-primary education
The Pre-primary education is a two-year cycle for children aged between 5 and 6 years
as part of the national formal education system. The majority of the children are
enrolled in government pre-schools; less than 10% are in private pre-primary schools
(URT, 2011g). Slightly fewer girls than boys are enrolled in pre-primary schools. In
2012, boys were 530,425 and girls were 504,304 (Basic Education Statistics in Tanzania
BEST). One of the major challenges for the development of pre-primary education is
inadequate qualified teachers. According to government standards, the pupil-teacher
ratio (PTR) at pre-primary school level should be 1:25. In 2012, for a total enrolment of
1,034,729 children in pre-primary schools, there were only 8,354 teachers giving a PTR
of 1:124.
ii)
Primary Education
Primary education is a seven years cycle starting from Standard I to VII and the
standard age is 7-13 years. In 2012, 3.9% of all primary schools (651 out of 16,331) were
private. The Pupil Classroom Ratio was 1:70 against the norm 1:40. While the average
male Pit Latrine Ratio was 1:56 against the normal of 1:25 and for female pupils was
1:55 against the normal of 1:20. Further, 96.6%of Primary School teachers were
qualified (teachers of Grade A and above) and the Pupil Qualified Teacher Ratio was
1:47, which is against the norm for the country of 1:40.
iii)
Ordinary Level Secondary Education
The Ordinary Level Secondary Education is a four years cycle starting from Form I to
IV, and the standard age is 13-17 years. Tanzania has taken great strides to increase
enrolment in secondary schools with net enrolment ratio increasing from 24.4% in 2008
to 36.6% in 2012 (BEST, 2012). In 2012, there were 65,086 teachers in secondary schools
29
of whom 51,469 or 79.1% were in Government schools and 13,617 or 20.9% are in NonGovernment secondary schools. The number of teachers increased from 52,146 in 2011
to 65,086 in 2012, an increase of 24.8%. The number of secondary schools increased from
4,367 in 2011 to 4,528 in 2012. In 2012 there are 65,086 teachers in secondary schools of
whom 51,469 or 79.1% were in Government schools and 13,617 or 20.9% are in NonGovernment secondary schools. The number of teachers increased from 52,146 in 2011
to 65,086 in 2012, an increase of 24.8%. The number of secondary schools increased
slightly from 4,367 in 2011 to 4,528 in 2012 (3.7%). Despite this impressive achievement,
Government secondary schools still fall short of teachers, classrooms, laboratories and
other necessary school facilities.
iv)
Advanced Level Secondary Education (Higher Secondary Education)
Advanced Level Secondary Education is a two years cycle starting from Form V to VI.
The standard age for this level of education is 18-19 years. In 2010, many students were
enrolled in high schools than in 2001 (from approximately 25,000 to over 78,000
students). However, this increase in student enrolment has not been proportional to
increase of teachers, classrooms and other school facilities.
v)
Technical and Vocational Education
Technical and vocational education is an important education sub-sector in Tanzania; it

provides mid-level human resource, technicians and craftsmen for various industries,
institutions and organizations. Some students finishing Form IV and Form VI join
technical schools for certificate-level or degree-level courses, respectively. In 2011, there
were 240 technical institutions nationally, of which 139 were government-run and 101
were run by the private sector (URT, 2011g). Overall, 85,000 students were enrolled in
technical education (45% were female). The vast majority of students (82%) were in
government institutions compared with 18% in private schools. By field of study, 60%
of students were enrolled in social science, business and law courses, 13% in health and
welfare, 9% in science, 7% in agriculture, and 7% in engineering, manufacturing and
construction.
vi)
Higher Education
In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the number of public and private
universities. There are 27 universities in Tanzania; 11 public and 16 private (URT,
2011g). There has been a sustained uptrend in the number of students in higher
education over the last ten years from less than 31,000 to almost 140,000 students in the
2010/11 academic year, an increase of 350% over that period (URT, 2011h). Threequarters of all enrolments (~104,000) are in government universities and one-quarter in
private institutions (~35,000). Of the government universities, the three largest are the
30
Open University of Tanzania (OUT) with a student population of 44,272, the University
of Dodoma with 19,584 students, and the University of Dar es Salaam with 16,289
students. Most of the private universities are small, with enrolments of less than a
thousand students. The largest private university is St. Augustine University of
Tanzania (SAUT) with 11,134 students. Most of public universities have inadequate
lecture rooms and hostels, leading to overcrowded lecture rooms and hostels. There has
been effort to construct hostels and lecture rooms but this has not been proportional
with the increase of students.
Health Services
The organization of health services; skilled, competent and adequate staff; and the
quality and accessibility of such services are among others important elements for better
standard of health services in a country. Inadequate or lack of such elements diminishes
the quality of life in a country.
Primary Health Care services in Tanzania form the basement of the pyramidal structure
of health care services with a number of dispensaries, health centres and one District
hospital at each district. Health facilities for both public and private include 4,679
dispensaries, 481 health centres distributed throughout the country (URT 2009c).
Geographical accessibility of current primary health facilities is about 90% of people
living within five kilometres (URT, 2009). However, there are still geographical
inequalities in access to health services. There are 55 district hospitals owned by
Government, 13 designated district hospitals owned by Faith Based Organisations
(FBO) and 86 other hospitals at a first referral level (owned by Government, parastatals
and private sector). There are 18 Regional Hospitals, functioning as referral hospitals for
district hospitals; and 8 consultancy and specialised hospitals and one National
Hospital in the country. Local Government Authorities (LGAs) are responsible for
delivering public services in local health services.
Government staffing norms for health facilities exist. When comparing these to existing
level of staffing only 35% of positions are filled with qualified health workers leaving
Tanzania with a severe human resource crisis. There is a severe shortage of human
resource at all levels (URT, 2011a). The shortage is more severe in rural areas.
Disparities in the distribution of human resource exist in various regions including
urban and rural areas as well as at facilities level. The shortage is exacerbated by
expanded population, HIV/AIDS pandemic, malaria, tuberculosis and other diseases.
Shortage of health staff in remote areas is a reason for concern.
Transport Services
31
Transport and Communication sectors are important in the whole process of socioeconomic development and poverty alleviation. Their effectiveness, appropriateness
and adequacy contribute a lot to the successful implementation of socio-economic
activities. Important infrastructure for the transport sector include roads, railways, air
and water transport services, and communication systems. These services are important
in improving human settlements.
Surface Transport (Road and Railway Transport)
Tanzania has a road network of 86,472 km, out of which 12,786 km are trunk roads
making links between regions and with neighbouring countries (URT, 2012g). A total of
5,478 km of trunk roads, which is equivalent to 43% are tarmac. The road network also
comprises of 21,105 km of regional roads linking districts and major cities. Out of the
regional roads, 840 km which is equivalent to 4% are tarmac. Moreover, 52,581 km of
the road network are district roads linking district headquarters and villages.
With regard to road quality, out on 29,369 km of the road network in 2011, showed that
5,727 km of trunk roads (59.1%) were in good condition when compared to 8,364.73 km
(65%) of trunk roads that were in good condition in 2010. This means that, the trunk
roads quality declined by 5.9% in 2011. About 3,096 km of trunk roads, which is
equivalent to 32% were in fair condition when compared to 3,578.53 km, equivalent to
28% that were in fair condition in 2010. Moreover, 862 km of trunk roads, which is
equivalent to 9% were in bad condition when compared to 842.93 km, equivalent to 7%
that were in bad condition in 2010. In addition, 5,976 km, equivalent to 30.4% of
regional roads were in good condition when compared to 11,012 km, equivalent to
53.3% that were in good condition in 2010. Also, about 10,284 km of regional roads,
which is equivalent to 52.2% were in fair condition when compared to 7,069.02 km,
equivalent to 34.2% that were in fair condition in 2010. Lastly, 3,424 km of regional
roads (17.4%) were in bad condition when compared to 2,592 km (12.5%), that were in
bad condition in 2010 (URT 2012f). Table 3.4 presents the state of road network in
December 2011.
Table 3.4: State of road network in Tanzania by December 2011
Type of Road
Good
Condition
(km, %)
Fair
Condition
(km, %)
Bad
Condition
(km, %)
Total
Trunk Roads
Tarmac
4,611 (83%)
624 (11%)
311 (6%)
5,546 (100%)
Weather Roads
1,116 (27%)
2,472 (60%)
551 (13%)
4,139 (100%)
32
Type of Road
Good
Condition
(km, %)
5,727
Fair
Condition
(km, %)
3,096
Bad
Total
Condition
(km, %)
862
9,685
468(58%)
199 (25%)
146 (18%)
813(101%)
Weather Roads
5,508 (29%)
10,085 (53%)
18,871 (99%)
Sub-total
Grand Total
5,976
11,703
3,278
(17%)
3,424
4286
Sub-Total
Regional Roads
Tarmac
10,284
13,380
(Source: URT, 2012g)
19,684
29,369
The railway transport is the second important surface transport system in the country.
It comprises of Tanzania Railways Limited (TRL) and Tanzania and Zambia Railway
Authority (TAZARA). Together, the railways serve 14 of the 25 Regions on the Tanzania
Mainland. They also serve neighbouring countries of Zambia, Democratic Republic of
Congo, Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda and Malawi. Figure 3.3 presents the Tanzania
Railway Network.
33
Figure 3.3: Tanzania Railway Network

Inland Water Ways Transport
In Tanzania, inland waterways transport services are operated in lakes by Marine
Services Company Limited (MSCL), which is a parastatal company and other privately
owned companies in lakes Victoria, Tanganyika and Nyasa. The MSCL is the largest of
all marine service providing companies. The ownership of ports remains under
Tanzania Ports Authority (TPA). Table 3.5 provides statistics and information showing
coverage of MSCL up to December 2011.
34
Table 3.5: Vessels Operated by Marine Services Company Limited (2011)

S/N
1
VESSELS
LAKE VICTORIA
MV Victoria
MV Butiama
MV Serengeti
MV Clarias
MV Nyangumi
(Tanker)
MT Ukerewe
(TUG)
ML Maindi
ML Wimbi
MV Umoja (rail
wagon carrier)
LAKE TANGANYIKA
MV Liemba
MV Mwongozo
MT Sangara
(tanker)
LAKE NYASA
MV Iringa
MV Songea
*N/A : Not Applicable
PASSENGER
CAPACITY
CARGO
CAPACITY
(TONNES)
YEAR
BUILT
1200
200
593
293
N/A*
200
100
350
10
350
1960
1980
1988
1961
1964
N/A
480
1958
N/A
N/A
N/A
120
120
1200
1938
1938
1964
600
800
N/A
200
80
350
1913
1979
1981
139
212
5
50
1974
1973
(Source: URT, 2011i)

Sea Transport
Sea transport in Tanzania caters for transportation of passengers and goods mainly
between the Mainland Tanzania and Zanzibar as well as the rest of the world. Both
public and private-run shipping companies provide these services. Likewise, marine
vessels shuttle along the coast of Mainland and between Zanzibar Islands. Both sea and
inland waterways ports in Tanzania are managed and operated by the Tanzania Ports
Authority (TPA). Its main Indian Ocean ports are Dar es Salaam, Mtwara and Tanga.
Minor sea ports serving coastal traffics include Lindi, Kilwa Masoko, Mafia Island,
Bagamoyo, Pangani and Kwale. The Port of Zanzibar is administered separately by the
Zanzibar Ports Corporation. The Port of Dar es Salaam is one of the key entry points in
35
Tanzania with an annual handling capacity of about 93% of Tanzania port traffic. It is
also an important outlet for the neighbouring landlocked countries.
Air Transport
The air transport services in Tanzania are provided by both the National Airline (Air
Tanzania Company Ltd) and private companies. Tanzania mainland has a total of 368
aerodromes, out of which Tanzania Civil Aviation (TAA) is responsible for the
management and Development of 59 airports in the Mainland Tanzania. The 59 airports
(16% of total) accounts for about 81.5% of air passenger traffic countrywide, 77.3% of all
aircraft movements and 96.7% of all air cargo handled in the country. Tanzania has two
international airports, that is Julius Nyerere International Airport (JNIA) and
Kilimanjaro International Airport (KIA). The overall international and domestic aircraft
movements were 157,752 in 2009/2010 and the passenger traffic in the same year was
2,945,688. The cargo tonnage amounted 22,461 tons in 2009/2010. The condition of basic
airport infrastructures for most airports are poor, with exception of the international
airports and 8 major regional airports, which have asphalt surfaces; the rest of airports
have gravel runways. In addition to the 2 international airports, there are three local
airports (Mwanza, Tanga and Dodoma), which have airfield ground lighting system
that allow for 24 hours operations.
Communication Services
Communication Services include postal, broadcasting and electronic communication. In
2003, Tanzania Communication Regulatory Authority (TCRA) was established for the
purpose of regulating and licensing of postal, broadcasting and electronic
communication industries. The establishment of TCRA marked a new era for the
communications sector in Tanzania that has been characterised by growth in
investments and operations including penetration. The TCRA introduced a Converged
Licensing Framework (CLF) in 2005. Under CLF, TCRA has issued licenses under
Network Facility (NF), Network Services (NS), Application Services (AS) and Content
Services (CS) categories. The operation of Tanzania communication systems are as
follows:Electronic Communications
Electronic communications in Tanzania include telecommunications and internet
communications. Until 1995, telecommunication in Tanzania was mainly fixed and
monopoly of TTCL in Mainland Tanzania and ZANTEL in Zanzibar. TTCL provided
basic telecom services through a Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) using
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) with Basic Rate Interface (BRI) and Primary
Rate Interface (PRI) and broadband services. The TTCL fixed network has national
36
coverage. ZANTEL is also expanding its network on the mainland. Since the
introduction of mobile telephone market in 1995, it is the fastest growing sector, with
more than 17 million subscribers in the population of about 43 million. The major
operators are TTCL, ZANTEL, VODACOM, AIRTEL, TiGO and SASATEL. Apart from
the regular telecommunication services, these companies provide fax, Short Message
Services (SMS), Multi-Media Message Services (MMS), and internet services. Mobile
communication services are operated using erected communication towers belonging to
these mobile communication companies. Some of the towers are located in residential
areas, the possible health and environmental impacts of the radiation from these towers
have not been critically investigated.
Internet sector for a long time since its introduction until recently has remained
underdeveloped due to the limited reach of the traditional fixed-line network and the
lack of international fibre connections. The country relied entirely on satellite links for
its international internet bandwidth, which resulted in high retail prices that were
unaffordable to the majority of the population. International fibre connection was only
introduced towards the end of 2009, and improvement in internet services have now
started to be experienced. In 2010, 46 (67%) Internet Application Services Licensees out
of 68 were operating, 20 of them (30%) were not traced and 2 (3%) were not operational
(TCRA, 2010). Out of 46 operational licensees, 38 (83%) of them provided internet
services; the rest provided other services like voice, network design, data (SMS and
MMS), website hosting and website designing. Majority (82%) of those who provide
internet services do so through fixed wireless. Internet users were estimated at 4.8
million, out of which only 5% used internet services from cyber cafes, 55% from
organizations/institutions, and 40% from households. In terms of penetration, only 11%
of Tanzanians were accessing and using internet services. With the introduction of
international submarine fibre, mobile network operators are well positioned to become
key players in the internet services provision with their extensive national
infrastructure, following the introduction of mobile data and 3G broadband services.
Broadcasting
Broadcasting in Tanzania is largely analogue, with wider population using free-to-air
transmission. However, switching over to digital broadcasting has already started in a
number of regions. Radio broadcasting is by far the most popular media in rural and
semi-urban areas. It covers almost the whole country, while television covers largely
major urban centres. Cable television services are also provided in and they have
changed tremendously since 1994 when cable television licences were granted. Cable
television services in major cities are now broadband with capability of offering a
number of enhanced services on the digital platform. The broadcasting sector in
Tanzania includes both publicly and privately owned radio and television companies
with stations throughout the country.
37
Postal services
Postal services in Tanzania are provided by both public and private companies.
Tanzania Postal Corporation (TPC) is the public company providing postal services
within and outside the country. It offers letter and parcel mailing, greeting cards,
secretarial services, newspaper subscription, and delivery and internet services. It is a
one-stop shopping venue. TPC also offers fast reliable and safe transmission of funds
via money order and postal order. Private companies are providing mainly courier
services within the country and worldwide. Major private operators in the country
include DHL World Express; TNT Express, SKYNET Worldwide Express; and UPS
Worldwide Express.
3.5
State of the Economy
Economic Performance
In 2011, Tanzanias Gross Domestic Product (GDP) amounted to sh. 37.5 trillion at
current prices (URT, 2012g). With the estimated total population of Tanzania Mainland
at 44.5 million people in 2011, based on growth rate of 2.9, the per capita income for
2011 was shs 869,436.3 compared to sh 770,464.3 in 2010, equivalent to an increase of
12.8% in per capita income (URT, 2012g). In average, in 2011 the shares of GDP by kind
of economic activity at 2001 constant prices were agriculture, hunting and forestry
23.4%; fishing 1.4%; industry and construction 22.9%; and services 52.3% (URT, 2012g).
Figure 3.4 presents the percentage shares of GDP by kind of economic activities at
market prices in 2012.
38
Figure 3.4: Shares of GDP by Kind of Economic Activities at Market Prices in 2012 at
2001 Constant Prices (Source: NBS, 2013)
In real terms, the GDP grew by 6.4% in 2011 compared to 7.0% in 2010 (URT, 2012g).
The slowdown in growth was largely attributed to drought conditions in some parts of
the country, which adversely affected agricultural production. On average over the last
decade, the GDP growth rate at constant prices grew from 7.2% in 2002 to 6.4 % in 2011.
However, significant fluctuations were experienced in 2005/06 and 2009 respectively.
The 2005/06 and 2011 fluctuations were due to drought that led crop failure and water
shortage for hydropower production. The 2009 economic fluctuations were due to
global economic crisis that affected most sectors of the economy such as agriculture,
banking and tourism; and drought that led to food shortage and shortage of water for
hydropower production. Studies link the recurrence of drought to climate change (URT
2009d). Figure 3.5 presents the trend of GDP growth rate from 2002-2011.
39
Figure 3.5: Tanzania GDP Growth Rate at Constant Prices 2002-2012

(Source: Modified from URT, 2012)
Inflation
The annual average inflation rate rose from 5.5% in 2010 to 12.7 in 2011 (URT, 2012g).
The annual headline inflation increased from 5.6% for the year ended December 2010 to
8.6 in April 2011 and increased again to 18.7% in April 2012 (URT, 2012g; URT, 2012k).
The rise in inflation rate was driven by continued increase in the average price of oil in
the world market, shortage of rainfall during the fourth quarter of 2010 which affected
crop harvests, increased electricity tariffs along with shortage of electricity, the
depreciation of the Tanzania Shilling as well as the rise in the prices of gas, cooking oil,
rice and sugar. Food shortage in Eastern Africa Region mainly attributed to drought,
particularly in Kenya, Uganda, Somalia and Southern Sudan fuelled food inflation
particularly on rice, sugar and maize. Figure 3.6 depicts the trend on inflation in
Tanzania Mainland for 2002-2012 at 2001 base year.
40
Figure 3.6: Inflation rates & National Consumer Price Index (NCPI), Sept., 2010 =100
(Source: NBS, 2013)
Employment
Based on the 2002 Population and Housing Census, in 2010, the active labour force (1564 years) was projected at 22,661,280 people (URT, 2011b). Agriculture sector remained
the leading employer, whereby more than 70% of people employed were engaged in
agriculture. Those engaged in agriculture were mainly leaving in rural areas relying on
small scale agriculture as their main source of income and livelihood. Although, about
630,000 new jobs were created annually, particularly in the informal sector,
unemployment remains an issue, particularly among the youth (URT, 2010). In urban
areas, informal sector has the potential of being noteworthy in efforts to cushion against
declines in real incomes. The sector in urban areas of Tanzania is the most dynamic in
terms of employment generation and productivity growth and has thrived in spite of
inadequate conditions that prevail in towns.
Poverty
41
The most recent national data available on household income poverty rates are from the
2007 Household Budget Survey (HBS), which were reported in the 2009 PHDR (URT,
2009). The report has an in-depth poverty analysis focusing on household consumption,
income and asset ownership based on HBS 2007 findings. The estimates indicated
significant economic growth since 2000/01, but had not translated into income poverty
reduction. The proportion of the population below the basic needs poverty line declined
only slightly from 35.7% in 2000/1 to 33.6% in 2007, and the incidence of food poverty
fell from 18.7% to 16.6% over the same period. Poverty rates were highest in rural areas;
the overwhelming majority (74%) of poor Tanzanians remained primarily dependent on
agriculture. Since 2007, growth has more or less continued at the same pace except with
a slight dip as a result of the global financial crisis and recurring drought. Rural growth
proxied by growth of the agricultural sector was about 3.6% on average in 2011
declining from 4.2% in 2010 (URT, 2012g). When this growth is contrasted with the
national population growth rate of 2.6%, the change in rural per capita income becomes
small, thus perpetuating poverty in rural areas. Based on past trends and with a slight
slowdown in the growth rate, it is likely that the poverty reduction target under NSGRP
I was not met and the country is off track in meeting the Millennium Development
Goals target of poverty reduction by 2015.
In response, the second phase of NSGRP (2010-2015) seeks to accelerate the reduction of
income poverty by adopting an inclusive growth strategy focused on productivity gains
and decent employment.
42
CHAPTER FOUR
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES
4.1
Introduction
Tanzania is endowed with various environmental resources among others, forest,

water, marine and freshwater bodies and their biodiversity, wetlands, wildlife, land,
renewable energy sources, natural gas and minerals. This Chapter highlights on these
environmental resources with regard to their endowment; distribution; socio-economic
and ecological importance; and exploitation.
4.2
Forests
Tanzania Mainland has a total forest area of 48 million ha (55% of the total land area), of
which 93% is covered by woodlands and only 3% is covered by forests (mangroves,
coastal forests, humid montane forest and plantations) (TFS, 2013). The estimated total
volume of trees is 3,100 million m3, of which 97% of the volume comes from trees of
natural origin and only 3% from planted trees. Almost half of the total volume is found
in protected areas and therefore legally not accessible for extraction. There are three
types of natural forests miombo woodlands, montane forests and mangroves (Plate 4.1).
There are more than 20 million ha of the miombo ecosystem. The montane forests which
are located in the mountainous areas cover about 2 million hectares of land. Mangrove
forests are found along the coastal belt from Mtwara region in Southern Tanzania to
Tanga Region in the North covering more than 115,000 hectares of land stretched over
more than 800 km (Figure 4.1).
About 33% of the land area is under legal protection (protected forests and wildlife
reserves). In total, protected areas cover about 28 million ha. Production forests where
harvesting can be practiced legally cover about 20 million ha (22%) (TFS, 2013). In
addition, the total area of forest plantations in Tanzania is estimated to be around
190,000 - 250,000 ha and about 1.6 million hectares are under water catchment
management. Industrial forest plantation in Tanzania covers about 150,000 ha, of which
about 90,000 ha is under public ownership and about 60,000 ha is under the private
sector. Most important plantation species are various pines (Pinus patula, P. elliottii and
P. caribaea), cypress (mainly Cupressus lusitanica), eucalyptus (many species) and teak
(Tectona grandis). Most of the un-gazetted forest and woodland resources are found in
village land, coastal forests and associated habitats and miombo woodlands.
43
Montane forest
Miombo woodlands
Plate 4.1: Major types of natural forests
Plate 4.2: A scenic view of a forest plantation
44
Mangroves
Figure 4.1: Forest eco-regions of Tanzania Mainland (Source: Burgess et al, 2010)
Forests provide both supporting and regulating ecosystem services as well as wood
and non-wood forest products (NWFPs). The NWFPs consist of game meat,
medicinal plants, fodder, latex, fruits, vegetables, beverages, dyes, fibers, gums,
resins, oils, beeswax and honey, tannins and toxins. The forestry sector contributes
about 4.6% of the GDP. The combined value of forest goods and services has been
estimated as $ 2.2 billion, which is equivalent to 20% of Gross Domestic Product
(2006 prices). The forest and wildlife sub-subsector contributed 2.5% of the national
GDP in 2012 as it was in 2011. It is also estimated that biomass accounts for more
than 90% of the total energy consumption in the country with per capita
consumption of wood fuel being about 1 m.
Forest-based activities generate employment to about 800,000 people per year; half
of them being women. Forests, especially those on steep slopes, have been reserved
as catchment forests to protect land from erosion as well as water sources, vital for
human and animal populations. Also, forests serve as a source of fodder for
livestock and support the development of other sectors (including agriculture and
tourism) through provision of water resources and catchments, maintain
hydrological balance and soil protection, recycle atmospheric gases and provision of
construction materials.
4.3
Water
45
Water resources in the country include rivers, lakes, wetlands, springs, reservoirs
and groundwater aquifers. Some of these are shared with neighbouring countries.
The total area of freshwater cover is 54,337 km2 which is about 6.1% of the total
countrys surface area. The country has a territorial sea of 64,000 km2 (6.4 million ha),
an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) covering an area of about 223,000 km2 (22.3
million ha) and a coastline of about 800 km stretching from Mtwara Region in the
South to Tanga Region in the North.
About 5.7% of the total land area of the country is covered by three important lakes
in Africa, which include Lake Victoria, the second largest freshwater lake in the
world shared with Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda; Lake Tanganyika, the second
deepest lake in the world also shared by Tanzania, Burundi, DRC and Zambia; and
Lake Nyasa shared by Tanzania, Malawi and Mozambique. The percentage of the
area owned by Tanzania is indicated in Table 4.1. Tanzania shares other lakes and
rivers with other countries. These include Lakes Chala and Jipe; and Rivers Kagera,
Mara, Ruvuma and Songwe. The countrys annual renewable water resources are 89
km3 or 2,700 m3 of water per person per year (URT, 2012a). However, more than half
of the country receives, on average, less than 800mm of rainfall per year.
Table 4.1: The countrys main water bodies distribution
Water body
Lake Victoria
Lake Tanganyika
Lake Nyasa
Marine (Territorial sea)
EEZ
Other
inland
water
bodies
(lakes,
minor
lakes, dams, rivers, ponds
and wetlands)
Total Area
(km2)
68,800
32,900
30,800
64,000
223,000
Tanzania share
(area in km2)
35,088
13,489
5,760
64,000
223,000
Percentage
(%)
51
41
20
100
100
5,000
5,000
100
Source: URT, 2011

About half of the countrys surface runoff comes from rivers flowing into the Indian
Ocean (including the Pangani, Rufiji, Wami, Ruvu and Ruvuma rivers); part of the
rest drains into the Lakes Victoria (Simiyu, Mara and Kagera rivers), Tanganyika
(Malagarasi), Rukwa, Eyasi and Manyara as well as the Lake Nyasa (Songwe and
Ruhuhu rivers). The country is divided into nine hydrological zones or river basins
for purposes of water resources management. These basins are: (i) Pangani; (ii)
Wami/Ruvu; (iii) Rufiji; (iv) Ruvuma and Southern Coast, all of which drain into the
Indian Ocean; (v) Lake Nyasa; (vi) Lake Rukwa; (vii) Lake Tanganyika; (viii) Lake
Victoria; and (ix) the Internal drainage basin (Figure 4.2).
46
Figure 4.2: River basins of Tanzania (MoW, 2012)

Renewable groundwater resources are estimated at 40 km3/yr, of which 36 km3/yr
are considered to overlap between surface water and groundwater (MoW, 2013).
Groundwater is a viable source of domestic, livestock, irrigation, and industrial
water for many areas in the country. In other places which have persistent water
shortages such as Shinyanga, Coast, Mwanza, Arusha, Mara, Tabora, Dodoma,
Singida, Mtwara and Lindi Regions, it is a better and secure alternative to surface
water. Domestic supply (both urban and rural) is a largest user of groundwater and
consumes 755,000 m3 per day (60% of total use) against demand of 0.8 to 3.4 Million
Cubic Metres (MCM)/day (IWMI, 2010). Irrigation for sugarcane, flowers,
vegetables and fruits such as grapes consumes 130,000 m3 of water/day (10%) while
mining and industrial use consume about 30,000 m3 per day (2%) (Table 4.2).
Livestock and others, such as aquaculture use, about 350,000 m3 per day (28%). Total
groundwater use is about 1.265 MCM/day which is about 12% of available
groundwater resources (11 MCM/day).
47
Table 4.2: Estimates of groundwater use in Tanzania

Sector
Amount used per day

(m3)
Urban
130,000
Rural
625,000
Agriculture
130,000
Industrial and mining
30,000
Others (livestock, dryland fishing)
350,000
TOTAL
1,265,000
Source: IWMI, 2010
% of total use
10
50
10
2
28
100
Water is an important input into Tanzanias economy. Water is used in agricultural

production through irrigation and processing in agro-industries. Water sector
contributed 0.3% of the national GDP in 2012 as it was in 2011. Water is also an input
into industrial production. Hydropower contributes about 35% of the countrys
power generation (URT, 2012a). Adequate water flows support countrys forests,
grasslands, and coastal resources, which provide provisioning services (such as food,
fodder, fuelwood, timber and other products) and other services (climate regulation,
cultural and supporting services). Water which flows in national parks and
protected areas support the tourism sector, a key foreign exchange earner. Other
important support services provided by water include fishing in both freshwater
and marine environments, and paving way to improve community livelihoods.
Freshwater fisheries account for 85% of the total countrys fish production whereas
the remaining 15% is from the marine waters.
4.4
Freshwater and marine resources
Freshwater Systems
Considerable freshwater resources exist in Tanzania and they include lakes, rivers,
springs, man-made reservoirs, natural ponds and underground sources. The unique
biodiversity of these freshwater systems form the basis for economic survival and
livelihoods of riparian communities.
Lake Victoria: Lake Victoria is the second largest lake in the world. It is ecologically
sensitive and important biodiversity zone providing habitat for 350 endemic fish
species, as well as 31 amphibian, 28 reptilian and 44 mammalian species and several
plant species. Cichlids constitute the important fish family of the lake of which 90%
of the species are endemic. The main species in Lake Victoria are Nile Perch, Tilapia,
Haplochromines and sardines. The dominant terrestrial vegetation in the Tanzania
48
section of the Lake comprises dry forest and woodland. Much of the lake margin is
swampy and vegetated mainly by the Cyanobacteria Cylindrospermopsis and
Planktolynhgya, and the diatom Nitzschia. Zooplankton consists of abundant
copepods and cladocerans.
Lake Tanganyika: Lake Tanganyika is the second deepest water reservoir in the
world (1,470 m depth). Of the 214 native fishes in the Lake, 176 are endemic. Out of
the endemic genera, 30 are cichlids and 8 are non-cichlid fishes. In Lake Tanganyika,
the main fisheries consist of Lake Sardines (Dagaa): Stolothrissa tanganicae,
Limnothrissa miodon and their main predator Lates stappersii, L. marie and L. microlepis.
Lake Tanganyika is also rich in species flock of endemic gastropods (Family:
Thiaridae) and a total of 62 mollusc species has been recorded.
Lake Nyasa: The most well known feature of Lake Nyasa is the species-rich
assemblage of fishes whose diversity surpasses that of any other freshwater fish
community in the world. There are more than 500 endemic species of fish belonging
to the cichlid family. The main species include Opsaridium microcephalum (Mbelele),
Opsaridium microlepis (Mbasa), Engraulicypris sardella (Dagaa/Usipa), Bagrus
meridionalis (Mbufu), Clarias garieppinus (Kambale) and Bathyclarias spp (Ndika). The
Lake also lies within a flyway of migratory birds that feed along its shore on their
route between Africa and Europe.
Other freshwater bodies include Lake Rukwa, Lake Manyara, Lake Natron, Lake
Eyasi, Lake Jipe, Lake Chala, Mtera dam and Nyumba ya Mungu Dam.
Coastal and Marine Systems
Tanzania coastline is characterized by diverse coastal and marine ecosystems such as
coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangroves, sandy beaches, rocky shores, numerous islets
and terrestrial coastal forests which offer a diverse of ecosystem goods and services
to the communities. In addition the coastal and marine systems of Tanzania are
characterised by unique habitats with prominent areas of endemism and species of
special concern (rare, endemic as well as threatened species) such as sea turtles,
dugongs and coelacanths. There is a wide range of important and valued species,
including 150 species of corals in 13 families, 80,000 of invertebrates, 1,000 species of
fishes, 5 species of marine turtles and many seabirds.
Mangrove forests: mangrove forests area is about 115,500 ha and stretch along the
coastal districts from boarder with Kenya (North) to that of Mozambique (South),
with high concentration of mangrove and other biological resources, 53,000 ha in the
Rufiji River Delta (largest single mangrove forest in the Eastern Africa). There are
nine species of mangroves found in Mainland Tanzania as shown in Table 4.3. Of
these, Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata and Ceriops tagal are predominant
while Xylocarpus mulleccensis is rare. All mangrove forests in Mainland Tanzania are
gazetted as forest reserves. Mangroves provide an alternative source of food (herbs,
honey, fodder), income and employment for the local fishing communities who use
different mangrove species for fuelwood, fences, house construction and boat
49
building, for making fish traps, and for tannin and for medicinal purposes.
Commercial fisheries of crabs and prawns as well as fish are directly dependent on
the mangrove ecosystems. Consequently, the Rufiji Delta is the most important
prawn fishing grounds in Tanzania, from which about 80% of the commercial prawn
is obtained.
Table 4.3: Mangrove species found in Tanzania Mainland (MNRT, 2008)
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
ix)
Mangrove specie
Avicennia marina
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza
Ceriops tagal
Heritiera littoralis
Lumnitzera racemosa
Rhizophora mucronata
Sonneratia alba
Xylocarpus granatum
Xylocarpus molluccensis
Local name
Mchu
Msinzi / Muia
Mkandaa/ Mkandaa mwekundu
Msikundazi / Mkungu
Mkandaa dume / Kikandaa
Mkoko
Mililana/ Mpira / Mtonga
Mkomafi
Mkomafi dume
Coral reefs: Coral reefs are located along 600 km of the countrys continental shelf,
which is 8-10 km wide along most of the coast. However, between Tutia (south of
Mafia Island) and Songo Songo, it reaches a width of 35 km (Figure 4.3). Fringing
reefs and patch reefs predominate. It is estimated that 25% of all marine species and
65% of marine fish reside within coral reefs. These reefs also reduce beach erosion
and serve as habitat, nursery, feeding and spawning grounds for many commercial
and non-commercial species. Thus they constitute the basis for food security and
income for many coastal people.
Marine fish resources: Marine fisheries are predominantly subsistence and artisanal
and concentrate in shallow waters (less than 30m). Fish catches are dominated by a
few species groups, namely parrot fish, rabbit fish, sardines and mackerels, which
together account for over 50% of the total landed catch. Main commercial marine
species are sardine, tuna and Tuna-like species, which together forms 30-50% of the
total fish landing. Other fish species being landed include:- Emperors/Scavenger
(Changu), Snappers (Fuatundu), Parrotfish (Pono), Carangidae (Kolekole), Rabbit fish
(Tasi), Tuna (Jodari), Kingfish (Nguru), Mackerel (Vibua), Sharks (Papa), Rays (Taa),
Lobster (Kamba kochi), shrimps (Kamba miti), Sardines (Dagaa) and Octopus (Pweza).
In the year 2012/13, marine fish catch was about 50,079 tonnes annually which
constitute about 14% of the total fish catch in the country.
50
Figure 4.3: Distribution of mangrove forests and coral reefs along the coast of
Tanzania (MNRT, 2008)
51
Marine mammals: Marine mammals common in Tanzania are members of the orders
Cetacea (Whales and Dolphins) or Sirenia (Dugong). The dugong (Dugong dugong)
commonly known as sea cow are found in shallow waters and graze on sea grasses.
At one time considered locally extinct in Tanzania, now they are very rare, with only
a few sightings particularly in the Rufiji-Mafia-Kilwa area, at around Muheza and
probably in Mnazi Bay, for this reason it is listed on IUCN Red List as Vulnerable.
Information on its distribution and abundance in the country is scarce and is mainly
in the form of anecdotal reports, incidental sightings and capture. Eight species of
dolphin have been recorded (URT, 2008), however, the most common species are the
Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops aduncus), the Indo-Pacific humpback
dolphin (Sousa chinensis) and the spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris). Areas with
significant population of dolphins include Latham Island; Mafia Island Marine Park;
Moa Bay in Nkinga; Rufiji Delta; and Mnazi Bay. Few sightings are reported around
Dar es Salaam Marine Reserve, Mzinga Creek at the Harbour entrance and Saadani.
Marine mammals form one of the tourist attractions and therefore contribute to
national income.
Seagrass: Seagrass ecosystems act both as shelter for juvenile animals and as a
foraging and nursery for many animal species thus contributing in increase in
biodiversity of both plants and animals. They also protect coral reefs from turbid
waters and beaches from wave erosion. Seagrass beds are widely distributed from
high intertidal to shallow subtidal areas. Of the 58 species of seagrasses reported
worldwide, only thirteen are found in the country. These include Cymodocea
rotundata, Cymodocea serrulata, Enhalus acoroides, Halodule wrightii, Halodule uninervis,
Halopohila minor, Halopohila ovalis, Halopohila stipulacea, Halopohila wrightii,
Syringodium isoetifollium, Thalasia ciliatum and Thalasia hemiprichi. Extensive sea grass
beds are found in shallow water (0-25m) and sheltered areas of the coast around
Mnazi bay, Kilwa, Rufiji, Ruvu, Moa and Mafia Island. In Dar es Salaam Marine
Reserve area, it is estimated that about 1,217.1 ha or 35% of the reserve area is
covered by seagrass.
Sea Turtles: Out of the seven species of sea turtles found in the world, five of these
are found in Tanzania. These are the green (Chelonia mydas)(Kasa kawaida), hawksbill
(Eretmochelys imbricata) (Ngamba), olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) (Kigome),
Loggerhead (Caretta caretta) (Duvi) and leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) (Noa)
turtles. All five species feature on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (IUCN,
1996), with the hawksbill and leatherback listed as critically endangered and the
green, loggerhead and olive ridley as endangered. Two of the species green and
hawksbill nest in Tanzania. The green turtle is the most common and widespread
species in Tanzania. While low density nesting has been reported along the
Mainland coast from Tanga in the North to Mtwara in the South, the most
concentrated numbers of nests appear to be on the off-shore of Mafia Island and the
Songo Songo archipelago. Hawksbills are also widely distributed but are less
abundant. Nesting has only been recorded in low numbers on small remote offshore
islands off Dar es Salaam, Shungi-mbili island in northwest Mafia and the Songo
Songo archipelago. Turtle shells are sold at local markets and turtles, and their eggs
52
have been used for domestic consumption and a source of income by local coastal
communities.
Seaweed: Seaweeds display a very high level of biodiversity due to geographical
location, tropical temperatures and rocky shores. This permits the presence of typical
tropical seaweed genera, which are dominated by Red Seaweeds (Rhodophyta).
Presence of many rocky shores, which provide stable substrata for seaweed
attachment, especially for macrophytic seaweeds, such as Sargassum. Although
seawater temperatures in Tanzanias marine waters show a relatively low level of
fluctuation throughout the year, the temperature drop by only a few degrees during
the coolest months of May to August, seems to make a difference. Some seaweed
species show their strongest presence (and highest standing crops) during these
relatively cooler months (e.g. Colpomenia sinuosa and Hydroclathrus clathratus).
Seaweed provides an alternative source of income to local communities. They are
used for food, soap making and medicinal purposes.
Coastal and sea birds: A wide variety of coastal and sea birds are found in the
country, particularly in mangrove forests, intertidal flats and on rocky cliffs. Open
water area such as Mafia channel and the Indian Ocean, provide rich feeding ground
for seabirds such as the Madagascar Pratincole (Glareola ocularis), Roseate Tern
(Sterna dougallii), Sooty Tern(Sterna fuscata), Gull-billed Tern (Gelochelidon nilotica),
Saunderss Tern (Sternula saundersi), Crab Plover (Dromas ardeola), Lesser Crested
Tern (Sterna bengalensis), Greater Crested Tern (Thalasseus bergii), Caspian Tern
(Sterna caspia), Common Tern (Sterna hirundo) and Masked Booby (Sula dactylatra)
(Plate 4.3). Important Bird Areas (IBAs), designated by Birdlife International through
a widely accepted scientific process, provide an indication of priority bird
conservation areas. Seven IBAs have been designated along the coast and these
include Tanga North; Tanga South; Dar es Salaam; Rufiji Delta; Mafia Island; Mnazi
Bay; and Latham Island.
a) Madagascar pratincole b) Roseate Tern

(Glareola ocularis)
dougallii)
(Sterna
c) Crab Plover
ardeola)
(Dromas
Plate 4.3: Some of the coastal and sea birds

Marine Protected Areas
The Tanzania Mainland has a total territorial sea of 32,000 km2 of which, the gazetted
area as Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) is 2,173 km2 that is about 6.5%. These areas
include three (3) Marine Parks namely, Mafia Island Marine Park (MIMP); Mnazi
53
Bay and Ruvuma Estuary Marine Park (MBREMP); and Tanga Coelacanth Marine
Park (TACMP); and fifteen (15) Marine Reserves including Island of Mbudya,
Bongoyo, Pangavini, Funguyasini, Inner and Outer Sinda, Inner and Outer
Makatube, and Kendwa that are in Dar es Salaam; Nyororo, Mbarakuni and
Shungimbili Marine Reserves in Mafia; Kwale, Kirui, Mwewe and Ulenge, and
Maziwe Marine Reserves in Tanga. The details of the size are as shown in the Table
4.4.
Table 4.4: Protected Areas Gazetted under the MPRU Framework
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
4.5
Name of the Protected Area
Mafia Island Marine Park (MIMP)

Mnazi Bay Ruvuma Estuary Marine Park (MBREMP)
Mbudya Island Marine Reserve
Bongoyo Island Marine Reserve
Pangavini Island Marine Reserve
Funguyasini Marine Reserve
Maziwe Marine Reserve
Kendwa Island Marine Reserve
Inner and Outer Sinda Island Marine Reserve
Inner & Outer Makatube Island Marine Reserve
Shungumbili Island Marine Reserves
Nyororo Island Marine Reserve
Mbarakuni Island Marine Reserve
Kirui Island Marine Reserve
Ulenge Island Marine Reserve
Mwewe Island Marine Reserve
Kwale Island Marine Reserve
Tanga Coelacanth Marine Park (TACMP)
Grand Total of Area of Protected Areas To date
Area
covered
by the
MPA
(km2)
822
650
14.22
9.15
2.13
22.90
4.50
5.30
1.80
7.78
4.20
21.0
3.80
36.10
3.16
0.40
12.13
552.17
2,172.74
Wetlands
Wetlands cover about 88,300 km2, equivalent to approximately 10% of the total
surface area of Tanzania Mainland, of which 58% are lakes and swamps (Figure 4.4).
Wetlands in Tanzania can be classified broadly under six categories, namely:highland headwater wetlands, freshwater estuarine wetlands, internal drainage
wetlands, rivers and inland floodplain wetlands, man-made wetlands and marine
and coastal wetlands.
54
i)
Highland headwater wetlands: These wetlands are usually located at the

spring sources of river systems. They are usually associated with
rainforests and/or high annual rainfall. The waters of such wetlands are
characterized by low temperature, clear water with little dissolved
oxygen. The water quality depends on the nature of the geology of rock
underlying the area. However, in most cases the water is clear and
minimal sediments and less polluted. Examples include the North-Eastern
and South-Western highland systems of Tanzania.
ii)
Freshwater estuarine wetlands: These are wetlands formed along lake shores
up to 6 meters depth. Such wetlands are associated with meandering of
rivers (due to low gradients) depositing sediments as they enter the lakes.
These wetlands cover approximately 305 km of Lake Nyasa, 650 km of
Lake Tanganyika and 142 km of Lake Victoria. The water quality of these
wetlands reflects the pathway for which the river has traveled through
and usually brings in more freshwater than that at the lake. Such rivers
bring with them nutrients from distant areas which are sources of food to
the fish in the lakes. Freshwater estuarine wetlands are important wildlife
habitats to fish, birds mammals, reptiles, amphibians among others.
Example of such environments include water estuaries of several rivers
entering Lake Victoria (Simiyu, Grumeti, Mara and Kagera river mouths);
Lake Tanganyika (Malagarasi river mouth); and Lake Nyasa (Kiwira,
Ruhuhu and Songwe river mouths).
iii)
Internal drainage wetlands: These wetlands are those falling under the
internal drainage system in which annual rainfall is very low ranging
from about 400mm to 600mm with high evaporation. During the rain
season runoff collects within the catchment and water is retained in low
depressions. Due to high evaporation very little water remains behind
with high concentrations of caustic soda. Sometimes the concentration of
caustic soda becomes excessive and the water becomes useful for salt
making and less so for other uses as domestic water supply or drinking
for livestock. Such extreme situations are observed in Lake Balangida
(6,000 ha), Balangida Lelu (3,000 ha) and Kitangiri (36,000 ha). Other
wetlands include:- Lake Eyasi (116,00 ha), Lake Natron (85,500 ha), Lake
Manyara (42,300 ha), Lake Tarangire (60,000 ha), Lake Babati, Lake
Singidani and Lake Rukwa (2,650 km2). In these wetlands only Lakes
Manyara, Tarangire and Natron are protected and the rest are general
land.
iv)
Rivers and inland floodplain wetlands: Inland flood plains comprise of those
plains usually formed in low altitudes whereby river floods seasonally
during rainy seasons. These are areas where deposition takes place and
layers of soil profiles are formed in various seasons and years. The soils
here are very fertile and there are many flood plains including those of
Rufiji, Wami, Kilombero, Usangu, Pangani, Malagarasi, Ruvu, Kagera and
55
Katavi. Permanent and seasonal freshwater swamps and marshes

associated with these floodplains covers about 2.7 million ha. The largest
in this category is Rufiji-Ruaha Rivers system, which has wetlands
covering 695,000 ha.
v)
Man-made wetlands: There are over 85,000 ha of man-made wetlands in

Tanzania. The most important impoundments include two large
reservoirs of Mtera (610 km2) and Nyumba ya Mungu (180 km2). Three
mediumlarge reservoirs include Hombolo (1,537 km2), Kidatu (10 km2)
and Pangani plus many small reservoirs. Almost all the artificial wetlands
are not protected except for the partial protection provided to the
Nyumba ya Mungu reservoir as a Game Controlled Area. These manmade wetlands provide hydropower as well as habitats for various
wildlife. The dynamics of flora and fauna is a function of the fluctuation
of water in the dam. For example, Mtera dam is an important habitat for a
variety of water birds including Great White Egrets, Marabou Stork,
White-faced Ducks. Also fishes are available, while Nyumba ya Mungu is
an important breeding site for certain fish and bird species. Important
birds are White Breast Comorant, Kittliz, Sandplover, Gull-billed Tern
and African Skimmer.
vi)
Marine and coastal wetlands: These wetlands cover about 200,000 ha

comprising of areas where rivers enter the Indian Ocean usually forming
deltas. These wetlands are predominantly covered by mangroves. In these
environments there is a salt gradient or a salt intrusion as the fresh water
body meets the saline sea water. The location and intensity of this
phenomenon depends on the season of the year including sea tides and
seasonal rainfall. Main rivers which form marine and coastal wetlands in
Tanzania are:- Rufiji, Ruvu, Matandu, Pangani, Wami, Lukuledi,
Mbwemkuru and Ruvuma. Among these Rufiji Delta is the most
extensive accounting for 50% of all mangroves in the country and
ecologically/biologically important.
There are four (4) Ramsar sites which constitute 5.5% of the total land. The sites
represent unique biodiversity and ecology and these are:i) Malagarasi/Muyovozi: This is located in the administrative regions of
Kigoma, Shinyanga and Tabora, in northwest Tanzania covering an area of
3.25 million ha. The basin has five main rivers, the Malagarasi, Muyovozi,
Kigosi, Gombe and Ugalla, which drain an area of 9.2 million hectares
(about 30% of the Lake Tanganyika catchment system). The core area of
the site comprises lakes and open water in the dry season covering about
250,000 ha, together with a permanent papyrus swamp of about 200,000 ha.
ii) Lake Natron Basin: This is situated in Ngorongoro and Monduli districts
within the Arusha region, in northern Tanzania contiguous with the
56
Kenyan border, covering an area of 224,781 ha. It is the only regular

breeding area for the 2-4 million lesser flamingo Phoeniconaias minor in East
Africa (Plate 4.4). This population represents over 75% of the world
population of this species. In addition, the site supports over 100,000
individuals of other waterbird species, including large numbers of migrant
species. The fish species Oreochromis alcalicus is endemic to Lake Natron.
Plate 4.4: A flock of lesser flamingos in Lake Natron in

northern Tanzania which is the most important
breeding site constituting three-quarters of the world
population
iii) Kilombero valley floodplain: The site is located in the two districts of
Kilombero and Ulanga in Morogoro Region covering an area of 596,908 ha.
The area is rare and unique because it comprises a myriad of rivers, which
make up the largest seasonally freshwater lowland floodplain in East
Africa. The valley contains almost 75% of the world's population of the
wetland dependent antelope - Puku (Kobus vardoni).
iv) Rufiji-Mafia-Kilwa: The site covers an area of 59,697 ha and it contains a
large diversity of wetland types, which are ecologically interlinked,
including the threatened estuarine, coastal and marine wetland habitats. It
harbours the IUCN red-listed marine turtles Chelonia mydas, Eretmochelys
imbricata, Caretta caretta, Dermochelys coriacea, Lepidochelys olivacea, as well as
the aquatic mammal Dugong dugong. The wetland is important for
maintaining mangrove and coral communities. Songo-Songo has a highly
diverse and extensive coral assemblage with records of 49 genera of hard
and 12 genera of soft corals. The wetland regularly supports over 20,000
water birds (feeding, resting and roosting site), especially during the
57
migration period. The wetland provides habitats (breeding, nursery,

feeding ground, and shelter) to commercially important coastal and marine
species of fish (e.g. finfish) and invertebrates.
Figure 4.4: Map illustrating distribution of wetlands in Tanzania (URT, 2007)

Wetlands provide a wide range of goods and services including water storage,
distribution, filtration and purification; provision of natural products such as water,
medicine, pasture, clay and plant materials; erosion control and sedimentation; flood
control; support for agriculture and fisheries; hydropower supply; provision of
58
habitat for wildlife; and recreation. Wetlands are mainly used for agriculture,
livestock grazing, and fishing activities. Over 1,164,000 ha of wetlands are recorded
as suitable for crop production, of which 450,000 ha are under active cultivation with
rice being cultivated in 406,000 ha. Other crops grown in wetlands are sugarcane,
cassava, potato, tea and tobacco. Wetlands offer green pastures and water for
livestock, especially during the dry season when the demand is high. Population
increase and long-term drought forces pastoralists to move into the most sensitive
wetland areas. Increasingly, overstocking has been claimed to be a threat to wetland
ecosystems, as it has greatly contributed to the degradation of potential wetlands
such as the Usangu basin in the north and Kilombero in the east.
4.6
Land
Tanzania possesses 94,508,700 ha of territorial area, out of which nearly 89 million ha

is land and the remaining is covered by water. About 44 million ha are classified as
suitable for agricultural production and only 24% of arable land is being utilized.
Land under medium and large-scale farming is 1.5 million ha and land under
smallholder farmers is about 8.6 million ha (URT, 2011). Generally, the urban areas
occupy 2% of the total geographical area even as they are now occupied by close to
30% of population. Rural areas are constituted of about 12,000 registered villages.
The rest of the land is used according to local and national needs such as settlements
(villages and urban areas), ranching and agricultural production.
About 70% of the land is considered to be Village Land supporting 74% of the
population (farmers and pastoralists), 28% Reserved land (forests, national parks,
game reserves) and 2% general land (mainly urban) supporting 20% of the
population. Between 2000 and 2010, population living in urban areas increased from
around 22% to around 26% (meaning a decrease of the share of rural population
from around 78 % to 74 %).
By 2009, only a total of 38,710 plots and 623 farms were surveyed and Title Deeds
given to plot and farms owners respectively (URT 2011a). It was also revealed that
out of 10,165 villages in the country, 8,704 (85.6 %) were surveyed and 1,461 villages
were not surveyed (14.4 %). In addition, until the end of 2010, 7,510 certificates and
157,968 customary land titles had been issued to the surveyed villages and surveyed
land in village areas respectively (URT 2012g). Only about 2% of rural land and 20%
of urban land carries titles, or has a potential to have titles (i.e. it is planned)
(Kironde, 2009). Some 80% of land holdings in urban areas are held informally
without any formal title. The main land-use types in Tanzania Mainland are as
shown in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Main land uses in Tanzania
Land Use Type
Area (ha)
(2002)
% of total
land area
59
Typical features
Settlements,
agriculture and
mining
Scattered
settlements,
agriculture and mining
Grazing, hunting
and non-woody
product harvesting
Woody and nonwoody production
Water
uses
161,572
199,717
98,289
155,320
resources
Conservation
63,329
273,840
Dominated by high population

densities, farming, livestock keeping,
17
utilization of natural vegetation and
mining
Low population density, low intensity
of human activities such
21
as farming, livestock keeping and
utilization of natural vegetation
Very low population densities but
10.3
used for grazing, hunting or harvesting
of non-woody products.
No permanent human settlements
but used for harvesting of non-woody
16.3
including ecological functions and
woody products
Fishing, transportation, water supply
6.7
and conservation in different types of
water bodies
Protected areas including both
28.8
wildlife and forest areas
Source: URT, 2009
Land is a primary asset for survival and development. The importance of land in the
national development is underlined by the fact that around 80% of the population
derives their livelihoods and incomes from farming, livestock production and
related activities.
4.7
Wildlife
Tanzania has over 310 mammal species and is the fourth in Africa with the highest
number of mammals. Its species richness of birds, plants, amphibians and reptiles, is
among the highest in Africa. The country has estimated 4 million wild animals.
Tanzania accounts for about 20% of species of Africas large mammal population.
Furthermore, the country possesses the critical endemic species of flora and fauna,
such as the Sanje Mangabey monkey (Lophocebus kipunji) in Udzungwa Mountains.
Others include Shrews (Peters musk Shrew, Amani Musk Shrew, Uluguru Musk
Shrew, Usambara Musk Shrew, Tanzania Mouse Shrew and Uluguru Forest Shrew);
Fruit-eating bats (Pemba flying fox); Insect-eating bats; (Tanzania Woolly bat, Dares-Salaam Pipistreslle); Primates (Sanje Crested Mangabey (endemic subspecies),
Uhehe - Gordons Bay Colobus, Zanzibar Colobus); and Rodents (Mt. Kilimanjaro
Mole Rat, Swynnertons Bush Squirrel).
The country also has over 1,100 species of bird, including nearly 100 species of
hawks, eagles, vultures and owls. The biological diversity and degree of endemism
consist of primates (20 species and 4 endemic), antelopes (34 species and 2 endemic),
60
reptiles (290 species and 75 endemic), amphibians (40 endemic) and plants (around
11,000 species including many endemic) (URT, 2007). Statistics indicate that of the
10,000 plant species so far recorded in Tanzania, over a quarter are endemic, which
include 40% of the world's wild coffee varieties, and about 80% of the famous
African violet flowers. Animal species which are also endemic include 31 species of
amphibians, 18 species of lizards, 9 species of snakes and 10 species of birds. Some
examples of wild animals are shown in Plate 4.3.
The major wildlife areas in Tanzania include the National Parks, the Ngorongoro
Conservation Area Authority (NCAA), Game Reserves, and Game Controlled Areas
(Table 4.6, Table 4.7 and Figure 4.6) accounting for about 24% of Tanzanias total
land. The country has 17% of her surface area devoted to wildlife in protected areas
where no human settlement is allowed and 6.4% wildlife co-exists with humans. A
total of about 570 Forest Reserves cover around 15% of the countrys surface areas, of
which 3% overlap with Protected Areas devoted to wildlife conservation.
Table 4.6: Categories of Protected Areas under wildlife conservation
S/N Category
1
2
3
4
National Parks
Game Reserves
Game Controlled Areas
Ngorongoro Conservation
Area Authority
No
Area
(ha)
16
28
44
1
5,369,050
10,798,707
5,856,502
830,000
%of
total
area
4.4
13
5.5
0.9
22,854,259
23.8
Total
Source: MNRT, 2010
61
Table 4.7: Key features of the Tanzania National Parks and Ngorongoro Conservation Area
1.
Name
Arusha
2.
Gombe Stream
3.
Area ( km )
552
Location (Region)
Arusha
Important Habitats
Highland Montane forest
Evergreen Forests, Open woodland, and
grassland.
Important Fauna
Migratory Birds, Maasai Giraffe, Black and White Colobus, Red forest Duiker
52
Kigoma
Katavi
2,253
Rukwa
Miombo woodland, Acacia trees
4.
Kilimanjaro
1,668
Kilimanjaro
5.
Lake Manyara
599
Arusha
6.
Mahale Mts.
1,577
Kigoma
Moorland, Montane Forest

Acacia woodland, open woodland, Ground
water forest, Lake Manyara, Rift wall
Miombo Woodland and strips of riverine
forest.
7.
Mikumi
3,230
Morogoro
Miombo woodland
Elephants, Lion, Hippo, Leopard, crocs, pythons, Gnu, Eurasian migrant birds
8.
Ruaha
10,380
Iringa
Miombo woodland
Elephants, Roan and Sable Antelopes, Greater and Lesser Kudu
9.
Rubondo Island
450
10.
11.
12.
13.
Serengeti
Tarangire
Udzungwa
Saadani/Mkwaja
14,763
2,600
1,990
1,202
14. Kitulo
412
Mwanza
Mara/Shinyanga
Arusha
Morogoro
Pwani
Mbeya/Iringa
Savannah, Open woodland, dence forest,

papyrus swamps
Short grass plains, Kopjes
Acacia woodland, flood plains
Highland forest and other unique habitats
Coastal Forest
Montane grassland with 350 vascular
plants & 45 varieties of terrestrial orchids
15. Mkomazi
3,245
Kilimanjaro/Tanga
Acacia-Commiphora woodland,
16. Ngorongoro
Conservation
Area
8,300
Arusha
Grassland, lakes, swamp, woodland, heath,

dense mountain forest
0.5
Mwanza
Island
17. Saanane
Chimpanzee, Red Colobus, blue monkey, red tailed monkey,Bushbuck

Elephants, Buffaloes, Elands, Roan and Sable Antelope, largest population of
crocodiles in Tanzania, Red Locust and rich birdlife.
Colorful forest Birds, Endemic Abbots Duiker, Colobus and Blue Monkey
Millions of Flamingoes and pelicans, Hippos, Elephants and Tree climbing
Lions
Chimpanzee, blue monkey, elephants, giraffes, zebra
Hippos, Crocodiles, Sitatunga, Elephants, Chimps, birds.

Lions, Wildebeest, Zebra and gazelles, Oryx, Elephants and rhinoceros
Elephants, zebras, hartebeest, abundant bird life.
Endemic Primate, plants and birds
Roosevelt's Sable Antelope, Zebra, Eland, Wildebeest
Eland, mountain reedbuck denhams Bustards
3,500 species of butterflies; black rhino; over 450 avian species; African wild
dog
wildebeest, zebra, gazelle, black rhinoceros, lion, hartebeest, spotted hyena,
hippopotamus, buffalo, elephant, Mountain Reedbuck, leopard, serval,
ostrich
Impala, Crocodiles, Clawless otter, Rock Hyrax, Tortoise, Agama Lizards commonly known as Agama mwanzae, and Snakes, particularly python.
Others include Lion, spotted Hyena and Velvet Monkeys
44,973
Source: Modified from MNRT, 2010
62
Figure 4.6: Map of National Parks and major protected areas in Tanzania (MNRT, 2010)
The freshwater and marine ecosystems are also harbouring various wildlife resources
including mangroves and other aquatic flora and fauna. In the freshwater environment,
a number of wildlife exist including water chevrotain such as the Hippopotamus
(Hippopotamus amphibius) and Crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus).
63
Tree climbing lion at the

Black rhinocerous at the
Chimpanzees at the Gombe
Tarangire National Park
Ngorongoro National Park
National Park
Plate 4.5: Some of the wild attractions in the National Parks
Wildlife resources, apart from having an intrinsic environmental/ecological value,
provide opportunities for socio-economic growth including income generation and
food security opportunities. For instance, it is estimated that 90% of the tourism to
Tanzania is wildlife-based. Peoples incomes are boosted through existence of valuable
resources in various conservation areas including Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs).
In addition, wildlife resources provide important environmental goods and services for
the livelihood of the people and productive sectors.
4.8
Natural gas
Natural gas is an important economic resource used to generate electricity, thermal

applications in industrial production, commerce and other socio-economic activities.
Gas fields have been discovered in Songo Songo, Mnazi Bay, Mkuranga, Kiliwani,
Ntorya and in the deep sea off the coast of Tanzania (Figure 4.7). Natural gas reserve in
the country is estimated at above 40 trillion cubic feet (URT, 2013).
Extraction and use of natural gas at Songo Songo started in 2004 and current production
stands at 103 Million Standard Cubic Feet per Day (MMSCFD). Of this, about 20% (1718 million MMSCFD) is distributed to 37 local industries and institutions while the
remaining 80% is used for electricity generation (MEM, 2013). Industries with access to
natural gas have switched from Heavy Furnace Oil (HFO), diesel or coal. These include
Wazo Hill Cement Plant; Tanzania Breweries Ltd; Kioo Limited; ALAF Group; Bora
Tanzania Ltd; Karibu Textiles; Chinese Textiles; NIDA Textiles; Mukwano Industries;
Tanzania Cigarrete Company (TCC); Murzah 1; Murzah 2; Murzah 3; METL; Nampack;
YUASA Batteries; Serengeti Breweries Ltd; NAMERA; Simba Plastics Ltd; Simba Steel;
OK Plast; Pepsi; VOT; Azam Bakery, Kamal Steel; Tanzania Cutleries; Steel Masters;
Tanpack Tissues; Bauteck 1; MMI 1; MMI 2; Bauteck 2; Said Salim Bakhresa; Soap and
Allied Industries; Movenpick; Keko Prison and Mgulani Baracks (Figure 4.8 and Plate
64
4.6). Natural gas is also being used to produce 550 MW of electricity representing about
40% of the total power supply in the country.
Construction of a pipeline with a diameter of 12 inches and 6.3 km long from Ubungo to
Mikocheni area in Dar es Salaam has been completed. The pipeline will supply natural
gas to several households and industries. A new pipeline 532 km long is also being
constructed to transport natural gas from Mtwara to Dar es Salaam.
65
Figure 4.7: Exploration and extraction of oil and gas sites
66
Commercial production at Mnazi Bay gas fields started in 2006 and the gas produced is
used for power generation in Mtwara, where there are 18 MW capacity gas generators
installed. A processing plant is located onshore at the Msimbati Peninsula, which
processes up to 10 million MMSCFD. The current demand is between 1.5 and 2
MMSCFD. A 27 km-long pipe is being constructed to transport natural gas between
Mnazi Bay to Mtwara, with a maximum through put of 70 MMSCFD.
Figure 4.8: Current and future consumers of natural gas in Dar es Salaam (MEM, 2013)
Natural gas is now used in electricity generation as a means to stabilize electricity
supply in the country. The natural gas and electricity sub-sector contributed 1.9 % of
the national GDP in 2012 compared to 1.8% in 2011. This is an important move to
enhance economic growth through industrial processing, create employment
opportunities and enhancing government revenues through various economic activities
that are undertaken by the private and the public sectors investments. There are also
plans to expand uses of natural gas for domestic purposes as well as in vehicles which
will contribute in improving environmental quality and standard of living.
67
Plate 4.6: Plant for electricity generation using natural gas at Ubungo, Dar es Salaam
4.9
Minerals
Tanzania has a great potential particularly for gold, base metals, diamonds, ferrous
minerals and a wide variety of gemstones, some of which are unique such as tanzanite.
Coal, uranium, natural gas and various industrial minerals such as soda, kaolin, tin,
gypsum, phosphate and dimension stones are also available. The minerals are
distributed in different localities depending on geomorphological features and type of
rocks (Figure 4.9).
Gold: Gold deposits occur mainly in the Lake Zone, especially in Mwanza, Geita and
Shinyanga Regions. Gold deposits are also available in some parts of Mara region and
Chunya District in Mbeya Region as well as in other parts in the country. Gold
production currently stands at roughly 40 tonnes per year.
Tanzanite: Tanzanite is a mineral that is only found in Tanzania. Tanzanite reserves are
mainly located in Mererani area, Arusha Region. The total mining area is about 16 km 2.
In year 2011, 613,851 carats of Tanzanite were produced by the TanzaniteOne mining
company (URT, 2012c).
Coal: Coal reserves amount to over 1.5 billion tonnes of low sulfur coal. The coal
resources are contained within the Karoo basins mostly located in the South Western
68
part of the country. There are 11 coalfields within a Northwest trending corridor in the
vicinity of lakes Nyasa and Rukwa. The coalfields include: Keteweka-Mchuchuma,
Ngaka, Liweta, NamweleMkomolo, Muze, Galula, Songwe-Kiwira, Njuga, Mhukuru
Mbamba Bay and Lumecha. Detailed exploration work has been conducted to assess the
size and quality of the most economic coalfields of Songwe-Kiwira, Ngaka and
Keteweka-Mchuchuma. The exploration identified proven reserves of more than 500
million tonnes, out of which 40% can be extracted by surface mining.
Iron ore: Iron ore deposits exist in Liganga (Njombe Region), Uluguru Mountains
(Morogoro Region), Mbabala Rukwa Region near Lake Tanganyika, Karema, Manyoro
Gondite and Itewe. There is an estimated reserve of 45 million tonnes grading 52%
iron.
Uranium: Uranium ore fields are found in and around the Selous Game Reserve within
the Mkuju River (Namtumbo and Tunduru Districts) with reserves of about 137.3
million pounds (Namtumbo 35.9 million pounds and Tunduru 101.4 million
pounds) and Manyoni with 19 million pounds and an aggregate total of about 156.3
million pound from the three sites (MEM, 2013). Uranium exploration is underway.
69
Figure 4.9: Mineral deposits in Tanzania Mainland (Source: MEM, 2010)

Salt: There are about 200 saltworks and more than 4,500 small-scale salt producers in
the country. In year 2012/13, salt production was 34,016 tonnes per annum (MEM,
2013). Salt making is prevalent in all coastal districts in Tanga, Dar es Salaam, Coast,
and Lindi and Mtwara regions. Salt production is also undertaken at Uvinza in Kigoma
region mainly salt water springs. There are four main methods for salt production in
Tanzania namely: thermal evaporation, vacuum evaporation, solar evaporation, and
foothills salt collection. Among these, solar evaporation is the most widely used
method and the one that is the least capital intensive. Similarly small scale salt mining
is done in the Rift Valley and salt water springs in Dodoma, Singida, Manyara, Iringa
and Mbeya regions producing about 5,000 tonnes per annum.
The mining sector is an instrumental part of the Tanzanian economy through a variety
of means including revenue generation; job creation; creation of new business
opportunities in local communities; and improved infrastructure as part of corporate
social responsibility by mining companies. The mining sector contributed 3.5% of the
national GDP in 2012 as compared to 3.3% in 2011.
70
4.10 Renewable energy sources

Renewable energy sources in the country include biogas, wind, geothermal and solar.
Renewable energy resources and technologies can serve as one of the drivers for socioeconomic development.
Solar energy: Tanzania has high levels of solar energy, ranging between 2,800 3,500
hours of sunshine per year and receives an average daily insolation of 4.5-6.3 kWh/m2
day (Figure 4.10). The highest insolation in the country is found in central zone, but
local peaks occur elsewhere. Small-scale use of solar photovoltaic technologies is
expected to be adequate from approx. 4 kWh/(m2 day) while larger installations such as
solar thermal power plants require about 5 kWh/(m2 day). Although potential for solar
PV technology is good, the potential has hardly been tapped. Solar energy applications
such as water heating, crop and salt drying and direct cooking technologies are being
practiced though in a small scale.
To-date, off-grid solar PV of about 6 MWp of solar PV electricity has been installed
countrywide for various applications in schools, hospitals, health centres, police posts,
street lighting, telecommunication small enterprises, and households. More than 50
percent of the capacity is utilised by households in peri-urban and rural areas. Recent
estimates on the installed capacity of PV systems in the country is about 1.7 MW,
however, market potential for solar PV countrywide is estimated at 20.2 MW. The
potential for grid-tied solar in the year 2025 is estimated at about 800 MW
(MEM/EWURA, 2013). In order to make solar PV more attractive, the Government has
removed VAT and import tax for main solar components (panels, batteries, inverters
and regulators); this has allowed end-users to get PV systems at a more affordable
price.
71
Figure 4.10: Annual averages of insolation (kWh/m2 /day) in Tanzania. Yellow labels
represent ground measurements values. Colour gradient represent interpolated values
from remote sensing techniques (Source: Hammer, 2011)
Wind Energy: Tanzania has average wind speeds of up to 6.6m/s (Figure 4.11).
Favourable (higher) wind speeds are encountered along the coastal areas and on the
highlands of Central Tanzania. Wind speeds from 5 m/s are considered as feasible for
energy extraction. However, small-scale converters adapted for lower wind speeds are
now available and even wind speeds around 4 m/s may be found of interest for remote
decentralized grids. In Tanzania, wind energy has been mostly used to pump water for
72
irrigation, domestic and livestock watering purposes. More than 120 windmills have
been installed (equivalent to about 10 kWe) to provide mechanical power for water
pumping in the country.
Several areas of Tanzania are known to have promising wind resources. In areas where
assessments have been conducted to-date, only Kititimo (Singida) and Makambako
(Njombe Region) areas were identified to have adequate wind speeds for the grid scale
electricity generation. The wind speeds average 9.9m/s at Kititimo and average 8.9 m/s
at Makambako, at a height of 30 metres. Other areas where wind resource assessments
are being conducted include Mkumbara (Tanga), Karatu (Manyara), Gomvu (Dar es
Salaam), Litembe (Mtwara), Mgagao (Kilimanjaro), Mafia Island (Pwani Region) and
Sevya (Mpanda). So far, four companies have shown interest in investing in wind
energy, namely Geo-Wind Tanzania Ltd and Wind East Africa, both in Singida Region;
Sino Tan Renewable Energy Limited and WindEnergy Tanzania Ltd at Makambako in
Njombe Region. These companies are considering investments in wind farms in the 50
to 100 MW range.
73
Figure 4.11: Annual averages of wind speed (m/s) in Tanzania. Labels show ground
measurements and colour gradient represent interpolation of data from remote sensing
techniques (Source: Hammer, 2011)
Geothermal energy: Geothermal energy is energy derived from natural heat of the
Earth. The country has an estimated 650 MW of geothermal potential which is yet to be
tapped. Most of the geothermal hotspots are located within the East African Rift Valley
System and are mainly hot springs (Figure 4.12). There are about 50 geothermal
hotspots grouped into three main prospect zones, namely the Northern Zone
(Kilimanjaro, Arusha and Mara Regions); the Southern Zone (Rukwa, Katavi and
Mbeya Regions); and the Eastern Coastal Belt.
74
Work conducted so far indicates the existence of a possible geothermal system with
reservoir temperature greater than 200oC. In northern Tanzania, geothermal activity
occurs mainly along the southern extension of the Kenya rift into Lake Eyasi,
Ngorongoro, Lake Natron, Oldoinyo Lengai and Arusha areas. Other low temperature
prospects occur in central and south east Tanzania in Singida and Rufiji areas. Two
potential target areas for geothermal exploration singled out so far are: (a) Arusha
region near the Kenyan border in the North; and (b) Mbeya region between Lake
Rukwa and Lake Nyasa in the southwest.
Geothermal energy can be used for electricity generation and direct uses such as
greenhouse heating, domestic hot water uses, leisure therapeutic hot water uses and
crop drying particularly during rainy and cold seasons.
75
Figure 4.12: Map of Tanzania showing the location of geothermal hotspots

(Source: Mnjokava, 2010)
Biogas: Biogas is a product made from anaerobic digestion of agricultural and animal
waste and is most commonly used for cooking and lighting. It can also be used to
power combustion engines for motive power or electricity generation. In Tanzania,
biogas systems are used on a small scale, over the past ten years around 6,000 biogas
plants have been built countrywide. For the period between January-December 2012,
through the Tanzania Domestic Biogas Programme (TDBP), a total of 2,409 plants were
built in Arusha, Dodoma, Iringa, Kagera, Kilimanjaro, Manyara, Mara, Mbeya,
Morogoro, Mwanza, Njombe, Pwani, Ruvuma, Shinyanga and Singida Regions. The
76
target is to install a total of 12,000 plants in the country by December 2014. In addition,
through the Rural Energy Agency (REA), biogas plants are being built in Masasi
(Namajani Prison) and Songea Rural (National Service - Mlale).
The technical potential for domestic biogas, based and the available substrate (manure)
is estimated at 165,000 households/installations in a 10-year time frame. Areas with the
most potential are Kilimanjaro, Mbeya, Iringa and Ruvuma Regions (Figure 4.13).
77
Figure 4.13: Map of Tanzania showing biogas potential (Source: Modified from TDBP,
2010)
Biogas provides a low cost energy source for cooking and lighting; eliminates potential
respiratory and eye diseases caused by indoor pollution resulting from traditional
cooking with wood; saves time because of avoiding collecting wood; produces bioslurry which is an excellent organic fertilizer; reduces greenhouse gas emissions; and
reduces deforestation.
CHAPTER FIVE
POLICY, LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
5.1
Overview
Environmental management in Tanzania is guided by the National Environmental

Policy (1997), Environmental Management Act (2004), National Environmental Action
Plan (NEAP) (2013) and related sectoral policies and legal instruments. Other
frameworks include strategies such as the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction
of Poverty (NSGRP), the Strategy on Urgent Actions on Land Degradation and Water
Catchments (2006), Strategy on Urgent Actions for Conserving Marine and Coastal
Environment, Lakes, Rivers and Dams (2008) as well as Multilateral Environmental
Agreements (MEAs).
This Chapter describes national policies, legislation, strategies, plans and programmes
and how they address environmental issues. It further describes institutional
framework for environmental management and Multilateral Environmental
Agreements (MEAs).
5.2
Policies
5.2.1 National Environmental Policy, 1997

The Policy provides the framework for making fundamental changes that are needed to
mainstream environmental considerations into decision making in Tanzania. The policy
provides guidelines for determining priority actions, and provides for monitoring and
regular review of policies, plans and programmes. It further provides for sectoral and
78
cross-sectoral policy analysis in order to bring synergy and harmony among sectors and
interest groups.
5.2.2 Sectoral Policies
There are several sectoral policies that support environmental management in
Tanzania. Such policies are developed, not only to address challenges in respective
sectors, but to include provisions to address environmental matters in relevant sectors.
a)
National Agriculture Policy, 2013
The Policy aims to develop an efficient, competitive and profitable agricultural industry
that contributes to the improvement of the livelihoods of Tanzanians and attainment of
broad based economic growth and poverty alleviation. With regard to environmental
management, the Policy aims to promote agricultural practices that sustain the
environment. To achieve this, the Policy outlines policy interventions cluding including
sustainable environmental early warning and monitoring systems; improving
adaptation measures to climate change; public awareness on sustainable agriculture;
and enforcing relevant environmental laws and regulations.
b) National Livestock Policy, 2006
The policy objective on the environment is to ensure the environment is conserved for
sustainable livestock production. The policy highlights on sustainable livestock farming
and its related activities that require proper utilisation and management of the
environment. The policy recognises that increased livestock populations and human
activities related to livestock production in some areas of the country have resulted in
over exploitation of natural resources. This has led to over-grazing, soil erosion,
deforestation, destruction of water sources and environmental pollution. Some
challenges in implementing the policy in the area of environmental conservation
include low awareness among stakeholders, low priority accorded to allocation of land
for livestock use, inadequate expertise and inadequate inter-sectoral coordination. In
order to achieve the policy goals on environmental management the policy seeks to
strengthen technical support services on environmental issues, promote proper land use
planning for livestock production and strengthen inter-sectoral coordination on
environmental issues.
c)
National Irrigation Policy, 2010
The objectives of the National Irrigation Policy on environment include promotion of

efficient water use in irrigation systems, and ensure that irrigation development is
technically feasible, economically viable, socially desirable and environmentally
79
sustainable. The Policy aims to have irrigation systems that are environmentally sound
by ensuring compliance to relevant legislation; protecting and conserving water and
land sources; pollution control in irrigated agriculture and promotion of proper land
use practices.
d) National Forest Policy, 1998
The overall goal of the National Forest Policy (1998) is to enhance the contribution of
the forest sector to the sustainable development of Tanzania and the conservation and
management of her natural resources for the benefit of present and future generations.
The Policy, among other aspects, recognizes the high value of forests due to the high
potential for royalty collection, export and tourism earnings as well as the recycling and
sequestering of carbon and conservation of globally important biodiversity.
Furthermore, the policy emphasizes on biodiversity conservation; describes the
importance of forest ecosystems for maintaining biodiversity and the threats to
biodiversity. One of the main objectives envisaged in the policy focuses on ensured
ecosystem stability through conservation of forest biodiversity, water catchments, and
soil fertility.
e)
Fisheries Sector Policy and Strategy Statement, 1997
The policy acknowledges the linkage between the sustainable exploitation of fish
resources and the provision of high quality food, income and employment. Though the
linkage between poverty and environment is recognized, the role of poverty as a
constraint to sustainable management of fisheries resources, or possibility of developing
positive environment/poverty linkages, is not highlighted in the policy.
f)
Wildlife Policy, 2007
The Policy focuses on wildlife protection and conservation in order to ensure

sustainability of wildlife ecosystems. Some of the objectives of the Policy include
establishment maintenance and development of Protected Areas network in order to
enhance biological diversity; conservation of wildlife and its habitats outside the core
areas by establishing Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs); and conservation of
wetlands.
g) National Tourism Policy, 1999
The Policy acknowledges the relationship between the environment and development
of sustainable tourism. The aim of the policy is to ensure that development of tourism is
based on careful assessment of carrying capacities of tourism products and ensure
enhancement and improvement of special environment features in order that tourism
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development does not conflict with indigenous forests, beaches, mountains and other
important vegetations.
h) National Water Policy, 2002
The main objective of the Policy is to develop a comprehensive framework for
sustainable development and management of the nations water resources. Specifically
on the environment the objective is to have a water management system that protects
the environment, ecological system and biodiversity. The policy emphasizes that waterrelated activities will have to be planned to enhance or to cause least detrimental effects
on the environment. In order to protect ecological systems and biodiversity which,
together, are important part of sustainable water resources system the policy provides a
guide for determining water for the environment, in terms of quantity and quality, and
levels, for both surface and groundwater resource. The policy emphasizes the use of
best available scientific information for both temporal and spatial water requirements to
maintain the health and viability of riverine and estuary ecosystems, and associated
flora and fauna. Public awareness on good land-use practices is insisted in order to
contain the erosion problem.
i)
National Land Policy, 1995
The National Land Policy of 1995 aims at developing a coherent and comprehensive
framework that defines land tenure and enables proper management and allocation of
land in urban and rural areas. Among other things, the Policy advocates the protection
of land resources from degradation, for sustainable development. The policy addresses
several environmental issues such as land use planning, which take into consideration
the land capability, ensures proper management of land resources, promotes resource
sharing and multiple land use techniques in areas of conflicting land use, and involve
community in resource management, land use and conflict resolution.
j)
National Biotechnology Policy, 2010
The general objective of the National Biotechnology Policy is to ensure that Tanzania
has the capacity and capability to capture the proven benefits arising from health,
agriculture, industry and environmental applications of biotechnology while protecting
and sustaining the safety of the community and the environment. The Policy reiterates
the importance of conservation and utilization of plant, animal and microorganism
genetic resources. The Policy emphasizes that the narrow pool of the biodiversity is
under constant threat of extinction due to various human activities leading to
environmental pollution and climate change. Therefore, the need to sustainably
conserve and utilize the national genetic resources is important and urgent. In order to
sustainably conserve and utilize genetic resources, the Policy seeks to promote
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sustainable utilization of genetic resources and create public awareness on the value of
genetic resources for food and agriculture.
k)
Mineral Policy of Tanzania, 2009
The objective of the Mineral Policy of Tanzania on environment is to reduce or

eliminate adverse environmental effects of mining, by promoting health and safety
conditions in mining areas and addressing social issues affecting local communities. It
requires mining operations to carry out EIA and directs mining companies to set aside
funds for environmental rehabilitation and mine closure obligations.
l) National Health Policy, 2007
The overall objective of the National Health Policy, 2007 is to improve the health and
well being of all Tanzanians. In line with environmental health, Policy seeks to protect
community health by enhancing sustainable environmental health. The Policy
emphasizes on community adherence to environmental health standards; Improvement
of waste management systems including disposal of hospital wastes; educating health
service providers on the importance of environmental health in their working areas;
and putting in place laws and procedures for conservation and protection of the
environment in the health sector.
m) National Energy Policy, 2003
The Policy, among others, focuses on utilization of various energy resources in a
sustainable and environmentally friendly manner. The Policy recognizes, that energy is
a prerequisite for the proper functioning of all sub-sectors of the economy. The Policy
stresses the use of renewable and alternative energy sources such as wind, solar, minihydropower generators and use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as well as natural gas.
The use of alternative energy sources such as biogas, briquettes both for domestic and
industrial uses is encouraged to minimize the use of charcoal and firewood to prevent
massive deforestation.
n) Sustainable Industrial Development Policy, 1996
The Policy provides for sound environmental management in order to ensure
promotion of environmentally friendly and ecologically sustainable industrial
development. The Policy insists that environmental audit and appropriate mitigation
measures should be enforced for all industrial projects at pre-implementation stage.
o)
National Population Policy, 2006
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The Policy recognizes the impacts of population growth on natural resources and
environment. The policy goal is to prepare and implement coordinated urban, rural
and regional development plans for rapid development in the country and to reduce
the rate of rural-urban migration.
p) National Human Settlements Development Policy, 2000
The Policy stresses on the need for ensuring that human settlements are kept clean and
pollution effects of solid and liquid wastes do not endanger the health of residents. The
policy advocates for a set of environmental quality standards of gaseous emissions from
industries and vehicles.
5.3
Legislation
Legislation is regarded as one of the three main functions of government, which are
often distinguished under the doctrine of separation of powers as per the constitution of
the United Republic of Tanzania. There are several legal and regulatory instruments
which are relevant to environmental management in Tanzania. Some of them are
discussed below.
5.3.1 Environmental Management Act (Cap. 191)
The Act is a framework environmental law which provides for legal and institutional
framework for sustainable management of the environment and natural resources in
the country. The Act includes provisions for institutional roles and responsibilities with
regard to environmental management; environmental impact assessments; strategic
environmental assessment; pollution prevention and control; waste management;
environmental standards; state of the environment reporting; enforcement of the Act;
and a National Environmental Trust Fund.
Between 2008 and 2013, a total of 21 regulations have been developed to facilitate
implementation of the Act. Some of these Regulations include Biosafety Regulations,
2009; Waste Management Regulations 2009; Strategic Environmental Assessment
Regulations, 2009; Solid Waste Management Regulations, 2009; Environmental
Inspectors Regulations, 2011; Noise and Vibration Standard Regulations, 2011; and
Hazardous Waste Management Regulations, 2009. In order to reach the general public
the Act and some of its subsequent regulations were translated into Kiswahili and
disseminated accordingly.
5.3.2 Other Sectoral legislation
a) Forest Act No. 7 of 2002
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The Act provides for management of forests and requires carrying out of
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for certain development projects. The Act
obliges establishment of forest management plan for all types of forest to ensure
sustainable management in the long-term. The Act provides for designation of
Community Forest Reserves, Mangrove Forest Reserves and encourages communitybased management.
b) Wildlife Conservation Act No. 5 of 2009
The Act provides for the conservation of wildlife and ensures protection, management
and sustainable utilization of wildlife resources, habitats, ecosystems and the non-living
environment supporting such resources, habitats or ecosystems with actual or potential
use or value.
c)
Marine Parks and Reserves Act No. 29 of 1994
The Act aims at protecting, conserving, and restoring species and genetic diversity of
living and non-living marine resources and ecosystem processes of marine and coastal
areas. It provides for management of marine and coastal areas so as to promote
sustainability of existing resource use, and the recovery of areas and resources that have
been over-exploited or damaged.
d) Fisheries Act No. 22 of 2003
The Act regulates fishing activities in both fresh and marine waters. Among other
things, it emphasizes on the conservation of fisheries resources in particular critical
habitats or endangered species, and restricts the issuance of fishing licences for fishing
in any conserved areas. The Act also provides for enforcement in collaboration with
other related agencies and fisher communities to ensure effective implementation of this
Act. The Act further requires formation of community management units for the
purpose of protecting and conserving fishery resources.
e)
Plant Protection Act No. 13 of 1997
The Act provides for prevention of the introduction and spread of harmful organisms,
to ensure sustainable plant and environmental protection, to control the importation
and use of plant protection substances, to regulate export and imports of plants and
plant products.
f)
Land Act No. 4 of 1999 and Village Land Act No. 5 of 1999
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The Land Act and Village Land Act have provisions that are important for
environmental management. The fundamental principle of the Land Act is to ensure
that land is used productively and that, any such use complies with the principles of
sustainable development. Among others, the Act prohibits any development activities
in environmentally sensitive areas such as wetlands and swamps and 60m from the
shoreline and riverbanks. The Village Land Act as well empowers the Village
Government to have legal control on village land and its uses. This also includes
prohibiting or minimizing land problems like bush fires as well as land use related
conflicts between farmers and livestock keepers/pastoralists.
g)
Water Resource Management Act No. 11 of 2009 and Water Supply and Sanitation
Act No. 12 of 2009
The Water Resources Management Act (WRMA) provides the legal framework for the
management of water resources within the integrated water resources management
(IWRM) framework. The Act provides for pollution control and issues discharge
permits of effluents to water bodies, including the underground strata. The Act also
provides measures for flood mitigation and control to prevent or minimize the risk of
flooding, flood damage and water pollution.
The Water Supply and Sanitation Act likewise, provides for a legal framework to ensure
water quality by protecting water works and storage facilities against pollution. The Act
further gives mandate to the Local Government Authorities to enact by-laws in relation
to water supply and sanitation for efficient and sustainable provision of these services
in their areas.
h)
Local Government (Urban Authorities) Act No. 8 of 1982
The Act assigns responsibility to Urban Authorities to take measures for conservation of
natural resources, safeguard and promote public health. Urban authorities are further
required to take measures for maintaining the area of their authority in clean and
sanitary condition and for preventing the occurrence of or for remedying or causing to
be remedied any nuisance or condition likely to be injurious or dangerous to health.
i)
Public Health Act No. 1 of 2009
The Act provides for the promotion, conservation and maintenance of public health
with a view of ensuring comprehensive functional and sustainable public health
services. The Act also prohibits discharges into a sewer or into drain that may cause
malfunctioning of the drainage systems.
j)
Mining Act No. 14 of 2010
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The Act provides for regulation of prospecting for minerals, mining, processing and
dealing in minerals. The Act requires all holders of mining licenses to take appropriate
measures for the protection of the environment in accordance with the Environmental
Management Act including undertaking EIA in mining activities.
5.4
Strategies
a) National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP)
In 2005, as an outcome of a formal Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) review process, the
National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP), known by its Swahili
acronym MKUKUTA, was adopted. As a result of the Poverty Environment Initiative
(PEI) programme, poverty environment issues are integrated in the strategy, and
poverty environment indicators have been incorporated into the revised Poverty
Monitoring System, now known as the MKUKUTA Monitoring System.
Following a review of the implementation of MKUKUTA I in 2010, the government has
developed a new National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP II)
that includes the goal of Ensuring food and nutrition security, environmental
sustainability and climate change adaptation and mitigation as a key goal under the
first pillar on Growth for Reduction of Income Poverty. The other two pillars of the new
strategy are Improvement of Quality of Life and Social Wellbeing, and Good
Governance and Accountability.
b) Strategy on Urgent Actions on Land Degradation and Water Catchments, 2006
The strategy was put in place as a policy response towards the widespread
environmental degradation particularly degradation of land and water catchments. This
environmental challenge is due to unsustainable agricultural activities in water
catchments, on mountain tops, mountain slopes and in other fragile sections of
mountain ecosystems. Similarly, pastoralists move with large herds of livestock in
search of pasture and water, and in the process cause severe environmental degradation
on land and in water catchments. Furthermore, environmental degradation is also
caused by uncontrolled felling of trees for firewood and charcoal, unsustainable
irrigation, frequent and uncontrolled burning of forests, unsustainable mining activities
and limited community participation in environmental activities. Although in recent
years there has been increased awareness on the importance and benefits of
environmental conservation for some groups in the country, in general, public
participation in environmental activities is still not satisfactory.
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Environmental degradation of land and water catchments also results from pastoralism
and the keeping of more livestock than the carrying capacity. Scarcity of water and
pasture for livestock in many areas has led to severe stress to pastoralists and high
livestock mortality in many parts of the country. This situation has also caused land use
conflicts between stakeholders using land for different purposes, which have increased
the problem of environmental degradation in several regions and districts of the
country.
Furthermore, environmental pollution due to plastic waste was another area of concern
in the stratergy. The pollution results from the increased use of plastic bags, especially
the thin plastic bags used for carrying domestic and other goods, and packaging for
drinking water and juice.
In order to control environmental degradation in the country, the Government decided
to take urgent measures against uncontrolled pastoralism and shifting cultivation that
degrade wetlands and water catchments; arbitrary movement of livestock within
Tanzania as well as livestock migration into the country; unsustainable cultivation on
mountain slopes and river banks; unregulated irrigation activities; wildfires that
destroy forests and rangelands; environmental pollution originating from plastic
wastes; arbitrary mining activities. Furthermore, the strategy provides for measures for
activities that support environmental conservation, such as woodlots for large
consumers of tree, villages, urban centres, national tree planting and managing
campaign, Presidential award for conservation of water catchments and tree planting
and management, environmental management programmes and landuse plans and
public education on environment.
c) Strategy on Urgent Actions for the Conservation of Marine and Coastal
Environment, Lakes and Rivers Ecosystems and Dams, 2008
The Strategy was put in place in 2008 as a response towards environmental degradation
in coastal environment, lakes and river ecosystems and dams. In the coastal and marine
environment, existing environmental challenges include coral destruction, mangrove
destruction, unsustainable agriculture activities and deterioration of water quality, sea
level rise, and pollution. In lakes, river and dams, environmental challenges facing
these areas include:- deterioration of water quality, decrease of oxygen levels in shallow
waters, disappearance of certain fish species, water hyacinth infestation, wetland
degradation, land degradation in catchments, and sedimentation.
To address these challenges, the Government has prepared a Strategy on Urgent Action
on the Conservation of Coastal Marine, Lakes, Rivers and Dams. The objective of this
Strategy is to ensure conservation, to improve water quality, and the environment at
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large so that resources in these areas are utilized in a sustainable way and contribute to
the improvement of peoples livelihood.
5.5
Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs)
Environment being a global agenda, Tanzania cooperates with other states in managing
the global environment. In this regard, Tanzania is a Party to various international
treaties aiming at the protection of the environment (Table 5.1). The treaties are divided
among those having a global application and those limited to Africa or its sub-regions.
Tanzania continues to implement her obligations as per international treaties and
conventions on environment that is a Party to.
So far the following actions plans have been prepared to implement the respective
conventions which includes:-National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP)
to implement Convention on Biological Diversity; National Biosafety Framework on
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, also to implement Convention on Biological Diversity;
National Adaptation Plan of Action on Climate Change to implement United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change; National Implementation Plan for the
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Polluntants; National Action Plan for the
Implementation of Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent Procedure for
Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade; and the National
Action Plan for the Implementation of Convention on Combating Desertification.
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Table 5.1: Major Conventions on environment that Tanzania is a Party to

CONVENTION
1.
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

(Ratified- 1996)
2.
United Nations Framework Convention on

Climate Change (UNFCCC) (Ratified - 1996)
The United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification (UNCCD) (Ratified - 1996)
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (Ratified 1975)
UNESCO World Heritage Convention)
Convention for Protection of World Cultural
and Natural Heritage (Ratified - 1975)
Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(Ratified - 1975)
Convention on the Protection and Use of
Transboundary Watercourses and International
Lakes (Ratified - 1996)
Basel Convention on the Control of
Transboundary Movements of Hazardous
Wastes and their Disposal (Ratified - 1992)
Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed
Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous
Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade
(Ratified - 2004)
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic
Pollutants POPs (Ratified - 2004)
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
OBJECTIVE
To promote conservation of biological diversity; sustainable use of its components;
and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic
resources.
To mitigate and adapt to climate change to ensure that food production is not
threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.
To combat desertification and reduce effects of droughts in countries experiencing
serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa.
Provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the
conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.
To establish an effective system for the collective protection of cultural and natural
heritage of outstanding universal value.
To ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not
threaten the species' survival.
Promotes protection and management of transboundary waters, surface water and
groundwater, as well as related ecosystems, including the marine environment.
Set up a framework for controlling movements of hazardous wastes across
international borders
Promotes shared responsibility and cooperative efforts in the international trade of
certain hazardous chemicals in order to protect human health and the environment
Protect human health and the environment from persistent organic pollutants,
mainly by addressing the use and emissionof POPs and the management of POP
waste in developing countries
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11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
CONVENTION
OBJECTIVE
The Convention on Preservation of Fauna and

Flora in their Natural state, London, (Ratified 1993)
The convention on the African Migratory Locust,
Kano (Ratified - 1962)
The convention on the Prevention of Marine
Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and other
matters, London (Ratified 1972)
The convention on the Prevention of Marine
Pollution from ships (MARPOL) (Ratified - 1973)
The United Nations Convention on Law of the
Sea, Montego Bay (Ratified 1982)
To preserve the natural fauna and flora of certain parts of the world, particularly of
Africa, by means of national parks and reserves, and by regulation of hunting and
collection of species.
Preventive control of the African Migratory Locust undertaken in Africa
International control and prevention of marine pollution by prohibiting the
dumping of certain hazardous materials
Preventing and minimizing pollution from ships - both accidental pollution and that
from routine operations
Convention provides for an equitable relationship among States in their use of the
oceans based on their respective geographical characteristics, economic
circumstances, political imperatives and global responsibilities
The Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete Protect human health and the environment against adverse effects resulting or likely
the Ozone layer, Montreal (Ratified - 1987)
to result from human activities which modify or are likely to modify the ozone layer,
Bamako convention on the Ban of the Import into protect, human health of the African population and the environment against the
Africa and the control of Transboundary
adverse effects which may result from the generation of hazardous wastes
Movements of Hazardous Wastes within Africa
(Ratified - 1990)
Amended Nairobi Convention for the Protection, Protect, manage and develop their coastal and marine environment sustainably.
Management and Development of the Marine
Inter-governmental discussions that lead to better understanding of regional
and Coastal Environment of the Western Indian environmental problems and the strategies needed to address them; and promotes
Ocean Region (Ratified 1996)
sharing of information and experiences in the WIO region and with the rest of the
world.
Convention on Sustainable Management of Lake To ensure the protection and conservation of the biological diversity and the
Tanganyika (Ratified 2004)
sustainable use of the natural resources of Lake Tanganyika and its environment by
the Contracting States on the basis of integrated and co- perative management.
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5.6
Institutional Framework
Environmental management is a multi-sectoral and cross-sectoral issue that requires a

holistic approach and multi-level operation. The Environmental Management Act (Cap
191) sets up the institutional framework for environmental management in the country
(Figure 5.1). It confers the task of overall coordination and policy articulation of
environmental management in the country and provision of the central support
functions to the Ministry Responsible for Environment, which is the Vice Presidents
Office. The direct operational role on management of specific natural resources or
environmental services, such as agriculture, fisheries, forestry, wildlife, mining, water,
and waste management is conferred to sector Ministries and Local Government
Authorities.
The Act establishes the National Environmental Advisory Committee (NEAC) with the
role of advising the Minister responsible for environment, among others. It confers the
role of enforcement to the National Environment Management Council (NEMC). The
Act further establishes Sector Environmental Sections in Sector Ministries and confers
the environmental management role on the relevant sectors and with a view to provide
a link to the Ministry responsible for environment. The Act gives power to the Regional
Secretariats to designate Regional Environmental Management Experts (REMEs)
charged with the responsibility to advise and oversee the implementation and
enforcement of the Act. So far, since its enactment, Sector Environmental sections have
been established in all sector ministries and Sector Environmental Coordinators have
either been designated or appointed in such sectors.
Furthermore, the Act empowers LGAs (City, Municipal, District, Township) to
designate or appoints Environmental Management Officers to oversee implementation
of EMA at respective levels. In addition, the Act establishes Environmental Committees
at different LGAs levels to advise and oversee the implementation of EMA within their
jurisdiction.
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Figure 5.1: Institutional arrangement for environmental management under EMA, 2004
5.7
Challenges
Policy implementation as well as legislation enforcement in the existing institution

structure, have faced several challenges. There is still existing low capacity (human
resources and infrastructure) and inadequate financial resources in implementation,
monitoring and evaluation of environmental resources at all levels including NEMC,
ministerial, regional and local government levels. Capacity at local government level
has been remarkably low where actual interaction between people and the
environmental resources prevails. Majority of Environmental Officers in districts are
engaged with purely natural resources matters with a focus on revenue collection,
leaving environmental issues un-attended. This would jeopardize environmental
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sustainability. Therefore, there is a need to strengthen capacity at regional and local

government, as these are more responsible for the environment at the grass-roots level.
Awareness creation to communities on the policy and legislation is still a challenge and
much more effort is needed to that effect. Inadequate awareness on the policy and legal
frameworks among the general public contributes to the enforcement challenges at all
levels. Limited public awareness on environmental and sectoral policy and legislation
as well as environmental issues at large, attributes to less involvement of the
community on protecting the environment.
The biggest challenge facing the implementation of environmental policy and
legislation is compliance to regulations in terrestrial, marine and freshwater ecosystems.
Insufficient involvement of local authorities and communities in environmental
management and conservation also aggravates the enforcement challenges.
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CHAPTER SIX
LAND DEGRADATION
6.1
Introduction
Land degradation is the reduction in the capacity of the land to provide ecosystem
goods and services and ensure its functions over a period of time. Land degradation is
caused by many factors acting alone or in combination, concurrently or one at a time,
yet progressively. Human activities are the prime cause of land degradation, which
changes the quality of the land. Land degradation is largely related to, and caused by,
land clearance, such as clear-cutting and deforestation; depletion of soil nutrients
through poor farming practices; overgrazing and livestock overstocking; improper use
of agrochemicals, inappropriate irrigation; land pollution including through industrial
waste; quarrying of stone, sand, ore and minerals extraction/mining; overcutting of
vegetation through abusive cutting of forest and improper tillage operations.
Land degradation appears in various forms including soil degradation, deforestation,
and loss of vegetation cover, siltation, and loss of biodiversity that lowers land
productive capacity. It is estimated that about 61% of land in Tanzania is degraded
with more degradation happening mostly in semi-arid areas including Dodoma,
Shinyanga, Manyara, Singida, Simiyu, Geita and Kilimanjaro Regions.
6.2
Drivers
a) Poverty
About 34% of Tanzanians live below the poverty line (URT, 2012a). Poverty rates are
highest in rural areas and the overwhelming majority of poor Tanzanians are primarily
dependent on agriculture. It is widely accepted that activities performed by the poor
people are responsible for increased land degradation. The poor do not wilfully
degrade the environment but often lack the alternative resources to avoid degrading it.
Further, their fragile and limited resources, their often poorly defined property rights,
and their limited access to credit and insurance markets prevent them from investing
as much as they would in environmental protection. Consequently they often resolve
to use cheaper or less effective land resources management options, investing for quick
results that lead to land degradation.
In Tanzania, about 80% of the labour force earns a living through agriculture and
majority of these are peasants in the rural areas. The cultivation is to a large extent
marked by poor farming methods such as slash-and-burn farming technique that
exposes land to agents of soil erosion such as wind and water. In addition, the poor in
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Tanzania rely on wood fuel for energy both for cooking and lighting. Charcoal is also
sold for income to urban areas. This type of energy accounts for about 90% of all
energy sources in Tanzania and is the major source of energy in rural areas. Usually it
is obtained directly from the environment by cutting forests often in unsustainable
way, leading to land degradation.
b) Rapid population growth
Tanzania population is rapidly growing, increasing from 12.3 million people in 1967 to
44.9 million people in 2012 with almost doubling between 1988 and 2012 (URT, 2012b).
Rapid population growth in Tanzania has driven by opening of more farms using
slash-and-burn shifting cultivation technique in order to cater for food and other
agricultural products usually under subsistence agriculture. Due to population
pressure, land is not allowed to lie fallow as long as traditional practices dictate leading
to permanent clearing of land exposing it to agents of soil erosion. This problem is
common in many parts of the country and more pronounced in parts of Morogoro,
Kilimanjaro, Tanga, Shinyanga and Dodoma Regions. Rapid population growth is also
associated with declining amount of land for pasture, which triggers seasonal
migration of pastoralists and their livestock, notably from the north and northwest
regions of the country to the south and south-west - Morogoro, Coast, Mbeya and
Rukwa regions (TNRF, 2006).
c) Economic growth
Global economic growth has resulted into competing demand for food, feed, fibre and
fuel, intensifying pressures on land. Tanzania is among the sources of these materials
to the global economy. It also caters for the countrys domestic demand of these
materials. This has led to land-use conversion, land degradation and pressure on
protected areas. As a result many terrestrial ecosystems are seriously being degraded
because land use decisions often fail to recognize non-economic ecosystem functions
and biophysical limits to productivity. In addition, in order to increase agricultural
productivity, there has been intensified use of agrochemicals exacerbating degradation
of land. Furthermore, increasing trade on gem minerals has increased mining
operations in Tanzania in search for such minerals mostly gold and tanzanite. Most of
the mining operations undertaken by artisanal miners are carried out with few
environmental safeguards, often within the countrys protected areas or national parks.
Land clearance and pollution from the mines, contribute to erosion and general land
degradation.
d) Climate Change
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The frequency of occurrence of climate extreme events (e.g. droughts, heavy

precipitations and associated floods) has been increasing in Tanzania in recent years.
The severity of drought is more pronounced in the semiarid areas (Arusha, Dodoma,
parts of Iringa, Kilimanjaro, Manyara, Shinyanga, Singida, Mara, Tabora and Rukwa
regions). These areas are characterized by extreme seasonal conditions with relatively
low rainfall, a long dry seasons and high seasonal rainfall and temperature fluctuations
which cannot reliably produce food and cash crops. Frequent droughts in these areas,
leave the land bare, making it susceptible to agents of soil erosion such as wind and
water. Rainfall is sporadic, leading to floods and often severe soil erosion. For example,
the floods of 2001 in Manyara (Babati), 2006 in Kilimanjaro, 2009 in Morogoro (Kilosa),
and 2010 in Dodoma (Mpwapwa) left several hectares of land, crops and houses
destroyed. Plate 6.1 is an area in Arumeru District in Arusha Region severely affected
by recurrent drought.
Plate 6.1: Extreme conditions of land degradation in the pastoral areas of Arumeru
district in Arusha region
e)
Culture and beliefs
Unsustainable land management practices built up over generations have often become
part of cultural fabric of traditional pastoral and peasant farming communities.
Pastoral/nomadic livestock keeping practices is one of the long standing unsustainable
land uses practice in Tanzania. This culture is built upon keeping large herds of cattle
often for prestige, exceeding the carrying capacity of grazing land. Under this culture,
land is viewed as open access and the herdsmen move with their large herds of cattle
from one place to another in search for fodder and water. The other unsustainable land
management culture in Tanzania is that of farming along the river valleys, popularly
known as vinyungu. This practice farming is common along river valleys during dry
season exposing the river valley to serious soil erosion during the rain season. This
practice is common in most parts of the country, especially in the highland areas of
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Kilimanjaro (Pare Mountains), Tanga (Usambara Mountains) and Morogoro (Uluguru

Mountains) Regions. There are also areas where people believe that if one sets a
wildfire that ends up burning a long distance is indication that he/she will live a
longlife. This belief encourages people to burn forests and grassland in determining
their life span, the practice that exposes land to various agents of land degradation.
f) Land ownership
Land tenure is necessary to encourage responsible investment and management by
users and assure them that their management efforts and investments committed
thereon will yield profitable returns in the long run so they have a reason to care for it.
In Tanzania land is divided in three groups: general land, reserve land and village
land. All the land is state owned and vested on the President. People lease, from the
Government, both general and village land for various uses. However, most of the land
that falls in village and general land has not been surveyed and in most cases, people
are not assigned property rights due to inadequate Government capacity to do so. As a
result, most of the land remains open access for various activities such as pastoralism
and shifting cultivation. These practices are common in most parts of the country and
have often resulted into land degradation. Even for state-owned reserved lands, the
Government has inadequate capacity to curb encroachment into such reserves.
g) Political and social instability in neighbouring countries
Since 1994, Tanzania experienced an influx of refugees from some neighbouring
countries namely Rwanda, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Although
stability has mostly been restored in Rwanda and Burundi, DRC continues to be
unstable. The influx of refugees has caused massive deforestation as well as land and
other environmental degradation in and around refugee camp sites. The trend in
refugee influx is shown in Table 6.1.
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Table 6.1: Trends of refugee influx into the country, 1994-2011

(Source: UNHCR, www.indexmundi.com)
h) Unsustainable economic activities
Unsustainable farming practices; poor technology in processing goods (e.g. drying of
fish and tobacco); mining and quarrying that lead to abandoned pits, heaps of soil,
waste rock and metal scraps; contribute largely to physical degradation of the land and
environmental degradation. Presence of abandoned pits and heaps of waste rocks, scrap
metals and tailings in abandoned mine sites at the Buhemba Gold Mine, is a vivid
example.
i) Biofuel investment
More than 600,000 hectares of land have so far been allocated for biofuel investments,
particularly for jatropha, sugar-cane and oil palm. Many of the requests and allocations
for land have been for jatropha cultivation Rufiji Basin which constitutes about 60% of
land suitable for irrigation as well as hydropower potential. Clearing of large areas of
98
natural forest habitats, including coastal and miombo woodlands, to give way to
biofuels crop farming, is a major environmnental concern, which can contribute to soil
erosion, increase drought risks and affect local biodiversity.
6.3
Pressure
a) Inadequate livestock infrastructure
In Tanzania, cattle infrastructures such as charcol dams and cattle dips are not
adequately provided for in livestock keeping areas. As a result, livestock keepers move
from one place to another in search for water for their cattle, in most cases from rivers,
swamps and wetlands. This kind of movements has been a serious problem as it ends
up in degrading water catchment areas. In 2006, livestock keepers and their large herds
of cattle mainly from Shinyanga Region invaded Ihefu Wetland, in Mbarali District in
search for water and fodder causing serious land degradation in the basin, resulting in
shortage of water for hydropower production in Mtera Dam. In 2012, searching for
water and fodder also led to livestock-keepers invasion of Kilombero Valley in
Morogoro Region.
b) Overgrazing
Overgrazing/overstocking resulting from large herds of cattle being retained by some
livestock keepers for prestige, a practice which worked well in the past when land was
ample, is impractical today when grazing land is increasingly becoming less and less
due to demographic changes. Localized overstocking amplifies the trampling effects of
moving herds of cattle, causing severe damage or total loss of grazing pastures; leading
to serious degradation. In many regions, livestock population far exceeds the carrying
capacity of the land resulting in overgrazing. In Shinyinga, especially Meatu District,
and Mbulu in Arusha Region, the excess is reported to be over 200%. Other regions
facing overstocking include Mwanza, Dodoma, and Manyara.
c) Rapid urbanization
Tanzania is among the rapid urbanizing countries in Africa, with urbanization rate of
about 4.7% per annum. This rapid urbanization increases demand for food, building
materials and energy, especially charcoal which provides energy for cooking to most of
urban population in the country. The increase in food demand pushes demand for
arable land in rural areas to produce food to meet high demand for food in urban
areas. The demand for arable land in most cases is met by clearing virgin land to open
new farms rather than agricultural intensification. Due to poverty and low technology,
in most cases opening of new farms is undertaken using slash-and-burn farming
technique, which makes the land very susceptible to agents of soil erosion such as
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water and wind. In recent years more and more farms have been opened up in the
marginal areas and even in the protected areas to produce food crops.
Experiences from the Kihansi River Catchment area show that catchment forests have
significantly been reduced to pave way for agricultural activities and human
habitation. In some areas cultivation has been extended to areas with less suitable
condition especially in the former grazing areas. In some cases, forest clearing for farms
has been rampant around game reserves. Where, rural farmers have opted to intensify
their agricultural production, often it has been carried out unsustainably with excessive
use of agrochemicals and pesticides. Moreover, the increasing energy demand has led
to rampant clearing of forests for charcoal production especially in districts around
major cities such as Dar es Salaam and Mwanza. It is common to see several trucks per
day carrying charcoal from these nearby districts to the cities. As a result, marginal
lands are further exposed to cultivation and grazing, and forests are further degraded
leading to large tracts of land losing vegetation cover and biodiversity through soil
erosion, infestation by weeds, pests and diseases.
d) Unsustainable farming practices
In Tanzania, agriculture is mainly undertaken by smallholders whose farming practices
are in most cases traditional and unsustainable. These include farming along river
valleys during dry season (vinyungu), slash-and-burn farming technique, traditional
gravitational irrigation, excessive use of agrochemicals and monoculture, farming on
marginal lands such as those on steep slopes. Traditional farming along river valleys is
a common problem in many parts of Tanzania. It exposes river valleys to soil erosion as
well as siltation downstream. Slash-and-burn farming technique involves cutting and
burning of bushes in opening farms leaving the land bare, exposing it to agents of soil
erosion. This problem is common in many parts of Tanzania especially where there is
extensive land for agricultural expansion. Traditional gravitation irrigation involves
collecting water from the ponds. The collected water is released to gravitationally
irrigate land at a certain arranged frequency. This kind of irrigation contributes to soil
erosion, henceforth land degradation. In some cases, especially in rice farming, the
water is released to a rice farm and remains trapped in the farm for a period of time,
the practice that is likely to cause soil salinity and leaching due to water logging. This
problem is common in many areas in Tanzania where traditional irrigation farming is
practiced especially in maize and rice farming areas in Kilimanjaro, Morogoro and
Mbeya regions.
Monoculture practices have also been adding pressure on land degradation. This is the
case where people cultivate the same cash or food crops in the same area repeatedly,
leading to exhaustion of available soil nutrients. This is common in cash crops farming
such as tobacco and cotton in Mwanza, Shinyanga and Tabora; and food crops such as
100
maize farming in many places in the country. Excessive use of agrochemicals has also
contributed to land degradation. This problem is mainly due to lack of farming
knowledge among the majority of farmers. This is especially in vegetable farming
where agrochemicals are inappropriately used to protect vegetables from crop
diseases. These practices lead to land degradation and consequently deterioration of
soil quality. Plate 6.2 is an area on Pare Mountains affected by soil erosion due to
unsustainable farming.
Plate 6.2: The continuing loss of vegetation cover on the slopes of

Pare Mountains due to unsustainable cultivation on steep
slopes.
e) Inadequate land-use plans
Land use planning is an important tool to ensure that land is used on a sustainable
basis. It is also applied for livestock management after establishing the carrying
capacity of the intended piece of land. In Tanzania, much of land, especially the village
land is used without formally approved land use plans, resulting in unsustainable use
of land such as overstocking and unplanned settlements. Such practices often lead to
land degradation, which if not checked is very expensive to reclaim the degraded land.
6.4
State
a) Soil erosion
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Decline and depletion of vegetative cover through deforestation, overgrazing,

prolonged drought and unsustainable farming practices, is the most important cause of
soil erosion and loss of top soils. In addition to agriculture expansion contributes to
deforestation, high demand for wood products complicates the situation. Deforestation
is alarmingly high in woodlands and natural forests where tobacco growing is
rampant, especially in Tabora, Shinyanga and Ruvuma Regions. Loss of topsoil and
compaction decreases infiltration capacity of the soil leading to accelerated surface runoff and soil erosion. Accelerated soil erosion, is common in most parts of the country
and occurs under a great variety of climatic and physical conditions and land use. Plate
6.3 is land surface devoid of top soil resulting from a combination of causative factor
that include overgrazing, soil compaction and prolonged drought.
Plate 6.3: Land surface devoid of top soil resulting from a combination of causative
factors which include overstocking/overgrazing, soil compaction, prolonged
drought in the pastoral lands of Mukulat in Arumeru district.
b) Loss of soil nutrients/fertility
Land degradation in most parts of the country has led to loss of soil nutrients (mainly
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) or organic matter. This problem is serious in
highly degraded regions such as Shinyanga, Dodoma, and parts of Kilimanjaro and
Singida Regions. In some parts nutrients are lost through erosion, especially in the
humid areas where many nutrients are leached during intense rainstorms, especially
on unprotected land. This is more common in the regions along the coast such as
Pwani, Lindi and Mtwara Regions. In addition, nutrients can be depleted by the crops,
particularly where monoculture is practiced, for example, tobacco, maize and cotton
farming in different parts of the country.
c) Salinization
Salinization, which is the concentration of salts in the top soil, occurs due to poor
management of irrigation water or insufficient attention to drainage, consequently
leading to development of alkaline soils. This is the case especially in arid areas where
102
high evaporation rates foster the process. The extent of the salt-affected soils in
Tanzania is estimated to be 1.7 million ha (MAFC, 2002). This problem has mainly been
noted in irrigated farms in Dodoma, Singida, Kilimanjaro and Shinyanga. Salinization
has a deleterious effect on soil productivity and crop yields. In extreme cases, damage
due to salinization is so great that it is technically unfeasible or totally uneconomic to
reverse the process.
d) Siltation
Soil erosion from cultivated and pasture land is causing serious increases in sediment
and nutrient loads getting into water sources. Siltation causes pollution and drying up
of water sources. This is a common problem in most of water sources where there are
farming is done upstream. Siltation has detrimental effect to hydropower production
dams as they render them useless. This has been the case in Mtera and Nyumba ya
Mungu Dams.
e) Terrain deformation
In some places water flow may cause the formation of rills (small channels which can
be ploughed over) and gullies (deeper channels cut by larger water flows and difficult
or impossible to level by ploughing). This problem is common in semi arid areas
especially in Dodoma, parts of Kilimanjaro, Shinyanga and Singida. Plate 6.4 is an
example of deformed-land terrain due to soil erosion. Massive water flow, especially
when there is torrential rainfall, may also cause the destruction of river banks and mass
movements (land slides) leading to terrain deformation. For example, massive land
slides that occurred recently in Same District (Kilimanjaro Region) that buried houses,
farms and other properties destroying the original terrain of the area.
Plate 6.4: Different spots of advancing soil erosion now turning into gullies in the
pastoral areas of northern Tanzania resulting from overgrazing,
deforestation and bad weather.
In mining and quarrying, abandoned pits, heaps of soil, waste rock and metal scraps
contribute largely to physical degradation of the land and thus destroying the natural
103
appearance of the environment. Presence of abandoned pits and heaps of waste rocks,
scrap metals and tailings in abandoned mine sites (Buhemba Gold Mine and small
scale mining sites) are a good example. Plate 6.5 is the example of deformed land
terrain due to abandoned mining pits.
Plate 6.5 : A: Abandoned pits in small-scale mine sites B: Land

degradation in the river due to small-scale mining activities
f) Loss of vegetation
Land degradation leads to depletion of soil nutrients resulting in loss of vegetation
cover. When this continues for long time without any correction measures, the land
becomes excessively dry. This is especially in the semi-arid areas where regeneration of
vegetations is very slow. Areas that have experienced fast loss of vegetation cover
include parts of Dodoma, Singida, Kilimanjaro and Shinyanga Regions.
g) Soil pollution
Land degradation resulting from abusive use of agro-chemicals such as fertilizers,
pesticides and fungicides, leaves the land polluted with such chemicals. One example
is soil acidification caused by excessive use of nitrogen-based fertilizers in Songea and
Iringa regions (particularly in maize fields) and elemental sulphur dusting in cashew
growing areas of Mtwara and Lindi to control powdery mildew disease. In addition,
land degradation resulting from use of mercury in gold recovery, has been causing
land and water pollution. Mercury is very harmful to human health due to the fact that
it can lead to Minamata disease. Mercury pollution is common in areas that small scale
and illegal miners are undertaking gold mining, such as in Geita, Shinyanga and
Mwanza Regions. In addition, soil pollution results from leakage of industrial and
mining chemicals and mining remains or materials.
104
In addition as stated earlier, Tanzania collects and properly disposes only about 50% of
solid waste in the country and the households connected to sewerage system are only
about 10-15%. The country is therefore faced with the problem of scattered solid wastes
including plastics and domestic and industrial liquid wastes draining in the streets. As
such, the scenery of such land is destroyed and rendered unappealing. This has led to
loss of lands, which would otherwise be tourist attractions.
6.5
Impacts
a) Decline or loss of soil productivity and food insecurity
Land degradation in Tanzania has, in most cases, led to decline or loss of land
productivity due to reduced or depletion of soil nutrients. This has resulted into
shifting cultivation and migration of pastoralists. For example in many parts of the
country where farming is undertaken on highlands, such as Pare, Usambara and
Uluguru Mountains, farmers have been practicing shifting cultivation due to the fact
that their slash-and-burn farming technique has been resulting in decline of soil
nutrients and hence loss of soil productivity. Livestock keepers from the north western
regions such as Shinyanga have been migrating to other areas in search for fodders due
to decline in productivity of pasture lands.
Land degradation, coupled with drought has led to recurring shortage of food in
drought-prone areas of the country. The areas affected include Dodoma, Singida,
Tabora, Shinyanga, parts of Kilimanjaro and Manyara. This is because when land is
highly degraded and is hit by recurring drought, it ends up yielding nothing especially
in rain-fed farm-lands.
b) Water pollution
Soil erosion from cultivated and pasture lands, causes significant increase in sediment
and nutrient loads into water sources. This in turn causes pollution and eutrophication
of fresh water ecosystems, wetlands, lakes and rivers, which also has a negative effect
on provision of food and livelihood for a significant population in the country. There
are reported cases of water pollution in water bodies such as Mindu Dam, Msimbazi
River, Tigite River and Lake Victoria. However, the levels of pollution of such water
bodies are yet to be accurately established.
c) Desertification
Continuing land degradation in semi arid areas which is further being complicated by
overgrazing, has in some places resulted into semi-desert lands. Examples of affected
areas include Dodoma, Shinyanga, Singida, parts of Kilimanjaro and Manyara Regions.
105
d) Migrations and land conflicts

Excessive land degradation triggers migrations of people and their livestock in search
for productive land, fodder and water. This is especially grazing lands in semi arid
areas such as Shinyanga, Dodoma and Manyara, which have been affected by
overgrazing, recurring droughts and subsequent soil erosion resulting from torrential
rains and winds. As a result livestock-keepers move to other areas, often to agriculture
production areas searching for water and fodder. This results in farmers-livestock
keepers conflicts, in various places of the country such as Rufiji (Pwani Region), Kilosa
and Kilombero (Morogoro Region) and Mbarali (Mbeya Region). Figure 6.1 is the
Location map showing districts with semi-arid characteristics in the central to northeast section of the country.
106
Figure 6.1: Map of Semi-arid Areas in Tanzania

e) Loss of biodiversity
Land degradation in most cases, has led to loss of vegetation and biodiversity. In recent
years this has been the case especially in semi-arid areas which are facing overgrazing
and recurring droughts. This leads to serious devegetation and land degradation.
Examples of affected areas include Dodoma and Shinyanga and Manyara. In addition,
there is loss of natural vegetation in mining areas, which occurs during infrastructural
development, both basic and supportive, such as underground or open pits; waste rock
dumps; processing plants; water damps; and tailings storage facilities. Supportive
107
infrastructures include haulage roads; offices; stores; power station; residential

housings for workers; and water supply and waste management facilities. In the course
of establishment of such facilities, land that bears vegetations has to be cleared, which
in-turn results into deforestations and loss of biodiversity. Plate 6.7 is an example of
mining facilities constructed by woods.
108
Plate 6.6: A: Logs cut by small-scale miners B: Logs used in

stabilization of mining pits (Souce: URT, 2011)
6.6
Response
a)
Land-use planning
Recently the Government has undertaken various initiatives towards instilling land use
planning in the country. These include:i)
National Land-Use framework Plan 2011-2031: This facilitates rational

allocation of land resources and decision-making on resources
management at national level, while ensuring the sustainability of the
natural environment. The framework also provides for an institutional
and administrative arrangement for management and regulation of land
use. It further provides guidance for the determination of land use of
national concerns such as protected areas, wetlands, agricultural, grazing,
urban and rural settlements and socio-economic infrastructures.
ii) Issuing of villagers guide for participatory planning and management of

village land in Kiswahili language Kiongozi cha Mwanakijiji katika Upangaji
na Usimamizi wa Matumizi ya Ardhi cha Mwaka 2010.
iii) Preparation of the National Agricultural Land use Planning and Management
Master Plan (2011): The Plan aims to contribute to the ongoing efforts for
sustainable use and management of arable and grazing lands. This
involves construction and rehabilitation of charco dams, the measures
that are implemented on a cost-sharing arrangement based on a 50-30-20
per cent ratio between the central government, district authorities and
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livestock keepers, respectively. Table 6.2 shows the achievements made

in 2010/2011 in rehabilitation of charcos and dams.
Table 6.2: Rehabilitated/Constructed Charco dams in year 2010/2011 through
District Agricultural Development Programmes (DADPs) and District
Agricultural Sector Investment Project (DASIP)
Region
No. of charco dams

Funds Spent (TSh. 000)
Constructed Rehabilitated Construction Rehabilitation
Arusha
2
4
81,200
19,600
Dodoma
2
2
27,000
30,000
Iringa
8
6
74,511
51,020
Kagera
1
2
28,600
28,000
Kilimanjaro
1
0
20,000
0
Manyara
1
5
28,000
29,900
Mara
0
2
0
10,000
Mbeya
1
0
20,000
0
Mwanza
3
1
34,902
3,062
Pwani
6
0
93,135
0
Rukwa
1
2
28,200
0
Ruvuma
1
0
19,751
0
Shinyanga
8
0
198,400
0
Singida
1
2
15,000
13,000
Tabora
1
1
13,000
644
Lindi
0
3
0
4,704
Total
37
30
681,699
189,930
Source: Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development, 2011
b)
Preparation of Sectoral Environmental Action Plans (SEAPs)
In 2011, five sector ministries (Agriculture, Energy and Minerals, Infrastructure

Development, Water and Health) prepared their Sector Environmental Action Plans.
These action plans are intended to enable the sector ministries to mainstream
environmental issues in their normal planning and budgeting and their subsequent
implementation. For sectors whose activities have direct bearing on land such as
agriculture, energy and minerals and infrastructure development, the action plans are
expected to enable them to address land degradation affecting such respective sectors.
c)
Mainstreaming environment into NSGRP II
National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP II) is a five year
strategy to be implemented in 2011-2015. The strategy is implemented by all sectors of
110
the economy including agriculture, mining, energy, livestock, forestry, fisheries,

infrastructure and land. Environmental issues have been mainstreamed in this strategy
in order to ensure that development activities in such sectors are undertaken taking
into consideration environmental concerns, with a view to achieve sustainable
development. The strategy has set various sectoral environmental targets which have
to be achieved concurrently with other developmental objectives and hence
achievement of sustainable development. The strategy among other things, addresses
issues of land degradation in mining, farming, livestock keeping, infrastructure
development and industrial activities.
d) Undertaking Projects and Programmes for Sustainable Land Use Management
Addressing land degradation in Tanzania has always ranked high on the environment
agenda. Currently various sustainable land use management projects are being
implemented. These include:i)
Sustainable Land Management (SLM) Initiatives:

a) Sustainable Land Use Management in Kilimanjaro: This is a four years
project from 2011-2015 which is being implemented in 72 villages in
Kilimanjaro Region. The project seeks to provide the basis for
economic development, food security and sustainable livelihoods
while restoring the ecological integrity of the Kilimanjaro regions
ecosystems.
b) Mainstreaming Sustainable Forest Management in Miombo Woodland of Western
Tanzania: This is a five - year project from 2012- 2016. The objective of the
project is to enable miombo dependent communities to adopt productive
practices that are favourable to biodiversity conservation reduce carbon
emissions from land use change and improve livelihoods. The project is
implemented in Tabora (Urambo, Kaliua and Uyui) and Katavi (Mlele)
Regions.
ii)
Lake Tanganyika Regional Integrated Development Programme (PRODAP)

2008-2013: This is a regional project implemented by four riparian states
of Tanzania, Zambia, Burundi and Democratic Republic of Congo. The
Programme aimed at Institutional Capacity Building; Fisheries
Development and Environmental Protection: Rural Infrastructure and
Local Development; Catchment management; and Wastewater
management.
111
iii)
Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project Phase II (2010-2015): This is

a transboundary East African Community Project under implementation
in the five countries that share the Lake Victoria Basin, Burundi, Kenya,
Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda. It is designed to achieve two
development/global environmental objectives. Firstly, improving
collaborative management of transboundary natural resources of Lake
Victoria Basin and, secondly reducing environmental stress in targeted
pollution hotspots and selected degraded sub-catchments as means of
improving the livelihoods of communities who depend on natural
resources of the basin.
iv)
Africa Stockpile Project (ASP) 2005-2013: The project aimed at properly

disposing the quantity of inventoried publicly held obsolete pesticides
and associated waste; and properly disposing quantity of inventoried
heavily contaminated soil. To achieve the objectives about 960 tons of
obsolete pesticides and associated wastes have been collected and
exported for proper disposal in UK and Poland. This will help to prevent
further spreading of these obsolete pesticides that contaminate and
degrade land.
e)
Strategies and plans to address land degradation, conservation of water catchments and
waste management
i) In 2006, the Government prepared and started implementing a Strategy
for Urgent Actions on Land Degradation and Water Catchments. This
strategy, has the objective of addressing degradation of land and water
catchments due to overgrazing, unsustainable farming practices,
deforestation, wildfires, unsustainable irrigation practices, unsustainable
mining practices, and a haphazard disposal of plastic wastes. Since its
inauguration in 2006 a lot has been achieved in addressing land
degradation in the country including identification and conservation of
water catchments; resettlement of pastoralists and farmers who had
invaded various ecological sensitive areas such as wetlands and forests;
reducing wildfires by enacting and enforcing bylaws; expelling illegal
miners who had invaded various ecological sensitive areas such as Amani
Nature Reserve (Muheza District) and Shengena Forest Reserve (Same
District); and promoting tree planting whereby each district is required to
plant at least 1,500,000 trees annually.
ii) Preparation of Waste Management Strategy and Action Plan (NWSAP)
with the objective of enhancing waste management in the country.
112
iii) Preparation of Climate Change Strategy in 2012. The Strategy, among

other things, emphasizes on adaptation to climate change impacts
including adapting to recurrent droughts. Such droughts negatively
impact on land degradation by exposing the land to agents of soil erosion
such as water and wind.
iv) National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) 2013-2018: Among the nine
environmental challenges identified by this plan is land degradation. To
address this challenge the following priority actions are identified:
Strengthen enforcement of the Land Use Planning Act, 2007; Carry out
environmental mapping for identifying highly fragile or degraded
areas; Prohibit uncontrolled wild fires; Implement the National Action
Plan on Desertification (NAP); Prepare and implement reclamation plans
in highly degraded areas such as mining areas; Promote sustainable
agricultural practices; Promote use of appropriate traditional knowledge
in land management; Improve and promote
rangeland resource
management; Strengthen national research use and information sharing,
extension services and farmer organizations in land; and Strengthen
Implementation of the Strategy for Urgent Actions on Land Degradation
and Water Catchments.
v) Implementation of National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA): In 2007,
the government prepared NAPA. The programme, among other things,
address land use issues. It identifies potential climate change adaptation
options in land use such as encouraging terracing, contour farming, use
of organic manure, zero-grazing, some land to be allocated for specific
protective uses, and development and the informal sector. Since then, the
programme has been implemented through projects and programmes,
which also address land degradation. A typical example of these projects
is Dodoma eco-village project implemented in Chololo Village-Dodoma
Municipality which among others, has been supporting land use
planning and tree planting to enable proper land use and rejuvenation of
degraded lands. This initiative also contributes to addressing impacts of
climate change.
f)
Promotion of conservation agriculture and rainwater harvesting

i) Promotion of conservation agriculture and rainwater harvesting for crop
and livestock production have also taken roots in Tanzania with
particular focus on semi-arid areas of the country. It has therefore been
necessary for the government to promote adoption of conservation
agriculture and rainwater harvesting in order to enhance effective
113
tapping and infiltration of rainfall to boost soil moisture availability for

optimal performance of cultivated crops and pastures. The following are
examples of conservation agriculture that are being promoted in the
country: Ngitiri: This is an indigenous natural resource management system
in Shinyanga. It involves conservation of fallow and rangelands
through vegetation regeneration and controlled livestock grazing
for use in the dry season in response to acute animal feed shortage
during dry season. A similar system is also practiced in Maasai
land where it is known as Alalili.
Matengo Pit cultivation (ngoro) farming: In southern Tanzania,

for a long time, farmers have developed a system of farming on
steep/slopes. This system, called the ngoro system entails
cultivation on a hillside by making series of small pits. Earth from
the pits is piled in heaps at the side, and in these heaps, crops
(mostly maize) are grown. Weeds and crop residues are thrown
into such pits. For the next seasons crops the heaps are broken
down into pits and fresh pits dug alongside. Hillside cultivated in
this way present a honey-comb like appearance. The system is the
most effective way of preventing erosion and maintaining the
fertility of the soil. Apart from this, the system helps in soil
biodiversity and soil moisture conservation.
Others are terracing and agroforestry as they appear in Plate 6.7.
Plate 6.7: Right: Grevillea robusta planted windbreaks in pastoral areas of

Arusha: Centre: leguminous cover crops; Right: Vetiver grass to control
run-off in Ululanzi village, Kilolo district, Iringa region.
g) The Government has been supporting communities in semi-arid areas such
as Shinyanga, Dodoma, Manyara and Tabora to construct charco dams for
conserving water for livestock. Households and institutions have been
encouraged to harvest rain water for various uses. Rain water harvesting
114
addresses water shortage and is among the interventions promoted under

the Strategy for Urgent Action on Land Degradation and Water Catchments
2006.
h) The National Fertilizer Regulatory Authority was both established and
became effective in 2012. The authority is mandated to oversee, monitor and
regulate the entire process of fertilizer trading, distribution and quality
inspection to ensure applications of the right fertilizers in the right place
adhere to environmental safeguards.
i)
Promotion of cost-effective technologies for agroforestry and soil erosion

control on cultivated lands through community based agricultural
development projects. Various soil and water conservation technologies are
promoted through extension as the Figure below shows:
Plate 6.8: Centre: Bench terraces across and upslope on Pare Mountains in Chome
Same District: Left: Bird-view of the landscape; Centre: people at work with
the onion plants; Right: closer look of the bench terrace a versetile archtect.
j)
Dermacation and setting aside of locations for small-scale mining including

Kilindi District (Tanga Region), Kilosa and Mvomero Districts (Morogoro
Region), Maganzo, Kishapu and Ibadakuli (Shinyanga Region), Mererani
(Manyara Region), Mpwapwa (Dodoma Region), Nyarugusu and
Rwammgasa (Mwanza Region) and Manyoni (Singida Region) (Table 6.3).
Demarcation is done mainly for the purpose of enhancing the Government
to monitor small-scale mining activities as well as provide extension
services.
Table 6.3: Demarcated areas for small scale mining
Area
Ngembambili
(Kitai), Masuguru
Mineral
type
Size
(Ha)
Year
Demarcated
Gemstones
7,899
2007
115
Remarks
Area demarcated but not
Area
Mineral
type
and Makolo.
Mbinga District
Winza, Mpwapwa
Gemstones
District
Rwamgasa (Geita
Gold
District)
Nyarugusu (Geita
Gold
District)
Matabe, Bukombe
Gold
District Geita
Region
Mererani, Simanjiro Tanzanite
district Manyara
Region
Makanya, Same
Gypsum
District
Kilimanjaro
Rwabasi, Musoma
Gold
District Mara
Region
Seza Kofi and
Gemstones
Mumbwi Handeni
District
Ngasamo Geita
Gold
District
Nyasanero,
Gold
Musoma District
Makoro Mbinga
District
Ilagala Kigoma
Rural District
Size
(Ha)
Year
Demarcated
4,000
2010
2,500
2010
2,500
2010
Remarks
Gazetted in the government
notice
Demarcated and gazetted in
the Government notice
1,000
6,000
2007
400
2010
Area identified but not

demarcated
500
demarcated
25
demarcated
demarcated
229
172
Gemstone
500
Limestone
and
copper
590

demarcated
demarcated
demarcated
(Source: URT, 2011)

k) Enforcement of Environmental Management Act (Cap 191) and its Regulations:
The Government has been enforcing the Act by among others, ensuring that
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is undertaken prior to
implementation of projects including mining and industrial projects. The
reports of these EIAs are required to include among others, actions that will
116
be undertaken to safeguard the environment during implementation and

after closure of the respective project. Plate 6.9 is example of land
rehabilitation actions in mining areas.
117
Plate 6.9: A: Waste Rock Dump rehabilitation B: Tree Nursery for replanting in
Kahama Gold Mining
118
CHAPTER SEVEN
DEFORESTATION AND FOREST DEGRADATION
7.1
Background
Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter
converted to non forest use, for example, conversion of forest land to farms, ranches
and settlements. Forest Degradation is the long-term reduction of the overall supply of
benefits from forest, which includes wood, biodiversity and other products or services.
7.2
Drivers
a) Poverty
Most of the Tanzanians livelihood depends on the natural resources including forest
resources for their survival, with the majority of people living below the poverty line.
Daily activities such as agriculture, grazing, firewood collection and charcoalproduction, are conducted in the forests and go hand-in-hand with deforestation and
forest degradation.
b) Population Growth
Tanzania population is rapidly growing, increasing from 12.3 million people in 1967 to
44.9 million people in 2012 with almost doubling between 1988-2012 (URT, 2012b). This
increase in population has serious ramification and exerts more pressure on utilization
of natural resources, particularly forest resources. Field surveys conducted in Tabora
Region (MNRT, 2010) showed that many forest reserves contain villages and livestock
keepers within their boundaries. In some cities and large urban areas, settlement
expansion is usually unplanned and starts to encroach into nearby forest reserves.
Experience shows that population in urban centres has been increasing due to ruralurban migration adding more pressure on adjacent forests like Pugu, Kazimzumbwi,
Vikindu in the case of the fast expanding Dar-es-Salaam City.
c) Economic growth
The global economic growth coupled with globalization, has resulted into expansion of
trade among nations and competing demand for food, feed, fibre and fuel, intensifying
pressures on forest resources. Tanzania is among the sources of these materials to the
global economy. The country also caters for its domestic demand for these materials.
This has led to forest conversion and forest degradation. Wood production consumes
about 50% of forest product (TFS, 2013) (Figure 7.1).
119
Figure 7.1: Various level of consumption of forest products

d) Energy demand
An estimated 90 % of Tanzanias energy needs are met through the use of wood fuels.
Firewood remains the most common source of fuel for cooking in rural areas whereas
charcoal is mostly used in urban areas (TFS, 2013). Approximately half of Tanzanias
annual charcoal consumption, amounting to approximately 500,000 tons, takes place in
Dar es Salaam. The amount of charcoal consumed is expected to further rise in future.
With continued heavy dependence on charcoal and firewood as sources of energy for
domestic use, coupled with absence of affordable alternative energy sources, the forest
resources remain in jeopardy.
120
Figure 7.2: Household sources of energy (Source: TFS, 2013)

e) Political and social instability in neighbouring countries
For several years, there has been social unrest in some of the neighbouring countries.
This has led to influx of refugees in the country in bordering Regions of Kigoma, Kagera
and Rukwa. Land clearing for refugee campsites, construction material, fuelwood and
agricultural crop production constitute a major threat to forest resources in refugeepopulated areas. Up to 2001, there were about 646,900 refugees in Tanzania. The influx
of refugees into the country has had severe environmental consequences; inter alia,
rapid depletion of forests and wildlife, destruction of water resources and damage to
croplands. An average of 17,000 to 20 000 ha were estimated to have been depleted
during 1994-1996 (TFCMP, 2001).
f) Biofuel crop farming
Large areas of natural forests habitats with high biodiversity are being cleared to give
way to biofuel crop farming. It is estimated that Tanzania has 30 million ha suitable for
bio-fuel plantations. By 2008, the total area allocated for biofuel plantations was about
650,000 ha out of the 4 million ha requested.
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g) Unsustainable farming practices

Unsustainable farming practices include shifting cultivation uncontrolled clearing and burning
of forests and woodlands resulting in degradation of forests.
7.3
Pressure
a)
Climate change
Severe and recurrent drought as a result of climate change can result in destruction of
forests and forest resources. Tanzania, being impacted by adverse impacts of climate
change, has its forest resources at risk. Due to this effect, pastoralists and farmers are
forced to migrate into virgin forests and other lands.
b)
Cultural beliefs bushfires
The extent of fire damage to forests, biodiversity and other natural resources on the
Mainland is very high. Most of the fires are intentional, especially those set for clearing
of farmlands. This has been observed in many part of the country especially during the
dry season (July to November). Some fires are started accidentally, for instance from
cigarettes thrown by passengers from passing vehicles or pedestrians. However, most
of the fires occur in the miombo woodlands and the coastal forests as a result of
uncontrolled human activities.
Depending on the locality and traditional lifestyles, majority of people start fires for
example, to clear farmlands, which is a common practice in the miombo ecosystem and
the coastal forest mosaic. In some parts of the country fires are started to facilitate
animal hunting, as a tool for honey hunting, to eradicate tsetse flies and ticks, or to
induce growth of fresh grass in rangelands (Plate 7.1-7.4).
An average of 11 million ha are burnt annually (ranging from between 8.5 and 12.9
million ha) across the country (TFS, 2013). This corresponds to between nine (9) and 14
per cent of the Mainland area. About 75% of annual fires occur in the Western part of
the country particularly in Kigoma, Mbeya, Tabora and Rukwa Regions which is
dominated by the miombo woodland. Twenty percent (20%) of fires occur in industrial
forest plantations and another 5% occurring in high rainforest areas during dry season
(August to November). Observations over time have shown that fires occur
sporadically in Morogoro, Lindi, Pwani, Mtwara, Ruvuma and Tanga Regions, thereby
causing serious environmental degradation and loss of biodiversity.
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Plate 7.1: Overgrazing
Plate 7.2: Forest clearing
Plate 7.3: Cleared forest for

agriculture
c)
Plate 7.4: Forest fires
Land tenure
Deforestation occurs mostly in non-reserved forests while forest degradation takes

place both in reserved and non-reserved forestlands. Land policy (URT, 1995)
recognizes the existence of two main types of tenure: customary (deemed) land rights
and granted right of occupancy. Forest resources in the unreserved or general land (57%
of area) are open access resources due to unclear ownership and absence of security of
tenure and formal user rights. As a result, these forests have been under constant
pressure for conversion to other competing land uses such as agriculture (shifting
cultivation), livestock grazing, settlements and industrial developments and repeated
forest fires. Thirty three percent (33%) of the land in Tanzania is under legal protection
(protected forests and wildlife reserves). In total, protected areas cover approximate 28
million ha. Production forests where harvesting is allowed in a total of about 200
million ha.
d) Inadequate enforcement and compliance to relevant laws and regulations
123
Despite the existence of policies and laws governing forest resources, the challenge has
been inadequate enforcement and compliance to these instruments. This is mainly due
to inadequate capacity, in terms of personnel and financial resources, leading to further
destruction of forests.
Plate 7.5: Chainsaws confiscated from illegal

loggers in Handeni District, Tanga Region
Plate 7.6: Illegal logging in the Miombo Woodland in Tabora Region (MNRT, 2010)
e)
Overgrazing and normadic pastoral practices
Grazing in forests and woodlands is still considered a free-for-all undertaking.

Freerange grazing has been a source of antagonism between the forest resource
managers and ecologists on one hand, and livestock keepers on the other. Overstocking
124
causes serious environmental impacts including damaging forest and wetland

resources. Examples are Kilombero and Ihefu wetlands in Morogoro and Mbeya
Regions respectively.
7.4
State
Between 1990 and 2000, Tanzania lost an average of 412,300 ha of forest cover per year.
In total, between 1990 and 2005, Tanzania lost 14.9% of its forest cover or around
6,184,000 ha. According to TFS (2013), the annual loss of forest area is approximately 1%
equivalent to 400,000 ha of forest cover per annum. The rate of deforestation and
degradation has been increasing across the country-wide (Table 7.1).
Table 7.1: Trends of various land cover in Tanzania, 1990 2010
Category
Areas in km
2000
2005
374 616
354 450
Forest
1990
414 949
1995
394 783
2010
334 284
Other wooded land
181 834
165 424
149 014
132 604
116 193
Other land
289 017
325 593
362 170
398 746
435 323
Source: Modified from MNRT, 2010

7.5
Impacts
a)
Loss of biodiversity
Widespread deforestation could lead to loss of biodiversity. Logging of the most

valuable timber species such as Milicia excelsa (Mvule), Pterocarpus angolensis (Mninga)
and Dalbergia melanoxylon (Mpingo) has led to threaten the species to extinction.
b)
Economic loss
Deforestation (particularly in watersheds and water sources), has further knock-on

effects due to reduced water flows and subsequent interrupted power generation in
hydroelectric schemes such as Mtera and Kihansi. Economic costs associated with
unreliable power supply have been estimated at about US$ 330 million for 2006
representing about 2 percent of GDP (World Bank, 2006).
7.6
Response
a) Preparation and implementation of policies, legislation, plans, strategies and
125
programmes
The Government has formulated a number of policies and legislations to address issues
of deforestation such as National Forest Policy (1998), and Forest Act of 2002 and
associated National Forest Programme, the Environmental Management Act (Cap. 191),
Land Act No. 4 of 1999 and Village Land Act No. 5 of 1999. There are also a number of
strategies, action plans and programmes such as National Environmental Action Plan
(NEAP); Strategy on Urgent Actions on Land Degradation and Water Catchments; and
the Programme on Reducing Emissions through Forest Degradation and Deforestation
(REDD+).
b) Promotion of traditional management practices
Traditional forest management such as ngitiri in Shinyanga; alalili in Masailand; and
milaga in Dodoma, are now recognized and it plays an important role in the
management of forests and woodlands across many parts of Tanzania.
c) Participatory Forest Management (PFM)
The Government has been promoting participation of local communities in forest
management through Joint Forest Management (JFM) and Community Based Forest
Management (CBFM). A number of PFM studies have reported improved forest
regeneration, biodiversity, forest growth and well-being of community members.
d) Tree planting campaign
The country continue to plant trees, under tree planting Campaign, implemented by
MNRT - Forest and Beekeeping Division which is now under TFS and coordinated by
VPO-DoE. According to the Strategy for Urgent Actions on Land Degradation and
Water Catchments (2006), each District is supposed to plant not less than 1.5 million
trees. However, some districts have set their own targets depending on their Action
Plan. There are some improvement and increased number of trees planted. Data for tree
planting from 2007-2012 indicated that some improvement have made to some districts
and some regions (Table 7.2).
Table 7.2: Total number of trees planted since 2007-2012
Year
2007/2008
2008/2009
2009/2010
Trees Planted
Trees survived
187,724,490
301,749,794
208,868,230
39,479,834
188,517,654
162,277,018
126
% tree
survived
21.05
62.47
78.01
2010/2011
2011/2012
180,798,223
145,156,884
141,470,900
108,171,349
78.02
74.52
e) Presidential Award on Conservation of Water sources, Tree Planting and

Management
This award is coordinated by the Vice Presidents Office which aims at encouraging
institutional, individual and community participation in environmental management
among others it addresses issues related to forest and water catchment conservation.
The award is conducted biannually since 2010.
f) Establishment of TFS
In order to improve and strengthen forest management, the Government has
established a stand-alone agency, the Tanzania Forest Services Agency (TFS), newly
established (2010) under The Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT). The
new institutional arrangement enables more effective enforcement of policy and
legislation on forest management.
g) Forest information management
The Government has initiated the National Forest Resources Monitoring and
Assessment (NAFORMA) with the objective of providing key information for informed
decision-making in forest management. Key findings of the initial national forest survey
were released in 2013. Plate 7.7 shows typical field work during the monitoring
exercise.
Plate 7.7: Field work during Forest Resources Monitoring and Assessment
h) Promotion of alternative energy sources
127
Promotion for alternative energy sources and energy efficient technologies (biogas,
natural gas, improved charcoal kilns, charcoal stoves) is being carried out countrywide
by numerous stakeholders. (NKONDOLA)
128
CHAPTER EIGHT
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
8.1
Introduction
Biodiversity loss continues to be a major global threat to future development. Like

many other countries in the world, Tanzania is affected by rapid loss of biodiversity,
due to various reasons. Freshwater and marine biodiversity is more seriously affecting
the provision of ecosystem services. Ecosystems such as forests, wetlands, and drylands are transformed and, in some cases, irreversibly degraded.
The National Environmental Policy (1997) identified loss of wildlife habitats and
biodiversity as one of the six environmental problems requiring urgent and concerted
attention. For instance, the country possesses important species with declining
populations that are globally endangered and threatened. These include terrestrial
animal species such as Black rhinoceros, Wild dog, Chimpanzee, African elephant,
Cheetah, Wattled Crane; plant species such as Pterocarpus angolensis (Mninga) and
Dalbergia melanoxylon (Mpingo). Aquatic species which are threatened include
coelacanth, dugongs and sea turtles.
8.2
Drivers
Despite the biodiversity richness, Tanzania is experiencing increasing threat on

biodiversity due to a number of natural and human drivers, including economic
growth, population growth, poverty, global trade in plant and animal species and
climate change. These threats (drivers) are largely responsible for the loss of biological
resources and ecological processes in the country.
a)
Rapid population growth
About 74% of Tanzanias population live in rural areas and is engaged mostly in
subsistence farming and livestock keeping. The increasing population growth (Chapter
3), coupled with poverty, poses a major threat to the countrys biodiversity. Since
majority of the population resides in rural areas and depends on subsistence
agriculture, whose harvests are highly unreliable. The rural community is forced to
depend on natural resources such as forests in order to meet their basic needs such as
firewood, food, water and income. This leads to unsustainable exploitation of forest
resources and clearance of forests, wetlands and grasslands and over-exploitation of
wildlife. As the environment becomes increasingly degraded due to the low capacity of
the communities to afford sustainable consumption of the natural resources, poverty
129
increases simultaneously. Poverty therefore is the major cause and consequence of

environmental resource depletion.
b)
Increasing demand and trade for plant and animal species
There has been a growing demand for some plant and animal products, mainly
recognised to be of high value. Ivory, horns, game meat and skins are some of the
animal products driving to loss of animal biodiversity. Of recent, there has been a
growing global demand for tusks and ivory for jewellery and ornaments and this has
been one of the major reasons for increasing incidences of illegal hunting of wild
animals, particularly rhinos and elephants. There are also markets for some bird and
reptile species in various countries. As demand for these species increases, smuggling
increases simultaneously, leading to over-utilization and eventually disappearance.
Hardwood demand for timber and other uses increases pressure and illegal harvesting
of hardwood tree species like Pterocarpus angolensis (Mninga), Dalbergia melanoxylon
(Mpingo); Chlorophora excelsa (Mvule) and Afzelia quanzensis (Mkongo). These species
are threatened and are nearly to extinction.
c)
Climate change
Severe droughts as a consequence of climate change exert pressure on biodiversity and

ecosystems at large. The country has been experiencing frequent and severe droughts
leading to poor harvests. These impacts coupled with rapid population growth, low
adaptive capacity of the rural communities to the impacts of climate change has
resulted into unsustainable resource use that in turn negatively affect biodiversity.
Furthermore, drying of water bodies (e.g. rivers, charco dams, dams, lakes and
wetland) due to severe and prolonged drought contributes to the loss of biodiversity in
such areas. The National Climate Change Strategy (2012) provides evidence of loss of
biodiversity in all forest types including disappearance of wildlife habitats, increased
risk of bush fires, limited availability of forest products (timber and non timber
products) and ecosystem shift (for example, forest to woodlands, or woodlands to
grasslands).
d)
The key drivers of the spread of IAS are trade and human mobility. The presence of
multiple factors (climate change, disturbances on species interaction and land use
changes) influencing the vulnerability and severity of the IAS poses a management
challenge. There is a long list of IAS in the country ranging from plant pathogens (e.g.
Colletotrichum coffeanum, Invertebrate (Insect) pests (e.g. Prostesphanus truncatus (larger
grain borer), Vertebrate pests (e.g. Corvus splendens (Indian house crow) and Rattus
rattus (Black roof rat), Aquatic Weeds (e.g. Eichhornia crassipes (Water hyacinth) and
130
Pistia stratiotes (Water lettuce), terrestrial weeds (e.g. Lantana camara (Lantana),
Animals/fish species (e.g. Lates niloticus (Nile perch), to Tree/shrub species (e.g. Datura
stramonium (Common thorn apple).
The Indian house crow is one of the most notorious IAS. The crows, which by
characteristic are opportunistic and heavy feeders of other species of birds and infant
mammals, have devastating effects of biodiversity and may cause the spread of human
and animal diseases. Poultry production is the most affected by these crows, which
cause cholera among chickens. The population of the native African crow (Corvus albus)
especially in the coastal areas has been displaced by the Indian house crow.
e)
Biofuels development
The increase of Greenhouse Gases (GHG) in the atmosphere has forced many countries
to look for means to reduce CO2 and GHG emissions. Biofuel development is viewed as
one of the options for alternative energy to fossil fuels, coal and other sources which
contribute to GHG production. Although biofuels have positive potential for
greenhouse gas emission reduction, they pose potential threats to biodiversity, if
appropriate measures are not taken. Land clearance, monoculture practices, use of
herbicides and pesticides are some of the drivers to loss of biodiversity.
8.3
Pressure
Pressure on biodiversity is attributed mostly by social-economic activities including

over-exploitation of resources for various uses (such as forest resources for timber, food,
medicine and energy; and wildlife for meat and trophy; birds for food and petty trade);
increasing demands for land for agricultural production purposes due to increasing
population growth; increasing competition from invasive alien Species; and the
growing global and sub-regional of natural resource trade.
a) Over utilization of some plants for medicinal purposes
Inadequate access to modern medicine, for various reasons such as affordability, poor
infrastructure, and inadequate health facilities are some of the contributing factors
towards the use of traditional medicines mainly from plant origin. Some communities
believe that some of the traditional medicines have more curative efficiency than some
of the modern ones. Carissa spinarum (Murigariga) is an example of one of the medicinal
plant species facing a tremendous pressure due to its high demand. For example, in
August, 2010, tens of thousands of people visited Samunge Village in Loliondo Division
Arusha Region to receive treatment from a herbal drink extracted from a plant locally
known as Murigariga (Carissa spinarum/edulis) (Plate 8.1). The plant was believed to cure
diabetes, hypertension, HIV, cancer, epilepsy, paralysis, and other illnesses. In this case,
131
to supply the tens of thousands of people who visited Samunge village with the drink, a
huge amount of the plant had to be destroyed.
Plate 8.1: A long queue of vehicles in an 18 km stretch from Rev. Mwasapiles

prescription point (left) (Source: Malebo and Mbwambo, 2011), and a section of
people seeking the cure medicine (right) (Source: NBS, 2010)
b) Agricultural expansion, unsustainable use of agricultural inputs and Land
degradation
As mentioned earlier, most of the population in Tanzania resides in the rural areas
engaged with subsistence agriculture which is characterised with low productivity.
There is huge demand for land for crop production to feed the fast growing population
both in the rural and urban areas. Expansion of agriculture land coupled with
unsustainable agricultural practices pose a great threat to the biodiversity. Furthermore,
the demand for new areas for agricultural expansion has forced some farmers to
encroach in to the protected areas creating serious pressure to wildlife resources.
Unsustainable agricultural practices, is also a major factor for land degradation, and
loss of biodiversity. Use of excessive agricultural inputs and uncontrolled disposal of
domestic and industrial effluents are some of the main sources of pollution and
eutrophication, which exert tremendous pressure to aquatic biodiversity. For example,
eutrophication of water bodies leads to increased species mortality, changes in species
assemblages and loss of aquatic flora and fauna diversity. Furthermore, unsustainable
use of fertilizer and pesticides used in agriculture and against disease vectors (e.g. ticks,
mosquitoes and tsetse flies) can accumulate in rivers and other freshwater bodies, with
significant negative consequences to the aquatic species survival.
8.4
State
a) Wildlife biodiversity
132
Tanzania is endowed with diverse terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity located in various
ecological zones and ecosystems including the marine and coastal ecosystems,
freshwater and wetlands, coastal lowland forests, Miombo woodlands, Montane forests,
and Dry lands and Grasslands. It is one of the richest countries in biodiversity in Africa.
With at least 310 mammal species, the country has Africas fourth largest number of
mammals; also the species richness of birds, plants, amphibians and reptiles are among
the highest in Africa. Moreover, the country contains one of the biodiversity hotspot
areas in the world and possesses critical endemic species of flora and fauna, such as the
Sanje Mangabey monkey (Lophocebus kipunji) in Udzungwa Mountains. Others include
Shrews (Peters musk Shrew, Amani Musk shrew, Uluguru Musk Shrew, Usambara
Musk Shrew, Tanzania Mouse Shrew and Uluguru Forest Shrew); Fruit-eating bats
(Pemba flying fox);
Insect-eating bats; (Tanzania Woolly bat, Dar-es-Salaam
Pipistreslle); Primates (Sanje Crested Mangabey (endemic subspecies), Uhehe Gordons Bay Colobus, Zanzibar Colobus); and Rodents (Mt. Kilimanjaro Mole Rat,
Swynnertons Bush Squirrel).
The Selous Game Reserve, Ngorongoro
Conservation Area and Serengeti
National Park and Kilimanjaro National
Park are World Heritage Sites, whereas
Lake
Manyara
National
Park,
Ngorongoro Conservation Area and
Serengeti National Park have been
designated as biosphere reserves.
Despite the countrys richness in
wildlife biodiversity, the latter is under
tremendous pressure. The key species
that are under this pressure include the
larger carnivores such as lions, leopards,
cheetahs, wild dogs and the herbivores
group includes population of elephants,
giraffe, zebras, buffalos, antelopes,
Plate 8.2: Chimpanzee in Gombe National
wildebeests, and black rhinoceros could
Park: One of the endangered species.
be increase or decrease depending on a
(Source: Jane Goodall Institute, 2012)
number of factors such as loss of
habitats, prolonged drought and poaching. Out of these species, rhinocerous and
elephants are the most highly endangered due to poaching.
Most recent estimates suggest that the Tanzanian elephant population is decreasing. For
example, census conducted at the Selous Game Reserve and Mikumi National Park
revealed that elephant numbers had plunged to 43,552 in 2009 from 74,900 in 2006.
Studies show that about 54% of elephant deaths in the country are due to poaching,
133
followed by natural fractors (27%) and Human-Elephant Conflicts HEC (9%) (Figure
8.1). The fast growing trade for ivory in Asian markets has been one of the major
reasons for the increasing incidences of elephant poaching in Tanzania. Recent DNA
tests for jewelry and ornaments in Asia showed that about 50% of tusks tested came
from Tanzania (TANAPA, 2011).
Figure 8.1: Number of elephants that died in Tanzania National Parks 2008-2011
(Source: Kiwango , 2011)
According to TANAPA (2011), a total of 287 elephants died in eleven National Parks in
Tanzania between 2008 and 2011. Figure 9.1 shows that majority of deaths occurred in
Serengeti (24.4%, n=70), Ruaha (18.8%, n=54), Mikumi (13.2%, n=38), Tarangire (12.9%,
n=37), Katavi (7.3%, n=21), Manyara (6.3%, n=18) and Arusha (5.9%, n=17). Parks with
the least deaths of elephants were Udzungwa (4.2%, n=12), Kilimanjaro (3.1%, n=9),
Mkomazi (2.4%, n=7), and Rubondo (1.4%, n=4). About 76% (n=217) of all deaths
occurred inside the parks, 23% (n=66) outside the parks and 1% (n=4) occurred at the
Tanzania-Kenya border in Serengeti and Mkomazi National Parks.
According to TAWIRI (2011), Tanzania loses about 10,000 elephants annually at an
alarming rate of 12.5%, which is far greater than replacement through reproduction. At
this rate, if mitigation measures are not taken, the last of the countrys elephant will be
shot out in 10 years. The killings of elephants for their ivory is not only done brutally
but also by using heavy weapons (Plate 8.3).
134
This brutality must be stopped.

Source: Kikoti, 2013
23
16
Some are not just poachers but heavily armed and ruthless criminals. Source, Kikoti, 2013
Plate 8.3: An elephant just killed by poachers (a) and some of the heavy military
weapons used for poaching (b)
Figure 8.2: Causes (%) of elephant deaths inside the National Parks (Source: Modified
from Kiwango, 2011)
Wildlife poaching for meat is also a widespread problem affecting many ecosystems.
Recent studies showed an average of 2,078 tons of illegal bush meat is being confiscated
yearly. In Serengeti National Park alone, 82,000 kg of wildlife meat is consumed per
week and total of 43,618 wildebeests are hunted per year. An average of 1500 culprits is
arrested every year for poaching with an average of 50 snares for every poacher
entering in the park.
135
There are some incidences of wildlife mortality due to the impact of climate change.
Many of the impacts of a changing climate are likely to be species-specific and related to
particular ecological aspects of individual taxa. Studies conducted in Katavi National
Park revealed that during the 2010 dry season, large mammals in Katavi National Park
especially hippopotamus, crocodiles, buffalos and elephants crowded in few remaining
water ponds along Katuma River, resulting in considerable hippopotamus and buffalo
mortalities (Mwingira et al, 2011) (Plate 8.4).
Plate 8.4: Congestion of hippopotamus due to water scarcity

in Katuma River in Katavi National Park
b) Forest biodiversity
Despite the fact that a considerable area of land in Tanzania is protected, forest
resources are encountering tremendous pressure due lack of alternative sources of
energy for cooking and lighting, and land for cultivation, timber, and production of
charcoal. For example, Dar-es-Salaam City consumes between 200,000-300,000 bags
(average weight of 50 kgs) of charcoal per month (Plate 8.5).
136
Plate 8.5: Charcoal transportation (left) and charcoal in a whole sale market along one
of the major highways (right). (Source: Ishengoma, 2013)
Wildfires are also one of the most important contributing factors to the loss of
biodiversity as it indiscriminately destroys most of the flora and fauna in forest areas
and rangelands. There is no exact data on the extent of the loss of biodiversity due to
wildfires in Tanzania, but the increasing number of incidences of wildfires in the
country signifies its negative effects on biodiversity.
According to FAO (2011), the highest peak of active fire counts from 2000 to 2010 was
Year 2003 with 112,732 fires, and the year with the lowest active fire counts was 2001
with 29,527 and the average active annual fire counts for the period 2003 2010 was
100,853 (Figure 8.4). Dry season starts two to three weeks after the rains end, likely from
May until November. Fire peaks are mostly in July (Figure 8.3). Rukwa Region has the
highest incidences of wildfire in the country, with more than 270,000 incidences from
2000 to 2011 (Figure 9.2). Other regions with a high number of fire incidences include
Kigoma (173,000), Tabora (160,000), Mbeya (157,000), Ruvuma (134,000) Lindi (125,000)
and Morogoro (104,000). Mwanza, Kilimanjaro and Dar es Salaam regions had the least
total number of incidences (< 3000).
137
Figure 8.3: Average active fire counts (left) and peak of fires (right) for the period 2003
2010. (Source: FAO, 2011)
Fire Density Map

(2000-2011)
no. fires/5x5 km cell
0
1-22
23-44
45-66
67-90
more than 90
PROV.
Arusha
Dar es Salaam
Dodoma
Iringa
Kagera
Kigoma
Kilimanjaro
Lindi
Manyara
Mara
Mbeya
Morogoro
Mtwara
Mwanza
Pemba North
Pemba South
Pwani
Rukwa
Ruvuma
Shinyanga
Singida
Tabora
Tanga
Unguja North
Unguja South
Unguja Urban West
TOTAL
7916
825
36703
94308
56915
173402
2052
125315
26238
17497
157140
104529
31174
2915
63
3858
78241
271469
134978
50399
99820
160639
23408
175
529
21
Figure 8.4: Fire Density map for Tanzania (Modified from FAO , 2011)
138
c) Aquatic biodiversity
Signs of environmental degradation, as well as a decline in aquatic natural resources
and biodiversity, are becoming more obvious. This is evidenced by declining yields of
fish, deteriorating conditions of coral reefs, and continuing reduction in area coverage
for mangroves and coastal forests. This degradation is attributed to unsustainable use of
aquatic resources as well as pressures from the growing population around the coast,
lake and wetland areas.
Generally fish stocks are falling in the ocean, lakes, rivers and ponds because of the
growing number of fishermen using unsustainable fishing practices (overfishing, use of
poisons, dynamites, illegal fishnets such as seine nets, monofilament nets, among
others). This results in water pollution as well as destruction of breeding grounds,
leading to disappearance of some fish species and the dwindling of fish catches.
Dynamite fishing is one of the escalating problems in the fishing industry in Tanzania
in recent years. The practice is extremely destructive to the surrounding ecosystem, as
the explosion often destroys the underlying habitat (such as coral reefs) that supports
the fish.
8.5
Impacts
a)
Loss of ecosystem goods and services
Biodiversity as part of the ecosystem underpins all human life and activities. The goods
and services biodiversity provides are vital to sustaining well-being, and to future
economic and social development. The benefits provided by biodiversity among others
include food, water, timber, air purification, soil formation and pollination. Loss of
biodiversity due to human activities results in altered capacity of healthy ecosystems to
deliver this wide range of goods and services.
b)
Increased conservation costs
The increase in poaching incidences has forced the government to incur enormous
amounts of funds in recent years to address this problem. In its efforts to combat the
escalating poaching problem, in 2013 the Government launched a special anti-poaching
operation known as Oparesheni Tokomeza Ujangili to crack down on poachers, dealers
and traders in ivory and other elephant products. In this operation, a number of players
were involved including the defence forces, police, game rangers and Local
Government Authorities.
139
8.6
Response
a) International and regional co-operation
Tanzania adopted the Convention on Biological Biodiversity (CBD) in 1992 and ratified
the same in March, 1996; thereby committing herself to join other global partners
aspiring to conserve biological diversity, ensuring sustainable use of biological
resources and promoting equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of genetic
resources. Tanzania is also a party to other biodiversity-related conventions such as
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna
(CITES), RAMSAR Convention, and the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory
Species of Wild Animals (CMS).
b) Sectoral policies, legislation, strategies and plans
Major policies, strategies, legislations and plans that cover the integration of other
sectors activities on environment and biodiversity in the country include: the National
Strategy for Growth and Poverty Reduction (2005 2010 & 2010 2015); National
Environment Policy (1997); National Forest Policy (1998) and Forest Act (2002); the
Water Policy (2002); the Wildlife Policy (2007); the Land Policy (1995); Environment
Management Act (2004); Village Land Act (1999); Land Act (1999); National Agriculture
Policy (2013); Livestock Policy (2006); Wildlife Conservation Act (2009); Agricultural
Sector Development Strategy (2001); Strategy for Urgent Actions on Land Degradation
and Water Catchments (2006); Plant Protection Act (1997); Strategy for Urgent Actions
on Conservation of Marine and Coastal Environment, Lakes, Rivers and Dams 2008;
National Strategy for Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation
(REDD+ - 2011); The National Water Sector Development Strategy; National Climate
Change Strategy (2012); and National Five Year Plan (2011/12 2015/16); National
Adaptation Programme of action (NAPA) 2007; and the National Environmental Action
Plan (2013).
The Government has also prepared the National Forest Resources Monitoring and
Assessment (NAFORMA) report (2013), which aims at assisting the country to map its
forest resources. The information assists the country to assess its forest resources
including the size of the carbon stock stored within its forests. This will also feed into
better policy making to ensure Tanzanias most valuable forests are both conserved and
utilized in a sustainable manner. This would also help to mitigate the negative impacts
of climate change.
c) National Bio-fuel Guidelines
140
Realizing the impacts of bio-fuel development on loss of biodiversity, Tanzania has

prepared National Bio-fuel Guidelines in order to guide on the best bio-fuel farming
approaches that protect the biodiversity base and enhance food security. Already the
country has been being mapped into agro-ecological zones for the purpose of
identifying suitable areas for bio-fuel production, at the same time ensure that bio-fuel
programmes do not contribute to food scarcity and biodiversity degradation.
d) Engagement of non-state actors
The Government recognizes the contribution of non state actors (Non-governmental
Organizations, Community Based Organizations and the Private sector) in the
conservation of natural resources in the country. Environmental conservation activities
by these stakeholders are countrywide, with varied levels of resources, scale and
coverage.
Tanzania has continued to encourage stakeholders to engage in
environmental management activities in the country. Plate 8.6 shows one of the areas
around Lake Tanganyika, which has been reclaimed by the assistance from the Jane
Goodall Institute.
141
Plate 8.6: A section of landscape reclaimed by non-state actors along Lake

Tanganyika in Kigoma region (Source: Jane Goodall Institute)
e) Conservation and designation of new protected areas
Tanzania has put extra efforts to ensure that its natural resources are protected for the
present and future generations. Protected areas in Tanzania are extremely varied,
ranging from sea habitats, grasslands and miombo woodland vegetation, to the top of
the Kilimanjaro, which is the highest mountain in Africa. About a third of the country's
total area is protected to a certain degree as National Parks, Game Reserves, Marine
Parks and Forest Reserves. For sustainable management of the protected areas, the
142
country has established respective authorities that are charged with ensuring that the
natural habitat, flora and fauna are protected. Also, communities around the protected
areas are encouraged to be involved in the protection activities. In this case,
communities around the protected forests are encouraged to form Community Forest
Management activities to add on the protection efforts as well as obtaining forest
services from sustainable utilization of the forest resources. In case of wildlife protected
areas, community around the national parks and game reserves are encouraged to form
Wildlife Management Areas so as to benefit from the wildlife resources while protecting
the wildlife. To-date, there are 19 gazetted Wildlife management Areas in the country
and more than 19 are in the process of becoming Authorized Associations.
Communities in the coast and those surrounding major lakes have been encouraged to
form Beach Management Units for the same purposes.
143
CHAPTER NINE
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
9.1
Overview
Environmental pollution is widespread and is a growing problem in the country.

Environmental pollution is more pronounced in urban areas than in peri-urban and
rural areas. This is contributed mainly by population growth and economic growth
which fuel demand on resources. Environmental pollution has significant deleterious
effect on the quality of water, air and land and on the quality of life in general. For
instance, more than 40% of the disease burden in the country is attributable to
environmental pollution, with children bearing most of it.
9.2
Water Pollution
Water pollution emanates from a number of point and diffuse sources including
industrial, municipal, mining and agricultural sources.
9.2.1 Drivers
a) Population and economic growth
Principal anthropogenic driving forces responsible for water pollution, are rapid
population growth and industrial and agricultural development. An increase in
uncontrolled and unregulated mining activities especially artisanal mining also
threatens the quality of water in water bodies located in the vicinities of mining areas.
The rate of urban growth and population increase has outpaced and compromised the
capacity of responsible authorities to provide wastewater management facilities for
water pollution control. For example, only 50% of major urban centres have sewerage
systems, which serve about 8% of their population. The rest of the population use waste
treatment facilities, which are defective thus jeopardising public health and integrity of
the environment. Rapid urban expansion has continued despite resource paucity and
meagre capacities to provide infrastructure and amenities for controlling water
pollution (URT, 2011).
Water basins are intensively converted into farmed land notably Rufiji and Ruaha water
basins. Given this land use, there exists a high potential for non-point source nutrient
and sediment loadings via runoff during heavy rainfall.
144
b) Climate change
Climate change is expected to increase the amount of runoff and floods due to an
anticipated increase in the frequency of storm events and intensities notably in the
north western areas of the country. More intense rainfall and flooding could result in
increased nutrients, suspended solids and sediment yields, thus compromising the
quality of surface water. Additionally, climate change may cause drought resulting into
lower minimum flows in rivers implying less volume for dilution and hence higher
concentrations downstream of point discharges.
c) Poverty
Poor communities cannot afford investing in appropriate sanitation facilities for
protection of public health and the environment. Consequently, over 90% of households
in urban areas use pit latrines for excreta disposal. Most of such pit latrines are infested
with flies and pollute surface water bodies and groundwater by seepage of pit contents.
Manual emptying of sludge from pit latrines and septic tanks into streams and storm
water drainage channels, especially during the rainy seasons is also commonly done
especially in informal settlements because most of the people cannot afford to hire
vacuum trucks whose accessibility is limited. Direct discharging of untreated
wastewater into streams and rivers is also common (Plate 9.1). The resultant effect of
these practices is widespread contamination of streams as well as groundwater sources
especially shallow wells.
Plate
9.1: Raw domestic sewage flowing in

Mlalakuwa Stream, Dar es Salaam (URT, 2012)
145
9.2.2 Pressure
a) Inadequate waste management
Poor wastewater treatment, inadequate solid waste management services and
environmental degradation, especially deforestation and soil erosion, are involved in
compromising the quality of both surface and groundwater in most of urban centres in
Tanzania. Of the twenty (20) major urban water utility authorities, 11 provide some
access to sewer connections and wastewater treatment facilities. Waste stabilization
ponds have been the most common technology for wastewater treatment in Tanzania.
However, many such ponds are ineffective because of poor operation and maintenance,
inappropriate design and the mixing of municipal and industrial wastes.
The operation and maintenance of treatment and disposal systems in some of the
industries is insufficient due to lack of equipment, funds and staff. Some of the
industries were planned and implemented without in-depth environmental
considerations. Even with the current awareness, most industries do not have treatment
facilities for their effluents, and the few, which exist, are poorly maintained and/or not
operational due to technical and financial constraints. This has resulted in water
pollution through discharges of wastewater into water bodies either in an untreated
state or inadequately treated.
Tanzania also lacks a robust and comprehensive system for water quality monitoring
and assessment so as to identify in a timely fashion extent and status of the quality of
water resources. In the absence of an effective system for water quality monitoring and
assessment it is difficult to detect water pollution problems early and consequently,
remedial actions cannot be undertaken in a timely manner.
b) Unsustainable agricultural practices
Water pollution is also attributed to unsustainable agricultural activities notably
improper use of agrochemicals (pesticides and inorganic fertilisers) and poor farming
methods, which are responsible for soil erosion and consequently sedimentation of river
bodies. For example in the RuvuWami River Basin fertilizers especially Sulphate of
Ammonia (SA), Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN), Urea, and Triple Super Phosphate
(TSP) are used in substantial amounts. In the Ngerengere catchment, use of fertilisers
and pesticides which is mostly done by farmers in upstream zones has resulted in
higher nutrient concentrations (NO3: 3 to 19.9 mg/L) in Ngerengere River (Mero, 2011).
146
c) Unsustainable industrial activities

About 80% of industries in Tanzania, which includes agro-industries, chemical
factories, breweries, soap and steel-manufacturing establishments, are located in Dar es
Salaam City. Many of these industries were established without adequate
environmental attention; as a result they have been operating with inadequate waste
treatment facilities. For instance, it is estimated that industries located in Dar es Salaam
discharge pollution load in excess of 142 tonnes of Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
annually (URT, 2011).
d) Inadequately regulated mining activities
Pollution of water due to uncontrolled and unregulated mining activities is more
pronounced in the Lake Victoria Basin (LVB), which is well endowed with rich mineral
deposits of gold and diamonds. Both large and small-scale mining activities are carried
out. Gold mining is common in Geita, Kahama, Biharamulo, Karagwe, Musoma,
Tarime, Bunda and Misungwi Districts. In Lake Victoria Basin, especially in Geita and
Musoma Districts where small scale gold mining takes place, there are risks of
groundwater and surface water contamination with mercury, which is extensively used
by small-scale miners in the recovery of gold (Plate 9.2). The unregulated mining
activities have led to water pollution from sediments and chemicals especially mercury
and arsenic in the lake basin.
147
Plate 9.2: Small scale miners using mercury to coagulate gold particles in a
rock discarded by a large scale mining company
9.2.3 State
a) Rivers and streams
Rivers in urban centres, particularly Msimbazi in Dar es Salaam, Karanga in Moshi,
Mwirongo in Mwanza, and Themi in Arusha, have been abused by different sectors as
dumping sites for wastes from various sources and as a consequence of the high levels
of pollution the water quality of these rivers and streams, has sharply decreased thus
rendering the water to be not safe for domestic consumption or even irrigational
purposes. Table 9.1 presents pollution loads from various sources while Table 9.2
illustrates the seasonal variations in the water quality of Msimbazi River.
148
Table 9.1: Pollution loads in Msimbazi River

Pollution loads estimates (t/yr)
Minimum
Maximum
On-site sanitation systems *
20.32
101.57
Industrial areas that have no sewers
17.70
141.56
Informal sector activities premises
16.12
80.61
Storm water from low-lying areas
8.57
42.83
Farm and animal grazing lands
19.75
80.57
Illegal solid waste disposal sites
11.17
55.86
Total pollution load
93.62
503.01
* On-site sanitation systems exclude contributions discharged via tributaries and outfalls.
(Source: URT, 2011)
Descriptions of diffuse pollution sources
Table 9.21: Water quality in Msimbazi River during wet and dry seasons
Season
Parameter
Iron (mg/L)
Wet
Dry
0.68-1.39
0.66-0.87
59 - 131
Suspended solids (mg/L)
Feacal Colliform (counts 104 /100mL)
2.7 - 58
Turbidity (NTU)
62-70
Colour
214-316
Chloride (mg/L)
402-413
Electric conductivity (mS/cm)
8.7 9.7
Sulphates (mg/L)
32 60.4
(Source: URT, 2011)
28 - 50
3.69 11.7
30-41
194-247
372 450
8.9 10.4
61 456
It is apparent from Table 9.3 that levels of pollution in Msimbazi River are prohibitively
high. Another source of pollution of rivers and streams is car washing activities. Cars
and trucks are washed along the edges of rivers and streams, causing water pollution
mainly from hydrocarbons and sediments.
b) Lakes
Water pollution status in various lakes of interest is described hereunder.
i)
Lake Victoria
Lake Victoria is a transboundary freshwater source of great ecological and economic

importance. Large changes that have occurred recently in the environment and the
149
ecology of the lake are associated with natural processes as well as anthropogenic
activities in the catchment area and the lake itself.
Specific water pollution problems facing the lake are discharge of untreated industrial
and municipal solid and liquid wastes leading to deterioration of water quality;
discharge of untreated sewage into the lake leading to nutrient increases and resultant
phytoplankton bloom and oxygen depletion; and, deforestation, overgrazing and
increased runoff of water and eroded topsoil together with organic matter and nutrients
contributing to algal growth and eutrophication of the lake. Direct discharge of
municipal untreated sewage and storm water runoff into rivers and the lake, directly
contribute to microbiological pollution.
Water quality in Lake Victoria has declined greatly in the past few decades, owing
chiefly to eutrophication arising from increased inflow of nutrients into the lake, which
has resulted into domination by blue-green algae. Blue-green algae is causing
deoxygenation of the water, increased sickness for humans and animals drawing water
from the lake, clogging of water intake filters, and increased chemical water treatment
costs for urban centers.
Atmospheric deposition has been identified as the predominant source of nutrient
loading to Lake Victoria with loads of 137,001 and 21,754 kg/day for total nitrogen and
phosphorus, respectively (Myanza et al, 2006). Other significant sources are river loads
possibly due to poor agronomic practices including extensive and shifting farming in
the basin. In 2006, total annual nutrient inputs into the lake, including industrial and
municipal sources was estimated at 162,224 and 28,949 tonnes of N and P, respectively
(Myanza et al, 2006).
ii)
Lake Tanganyika
Deforestation, soil erosion, and conveyance of sediments by riverine systems as well as

the runoff laden with pesticides from agricultural areas, and wastewater from
Kigoma/Ujiji Municipality, have been identified as a major sources of degradation and
pollution that seriously affect the lakes biodiversity, contribute to reduced light
penetration depth that consequently affects the trophic status of the lake, destroy
habitats as well as negatively impacting lakes primary productivity.
The most damaging threat to the lakes biodiversity, however, appears to be an
increased rate of sediment influx, especially from the heavily impacted smaller water
basins of northern Lake Tanganyika where large scale deforestation and farming
practices have caused a dramatic increase in soil erosion rates. Unsustainable
agricultural methods and use of agrochemicals may be contributing to pollution of the
environment but the extent has not been established.
150
The observed pollution poses a threat to human health associated directly with
declining water quality. However, on a lake-wide basis, the lake is still unpolluted. It is
in an oligotrophic state. Chlorophyll-a concentration in the southern lake is about 1
mg/L, while in the northern part of the lake it is about 2 mg/L and about 5 mg/L in the
central lake (Nkotagu and Athuman, 2007). However, with rapidly growing drainage
basin population and the increasing human activity, the impact on water quality is
likely to increase. Point source pollution is minimal since the basin is not industrialized
except for gold mining in Kahama district and some urban areas such as Kigoma-Ujiji,
which do not have wastewater treatment facilities.
iii)
Lake Nyasa
Lake Nyasa basin is a threatened, globally important and sensitive ecosystem, and
habitat for many endemic aquatic and terrestrial species. The catchment area in
Tanzania accounts for 27 % (37,000 km2) of the total lake catchment area, but contributes
53% of its inflow, draining from mountainous terrain into deep near-shore waters.
Therefore, land use changes within Tanzania catchment may have a disproportionate
effect on the lake ecosystem. Environmental degradation in lake catchments has
increased soil erosion rates, increased nutrient loading and reduced the water quality
and production and abundance of fish species which depend on influent rivers for
breeding. It is estimated that within the last century, nutrient and sediment load into
the Lake has increased by 50 percent. In addition, population growth, coupled with
poverty and unsustainable agricultural practices have increased pressure on land.
Overgrazing has also contributed significantly to soil erosion, while high atmospheric
loads of nutrients have been linked to biomass burning.
iv)
Lake Jipe
Lake Jipe and its wetlands are of international importance as a home to a diverse fauna
(including Palaearctic migrants birds, intra-African migrants and large mammals) and
flora as well as providing support to many people both in Kenya and Tanzania. Lake
Jipe is beset with management problems that include runoff, increased siltation,
decreasing water quality, a shrinking fishery and advancing wetland plants that
threaten the existence of the open waters.
c) Marine water
Major sources of marine pollution include human activities along the streams and
coastline, deforestation, poor agricultural practices in peri-urban areas and
inadequately controlled marine transport. In Dar es Salaam City, several studies have
151
revealed poor coastal water quality particularly in areas adjacent to Msimbazi Creek
and the sewer outfall along the Barack Obama Road.
9.2.4 Impacts
a) Increased water-borne diseases
Health studies have found that 60-80% of outpatient cases are due to consumption of
unsafe water and poor sanitation (URT, 2010). The cost of treatment of ailments
associated with water pollution (such as diarrhoea, dysentery and cholera) and the
resultant loss of productive time due to illness although it is yet to be quantified, is most
likely to be enormous. Unabated pollution of water resources will trigger the increase of
water borne diseases.
b) Increased water treatment cost
Water pollution has been partly responsible for increasing operational costs due to
increased use of chemicals for water treatment for removal of pollutants such as
turbidity and pathogenic microorganisms.
c) Decrease of water sources
Pollution can also render large quantities of water unsuitable for human and other uses,
or which can be used for restricted purposes only. Some of such rivers are no longer
capable of providing either water to the populations living along its banks or of
providing a suitable environment for its own aquatic life, due to contamination to
which the rivers (such as Msimbazi and Mirongo Rivers) have been subjected to.
9.2.5 Response
In order to curb the situation narrated in paragraphs 9.2.1 to 9.2.4 mentioned above,
several steps have been taken aimed at combating the problem of pollution in Tanzania.
a) Policies and legislation
The Government has adopted several policies and legislation, which aim at curbing
pollution of water bodies. These include the National Environmental Policy (1997) that
advocates the prevention and control of pollution of fresh, marine and coastal waters,
including that from land-based sources. This policy statement is supported by the
Environmental Management Act (EMA-2004). The Water Resources Management Act
(2009), which provides for institutional and legal framework for sustainable
management and development of water resources; outlines the principles for water
resources management; provides for the prevention and control of water pollution and
152
participation of stakeholders and the general public in implementation of the National

Water Policy. International and regional initiatives to curb water pollution include the
Nile Basin Initiative, the Lake Tanganyika Integrated Regional Development
Programme and Lake Victoria Environmental Management Programme.
b) Engagement of non-state stakeholders
Private sector and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) have been involved in
natural resources issues including water pollution control. Some of the NGOs active in
water pollution control include AGENDA, ENATA, EEPCO, PECCO and CONCERN.
Water users associations have also been established by communities in various water
basins. Table 9.3 presents trends in establishment of water user association in the
different water basins.
Table 9.3: Water Users Associations established by June 2012 and 2013
Basin
Pangani
Wami/Ruvu
Rufiji
Ruvuma
Nyasa
Internal Drainage
Lake Rukwa
Lake Tanganyika
Lake Victoria
Total
Number of Water Users Associations (WUA)

Formed by June, 2012
Formed by June, 2013
6
11
11
12
27
28
3
5
1
3
2
3
1
3
1
5
3
4
55
74
c) Cleaner production initiatives

Cleaner industrial production initiatives have contributed significantly to reduction of
pollution. In recognition of the role of cleaner production approach in solving industrial
pollution problems the Government has established the Cleaner Production Centre of
Tanzania (CPCT) to promote the rational use of energy and raw materials and minimise
waste generation from industries. To-date, more than 70 industrial establishments have
been involved in cleaner production initiatives.
d) Disposal of obsolete pesticide stocks
153
The Government is implementing a project on the safeguarding and disposal of

obsolete pesticides to arrest the problem of water pollution from pesticides. The project
comprises of four inter-related components, which are clean up and disposal,
prevention of accumulation, capacity building and project management aimed at
removing the obsolete pesticides and ensuring that the problem does not re-occur.
Detailed account is provided under Chapter 6.
9.3
Air Pollution
The air pollution sources in the country include transport activities, burning of
agricultural wastes, manufacturing activities, burning of fossil and wood fuels, and
burning of solid waste in open fields. However, there is inadequate data and
information on the extent and impact of air pollution.
9.3.1 Drivers
a) Economic growth
The urban air pollution problem is growing as economic development drive increases
combustion of fossil fuels for transportation and industrial processes. In major urban
centres notably Dar es Salaam, Mwanza, Arusha, Tanga and Mbeya, air quality is a
worsening problem due in part to rapidly growing industrial establishments, vehicle
fleets, limited road infrastructure, road congestion, and high per-vehicle emissions.
Most of the imported vehicles in the country are old with poor fuel efficiency thus
contributing to air pollution as Figure 9.3 illustrates.
154
Figure 9.1: Split of road transport stock by age group/year of manufacture

(Source: Modified from GAP et al, 2010)
b) Urbanization
High population growth and the continuing rapid rate of urban growth estimated at
4.7% (2012) have put significant pressures on existing urban infrastructure including
road network and resulted in significant unplanned development leading to traffic
congestion and consequently air pollution problems.
9.3.2 Pressure
a) Inadequate enforcement of relevant legislation and regulations
There has been inadequate enforcement of relevant legislation and regulations due to
inadequate capacity to enforce in terms of human and financial resources.
b) Inadequate urban planning
Despite the rapid urbanization, there has not been a corresponding effort by the
Government in guiding urban planning in response to rapid urbanization rate.
155
9.3.3 State
Air pollution problem is evident in terms of urban road congestion in cities (Dar es
Salaam, Mwanza, Arusha, Mbeya and Tanga) where the number of vehicles required to
meet demand exceed the capacity as the growth rate of population of vehicles does not
keep pace with the expansion of road network. For example, Dar es Salaam has 50-60%
of the vehicles in Tanzania on its roads whereas these roads are said to have been
designed to support a population up to two million people and the actual carrying
capacity of the roads is estimated to be 15,000 vehicles (URT, 2011) while at present
there are about 190,000 vehicles travelling on the same infrastructure on daily basis.
Main pollutants from vehicular emissions include sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides and particulate matter. Various studies in Dar es Salaam City have
suggested that air pollution problem has reached an alarming stage. The vehicle fleets
in Dar es Salaam has been reported to grow at 10% annually since 1995 (ICF
International, 2009). This rate is high, and it has not been accompanied by improvement
and expansion of the roads in the City. This has resulted in severe traffic congestion,
especially in the City centre and at major road junctions leading into further air
pollution. The average hourly sulphur dioxide concentration for Dar es Salaam City
ranges from 127 to 1385 g/m3 (Jackson 2005; Paul 2007). These values are above the
recommended WHO guidelines. The average hourly nitrogen dioxide concentration
ranged from 18 to 53 g/m3 is below the WHO guidelines value of 200 g/m3. The
average hourly suspended particulate matter (SPM) ranged from 98 to 1161 g/m3,
exceeding the recommended value of 230 g/m3 by WHO.
Several locations within the Dar es Salaam City had been observed to have higher
concentrations of sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO),
nitrous oxide (NO) and suspended particulate matter (SPM) poorer than that
recommended for clean and safe working environment by the World Health
Organization (Othman, 2010). Since the problem of traffic congestion is common in
most urban areas in Tanzania, it can be concluded that many urban inhabitants, though
unaware of it, may be living in hazardous atmospheric environment especially during
the day.
Although little quantitative data exists, industrial air pollution in Tanzania is
considered to be not very serious but it is expected to grow with time as the country is
striving to develop its manufacturing sector. The problem is more pronounced in urban
areas where more than 80% of industries are located.
9.3.4 Impacts
156
Air pollution poses health risks to the population exposed to air pollutants. The
common health problems caused by air pollution include respiratory diseases and lung
cancers. Air pollution also causes nuisance to people.
9.3.5 Response
a) Air Quality Standards
To address the air pollution problem, the Government has formulated the Air Quality
Standards which provides for prevention and control of various sources of air pollution.
Some industries have installed air pollution control equipment.
b) Mass transit initiatives
Dar es Salaam City Council is implementing a project on the establishment of a bus
rapid transit system that will not only upgrade and modernize public transport, but
also will contribute in reducing emissions associated with transport sector.
c) Awareness campaign
Awareness programmes have been carried out through preparation and dissemination
of popular version of the Standards and educational materials; and national
commemoration days.
9.4
Noise Pollution
Noise pollution is common in all urban centres especially in major urban cities such as
Dar es Salaam, Tanga, Mbeya, Mwanza and Arusha. These areas have appreciable
concentrations of industries and ongoing physical development which involve
construction and increasing traffic as well as other socio-economic activities. Prolonged
exposure to noise pollution could lead to an array of health problems. However, data on
noise pollution and associated impacts is scarce.
9.4.1 Drivers
a) Inadequate control of urban development
Unplanned and uncontrolled rapid urban development and industrial expansion are
the main causes of noise pollution in urban areas. With the ever-increasing number of
vehicles on roads, sound from vehicles and exhaust systems, is one of the sources of
noise pollution. Construction boom has given rise to noise and vibration pollution.
157
b) Industrial expansion
With the current industrial expansion for economic growth, noise pollution is
anticipated to increase as well. In Tanzania, noise generated from large industries may
not be more significant than that produced by small-scale industries since the former
are usually located in industrial areas, which are normally located far from residential
areas as opposed to the later. Unique feature of noise pollution in urban area is related
to the informal sector that encompasses small-scale industries (SSIs), which are located
deep within residential areas. It is nowadays common in many urban areas to find car
repair, carpentry and metal workshops, which are not acoustically insulated located
side-by-side with residential buildings.
9.4.2 Pressure
a) Inadequate enforcement regime
Noise pollution is largely attributable to inadequate enforcement of regulations which
govern the operation of entertainment premises. It is not uncommon to find
entertainment facilities, motor vehicle garages even industrial buildings, located sideby-side with residential buildings, which result in noise pollution in the residential
areas. Issuance of licenses for operating entertainment facilities, car repair workshops
medium and small scale industries deep within residential areas, which are not
acoustically insulated contrary to the urban planning regulations, fuels the
entertainment noise pollution problem.
b) Limited public awareness
In addition, there is limited awareness of the existence of noise prevention laws, hence
they rarely report noise problem to the responsible authorities and as such the problem
remains unchecked.
9.4.3 State
a) Traffic noise pollution
Traffic noise is one of the environmental source of pollution in most urban areas in
Tanzania due to increase in road traffic volume in all major urban centres. For example,
the vehicular population in Dar es Salaam has been growing at 10% annually since 1995
(URT, 2011). Moreover, the proportionate increase in importation of used vehicles into
Tanzania is a strong enough basis for concern on traffic caused noise pollution.
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Observed noise levels especially in urban areas are generally much higher than
recommended standards. In Morogoro Municipality, the measured noise levels were
observed to be between 51.1 to 75.1 dBA. It was established that noise levels are more
than the acceptable limit of 55 dBA according to the Tanzania Environmental Noise
Standards (TZS 932:2006: Acoustics - General Tolerance Limits for Environmental
Noise) (Gaganija et al, 2012).
In Dar es Salaam City, measured noise levels range between 40 and 80 dBA (Figure 9.2).
Passenger vehicles contribute more significantly to the problem compared to other
sources as shown in Figure 9.3, pollution for most sources occurs during the daytime,
with peaks in the morning hours (URT, 2011).
Figure 9.2: Noise level in Dar es Salaam City (Source: Modified from URT, 2011)
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Figure 9.2: Number and type of vehicles during the daytime at Gerezani area
Dar es Salaam, November 2007
(Source: URT, 2011)
Noise levels measured in school surroundings in Mwanza City ranged from 60.6 to 63.9
dBA. These noise levels exceeded the tolerable values according to the Tanzania
Environmental Noise Standards (TZS 932:2006: Acoustics - General Tolerance Limits for
Environmental Noise) for school environment. Again, road traffic was observed to be
the main contributor to the noise pollution problem in Mwanza City since higher noise
levels were observed during heavy traffic in roads nearby schools (Kiumbu et al, 2011).
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In Iringa Municipality, noise levels reported in regional hospital range between 56.05
and 63.39 dBA (Moshi et al, 2010). These observed noise levels exceeded the
recommended Tanzania Noise Standards (TZS 932:2006: Acoustics - General Tolerance
Limits for Environmental Noise), which specifies that the maximum permissible noise
levels in hospitals should not execeed 35 and 45 dB during the night and day,
respectively (Moshi et al, 2010).
b) Aircraft Noise Pollution
Aircraft noise and its impact on airport surrounding communities has been spurred by
a continual growth in air traffic together with urban development in close proximity to
airports especially in Mwanza and Dar es Salam. The operation of airports results in
environmental impacts associated with high levels of noise and vibration. In Dar es
Salaam, an average number of aircrafts operating at JNIA per day increased by a factor
of 5.5 from 49 in 1998 to 270 in 2008. Noise levels at the Julius Nyerere International
Airport (44 to 107 dB) are reported to be higher than the maximum noise level exposure
for working places recommended by the Tanzania Environmental Noise Standards
(TZS 932:2006: Acoustics - General Tolerance Limits for Environmental Noise). The
noise levels (Leq. (60s)) recorded in the residential areas near the airport such as
Kiwalani, Kipawa, Njiapanda and Majumbasita ranged from 50 to 76 dBA, which
exceed the recommended limits for human dwellings of 60 dBA Leq. (60s). By 2009 the
noise levels increased to LAmax 69 dB at Majumbasita and LAmax 92 dB at Kipawa (URT,
2011).
c) Noise Pollution due to social events
Major sources of noise pollution due to social events include domestic appliances, social
halls, religious preaching events, bars and grocery stores and social events (wedding,
cultural dances, sport games). A significant number of noise sources are located among
and within residential premises thus causing noise disturbance to their
neighbourhoods. Most of the social clubs are not acoustically insulated thus causing
noise pollution. In Dar es Salaam, noise levels ranging from 75 to 110 dBA have been
observed in entertainment premises. These noise levels exceed the Tanzania
environmental noise standards (TZS 932:2006: Acoustics - General Tolerance Limits for
Environmental Noise) specifies that Maximum Permissible Noise levels (Leq) in
residential building are 50 and 35 dB during the day (6:00 am 10:00 pm) and night
(10:00 pm-6:00 am), respectively (Mwesigwa, 2008).
9.4.4 Impacts
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Social conflicts: Several complaints due to nuisance resulting from noise pollution by
neighbouring communities and individuals have been recorded particularly in urban
areas. Some of the sources of noise pollution include social events and entertainment
services. Such areas include Dar es Salaam, Mbeya, Mwanza and Arusha.
9.4.5 Response
a) Regulations
To address the noise pollution problem, the Government has formulated the Noise and
Vibration Regulations (2011) which provides for prevention and control of various
sources of noise pollution.
b) Awareness campaigns
Awareness programmes have been carried out through preparation and dissemination
of popular version of the Regulations and educational materials; and national
commemoration days.
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CHAPTER TEN
DETERIORATION OF AQUATIC SYSTEMS
10.1
Introduction
Tanzania has vast aquatic systems of both fresh and marine waters. These ecosystems
directly and indirectly support the livelihoods by providing goods and services that
support different sectors of human population. Despite their significance to human life
and socio-economic development, these systems deteriorate countrywide; thereby
decreasing their capacity to support human well-being.
10.2
Drivers
a) Population growth
Rapid population increase has resulted into high demand on the aquatic resources.
According to the Tanzanias Population Census of 2012 indicate that the countrys
population has grown from 34.4 million in 2002 to 44.9 million, an average growth rate
of about 2.6% per year, and an increase which consequently increases demand for
natural resources and ecosystem services.
b) Economic growth
Economic development has led to increased demand for agricultural expansion,
aquaculture and human settlements resulting into clearance of mangroves and other
aquatic resources. Intensive use of agrochemicals to improve agricultural yields has
contributed to pollution of aquatic systems. Industrial development has also resulted
into increased emissions and untreated effluents which has contributed to the pollution
load. Water abstractions for agriculture and hydroelectric power production have
increased as a result of economic demand leading to further destruction of aquatic
systems.
c) Poverty
About 34% of the population in Tanzania live below basic needs poverty line; as a result
they largely depend on direct exploitation of natural resources for their livelihood. This
exploitation is mostly done through unsustainable practices such as the use of
destructive fishing gears leading to destruction of aquatic systems.
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10.3
Pressure
10.3.1 Freshwater systems

Generally, the main pressure facing freshwater and marine systems of Tanzania include
deforestation, poor agricultural practices, unsustainable fishing practices, pollution,
climate change and Invasive Alien Species.
a) Deforestation
Forests and other wooded areas have been cut down to make more land available for
agriculture, as well as for firewood, charcoal, and building materials. Deforestation,
particularly of upper catchment areas, has led to increased runoff carrying greater
sediment loads into rivers, lakes and marine systems. Sedimentation is also a problem
in many areas where crops are cultivated right to river edges leading to the increased
sediment loads. Sedimentation of rivers, lakes and marine habitats, leads to the
deterioration of many habitats important to numerous species.
b) Unsustainable fishing practices
Unsustainable fishing practices are very common in many parts of the country.
Destructive fishing practices such as use of dynamite fishing, use of beach seine nets,
rampant fishing and poisons, not only destroy habitats, but also lead to loss of
biodiversity.
c) Unsustainable agricultural practices
Communities around freshwater bodies are mainly agricultural dependent and are
involved mostly in subsistence agriculture. In most catchments, terracing and other soil
conservation techniques are not practiced. Consequently, soil erosion is a serious
problem.
Water demand for irrigation, has significantly caused reduction in river discharges. The
situation is considered to be critical in some of the rivers such as Pangani, Wami and
Ruvu, and lakes (e.g. Lake Victoria), with multiple socio-economic conflicts and
potential ecological and environmental impacts.
d) Pollution
The main sources of freshwater pollution are sedimentation, agricultural runoff,
domestic and industrial effluents. Eutrophication is one of the most prevalent
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phenomena in Tanzania. It is a process whereby lakes and rivers waters become

increasingly rich in plant biomass as a result of the enhanced input of plant nutrients
mainly nitrogen and phosphorus.
Improper use of pesticides in agriculture is a serious emerging problem for species
survival and water quality in freshwater bodies. Pollutants from mining and industrial
activities (such as lead, cadmium, iron and copper), and organic wastes from leaking
sewage systems, can accumulate in rivers and other freshwater bodies and affect water
quality and species survival.
e) Climate change
Climate change is expected to escalate pressures on aquatic systems, generally affecting
not only the functioning of many aquatic systems, but also decreasing their ability to
support human wellbeing. While rise in sea level is expected to be deleterious to some
aquatic resources, an increase in temperature is expected to affect coral reefs and will
have compounding effects on the existing pressure on aquatic systems. Drought
conditions, especially in semi arid areas, increases pressure on aquatic resources,
especially wetlands in search for pasture or fodder.
f) Invasive Alien Species (IAS)
The introduction of invasive alien species in water bodies such as water hyacinth in the
Pangani River and Lake Victoria has deleterious effects on water quality and
biodiversity.
10.3.2 Coastal and marine systems
Coastal and marine systems of Tanzania are under a variety of pressure. These are
unsustainable fishing practices, climate change, deforestation, lime-making, pollution,
soil erosion, and gas and oil exploration.
a) Unsustainable fishing practices
This involves use of destructive fishing gears such as dynamite fishing, shallow water
trawling, and beach seining in many parts of the Tanzanias coastline. Dynamite fishing
is a major threat to the coral reef and other coastal and marine systems of Tanzania
(MEDA, 2012). Use of dynamite fishing also causes considerable adverse effects to
fisheries resource as it destroys fish habitats (e.g. coral reefs) and other reef-dwelling
organisms.
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Endangered species such as sea turtles, coelacanth and dugongs suffer from use of such
destructive fishing gear. Other threats to the survival of such species are incidental
capture in gillnets (Plates 10.1), ring nets and commercial prawn trawlers. Moreover,
illegal harvesting of nesting turtles and their eggs, as well as disturbance of turtle
nesting beaches from coastal development and seasonal fisher camps, have been
reported in many parts of the coastline.
Plate 10.1: Dugong carcase recovered from net in

Mafia Island (Source: Sea Sense, 2009)
b) Climate change
Climate change and variability is a threat to the existence of coastal and marine
ecosystems. The 1998 Indian Ocean coral-bleaching event, which reduced coral cover in
most reefs of the country, is an example of the potential consequences of climate
change.
c) Deforestation
Mangrove forest resources are being degraded and depleted at a fast rate. Main causes
for such degradation are: extraction for building poles, hotel and boat construction,
firewood, charcoal and salt-making, as well as land clearance for agriculture expansion.
Mangrove deforestation has caused loss and modification of mangrove ecosystems in
Tanzania. Mangrove clearing (Plate 10.2) to create land for agriculture is a wide spread
problem to most coastal areas. Examples are clearance of mangrove areas in Rufiji delta
to create or expand rice farms; and mangrove clearing to reclaim land for building
purposes at Kunduchi, Mbweni and Ununio, in Dar es Salaam (URT, 2011). Also,
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sizeable areas of mangrove forests are clear-cut for solar saltpans and for mariculture
(e.g. shrimp farms in Mafia).
Plate 10.2: Mangrove clearance in Kilwa Masoko (Source: Sea Sense, 2011)
d) Lime-making
Traditional lime-making from coral burning using mangroves is a serious problem not
only to the mangroves, but also to the existence of corals in many coastal areas.
e) Pollution
Poor management of municipal sewage and solid waste, contributed by rapid
population growth coupled with inadequate capacity to meet demand, is one of the
major contributing factors to environmental pollution. This situation poses a serious
threat to coastal and marine systems, especially to nearby coastal urban centres.
f) Erosion
Although shoreline erosion is a natural phenomenon, it is usually intensified by human
activities. Destruction of coral reefs due to dynamite fishing, mangrove clearance and
sand and coral mining along coastal river valleys expose shorelines to direct wave
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surges, or consequences of climate change (e.g. sea level rise and increased wave
action), which escalates coastal erosion.
g) Gas and oil exploration
Extensive gas field developments off the coast at Songo Songo (Kilwa) and Mnazi Bay
(Mtwara), oil drilling and maritime oil transportation along the coast, exert pressure to
the coast and marine flora and fauna.
10.3.3 Wetlands
Pressure on wetlands has recently been increasing due to growing population and
consequently growing demand for utilizable land and water.
b) Encroachment of the wetlands
For the past three decades, wetlands have been extensively converted into agriculture
and grazing lands as well as construction of buildings and settlements and thereby
threatening their existence. Usangu (Mbeya), Kilombero (Morogoro) and Bahi
(Dodoma) wetlands, for example, are threatened by over-utilization mainly from
intensive agricultural farming, livestock keeping and direct extraction of natural
resources. Wetlands that have been replaced by settlements are Msasani Bonde la
Mpunga and Msimbazi Valley in Dar es Salaam are threatened by frequent flooding
that occurs in such areas.
c) Pollution
Many wetlands in Tanzania have been polluted. The main sources of wetland pollution
are domestic and industrial activities, mining, sedimentation and excessive use of agrochemicals. Also due to increase in run-off water, much of the chemicals, fertilizers and
sediments are washed away, polluting the receiving wetlands.
10.4
State

Water quality issues
Freshwater systems are characterised by numerous water quality issues mainly due to
large number of water users and competing demands. Most rivers, lakes and dams are
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polluted, the main sources of pollution being industries, domestic wastes as well as
from agricultural practices. For example, Msimbazi River (Dar es Salaam), Mirongo
River (Mwanza), Ngerengere (Morogoro) and Themi River (Arusha) have been reported
to be heavily polluted and thereby posing public health risk. Siltation with consequent
increase in turbidity and reduced water depth, characterise some freshwater bodies.
Decrease of water flows
Some rivers are characterised by change in flow regimes (from perennial to seasonal),
particularly in downstream areas. Most of the rivers e.g. Pangani River catchment
experienced significant decrease in mean annual run off over the last four decades
(URT, 2011). Some lakes suffer a dramatic fall in water levels due to abstraction for
Hydro-Electric Power (HEP) generation.
Freshwater Fisheries
Fisheries production from freshwater systems for the period 2001-2011 is provided in
Figure 10.3. There is a small increase in production in the past 3 years (2009 - 2011)
compared to 2007-2008 period.
Figure 10.3: Freshwater fish production (2001-2011)
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Coastal and marine ecosystems
Mangrove cover has decreased from 115,000 ha in 1990 to 108,300 ha (Wang et al, 2003).
Decreases were noted in Rufiji, Kilwa and Mkuranga Districts. According to 2008
NEMC surveys, mangrove tree densities were lowest in Muheza and highest in
Kinondoni. This was attributed to regeneration capabilities as well as relative levels of
disturbances.
Available information indicates high concentrations of well-developed coral reefs (i.e.
reefs with High Live Coral cover) along the coast of Mkinga, Tanga, Mafia, Kilwa and
Mtwara (NEMC, 2009). The most degraded coral reefs are those in shallow waters (110m), especially near urban centres of Tanga, Mtwara and Dar es Salaam. The closeness
of the reefs to land make them particularly prone to human impact, either from
overexploitation or indirect terrestrial influence such as pollution. Coral health is
relatively good in some of the marine protected areas such as those of Mafia Island
Marine Park.
Marine Fisheries
The marine fisheries of Tanzania Mainland are generally unsteady. Marine fisheries
dropped drastically in the years 2007 and 2008 and showed some improvement in 2009
through 2011 (Figure 10.4). The prawn commercial fishery which was operating since in
the 1980s declined consistently, which led to the Governments decision to temporarily
stop the fishery in 2007. Recent surveys by TAFIRI (2009 and 2011) indicated slow
recovery of the fishery where by a mean catch rates of 31 kg/hr for 2009 and 2011 was
recorded compared to the catch rate of 25 kg/hr prior to the closure in 2007 (Figure
10.5).
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Figure 10.4: Marine fish production (2001-2011).
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Figure 10.5: Prawns catch rates trends from 1990 to 2011.

Mariculture
Generally, mariculture production is increasing steadily (Figure 10.6). With exception of
pearl culture production, which stumbled in 2009, crabs, milkfish, prawns and seaweed
cultures proved to be very promising. Crabs culture in Tanzania Mainland increased
from less than a tonne in 2008/2009 to over 5 tonnes in 2010/2011 periods. Similarly,
seaweed productions shoot from around 450 tonnes in 2008/2009 to around 840 tonnes
in 2010/2011 periods. Infrastructure development has lagged behind in this sector,
however, high quality seawater, large numbers of candidate species and existing
research and support capacity highlight the untapped potential in the sector.
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Figure 10.6: Mariculture production for the period 2007-2010.

10.4.3 Wetlands
Most wetlands are characterised by reduced freshwater inputs and changing flow
regimes with consequent decline in area of the wetlands especially during the dry
seasons. For example, due to reduced inflows, the Ihefu swamp (core area of Usangu
wetlands) decreased from 160 km2 to 93 km2 between 1958 and 2004 (McCartney et al.,
2008). Apart from reduced inflows, wetlands are also characterised by falling ground
water tables, salinated soils and pollution from fertilizer and pesticide leaching from
farms. While wetland areas are declining, cultivated areas reclaimed from wetlands are
on the increase. Usangu wetlands for example showed a steady increase in cultivated
area, from 121.2 km2 to 874.3 km2 between 1973 and 2000 (Kashaigili, 2008), an increase
of about 28 km2/year. Similarly, Lake Jipe, Lake Rukwa and Kilombero wetlands are
reported to be declining at an alarming rate.
10.5
Impacts
Impacts due to deterioration of aquatic systems in freshwater, coastal and marine, or

wetlands, include decrease in productivity, reduction in fish yields and biodiversity,
water shortage and increase in potential health risks such as vector-borne diseases.
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Studies quantifying the overall value of such losses countrywide are limited. However,
these losses can be inferred from the figures, which highlight the services provided by
wetlands. Available data indicate that at some localities e.g. Nyumba ya Mungu, 92% to
95% of the households derive their income and food from the wetland resources
(Halima and Munishi 2009). Considering the rate of degradation of aquatic systems in
Tanzania, it is convincing that both economic and ecological values of most of these
systems will be or has already been reduced, with subsequent effect on livelihoods of
local communities and their environment. Loss or degradation of the aquatic systems
may imply high costs to the people in obtaining the goods and/or services that might
be lost.
10.6
Response
In 2008, the Government formulated a Strategy on Urgent Actions on the Conservation

of Marine and Coastal Environment, Lakes, Rivers Ecosystems and Dams in order to
control most of the pressures threatening aquatic systems. One of the key-crosscutting
steps in this strategy is the initiation and implementation of national environmental
education programmes for conservation of marine and coastal environment, lakes river
ecosystems and dams. In addition, sectoral policies, strategies and programmes, have
also been formulated to address pressures threatening aquatic systems.
There are a number of efforts by the Government aimed at curbing the driving forces,
pressures and impacts threatening the functioning of freshwater systems. These include
laws, strategies, plans, programs, projects, and many more. Lake Victoria
Environmental Management Project (LVEMP II) that commenced its implementation in
2009/2010 can be singled out as one of the significant efforts towards reducing
environmental stress in Lake Victoria. LVEMP II targets pollution hotspots and selected
degraded sub-catchments and aims at improving the livelihoods of communities that
depend on the natural resources of the Lake Basin. The project also has been conducting
Water hyacinth management activities including its manual removals, and
multiplication of weevils and mites and releasing them in rivers and ponds/dams in the
Lake Victoria catchments as a biological control measure.
The Government of Tanzania in collaboration with neighbouring countries around Lake
Tanganyika Integrated Regional Programme (PRODAP). The objective of the
Programme is to demonstrate an effective approach to control sedimentation,
pollution, to prevent the loss of the exceptional biodiversity of Lake Tanganyika as well
as to address issues of poverty.
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There are a number of regional and national initiatives in which Tanzania benefits
towards management of coastal and marine systems including:
i)
Pwani Project (2010-2013) implemented by Tanzania Coastal Management

Partnership (TCMP) and the Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association
(WIOMSA). The project aimed at sustaining the flow of environmental goods
and services; reverse the trend of environmental destruction of critical habitats;
and improve the well being of coastal residents in Bagamoyo Pangani and
Menai Bay Seascapes.
ii)
The Marine and Coastal Environment Management Project (MACEMP) aimed at

improving management of coastal and marine resources and contributing to
economic growth and poverty reduction. The establishment of Tanga Coelacanth
Marine Park (TCMP) in 2009 was an effort to conserve coelacanths and their
habitats.
iii)
The Coastal East Africa Initiative established by WWF focused on biodiversity

conservation and sustainable development across the Kenya, Tanzania and
Mozambique Region.
iv)
Agulhas and Somali Current Large Marine Ecosystems (ASCLME) Project,

funded by GEF/UNDP (2008-2012). The objectives of the project were to
undertake an environmental baseline assessment of the Agulhas and Somali
Current Large Marine Ecosystems to ensure the long-term sustainability of the
living resources of the ASCLMES through an ecosystem-based management
approach.
v)
Western Indian Ocean Maritime Highway Development and Coastal and Marine
Contamination Prevention Project (WIOMHP) (2008 2012). Main objectives of
the project were to reduce the risk of ship-based environmental contamination
(such as oil spills from groundings and illegal discharges of ballast and bilge
water from ships), and to strengthen the capacity of countries to respond to oil or
chemical spill emergencies in the region. One of the achievements of WIOMHP
was the development of National Oil Spill Contingency Plan (NOSCP).
vi)
South-West Indian Ocean Fisheries Project (SWIOFP) (2008-2012): The objective

of the Project was to promote the sustainable use of fish resources and adoption
of an Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries (EAF) management in the Agulhas and
Somali Current Large Marine Ecosystems.
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vii)
Collaborative Actions for Sustainable Tourism (COAST) Project (2009-2013). The

main objective was to support and enhance the conservation of globally
significant coastal and marine ecosystems and associated biodiversity in subSaharan Africa, through a reduction of the negative environmental impacts
which they receive as a result of coastal tourism.
Other initiatives towards management and conservation of coastal and marine

resources in Tanzania include awareness campaigns (e.g. by Sea Sense and other
stakeholders) on conservation of dugongs, turtles and mangroves. Nevertheless, the
Government through the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development has formed
the Tanzania Turtle and Dugong Conservation Committee (TTDCC). The overall
function of the Committee is to coordinate all national initiatives related to conservation
and management of dugongs and turtles.
10.6.3 Wetlands
Tanzania as a Party to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
has continued to meet her obligations. To date, a total of 4 Ramsar sites have been
designated, they include the Malagarasi-Muyovozi wetlands, Rufiji-Mafia-Kilwa
Marine Ramsar Site, Lake Natron Basin and Kilombero valley floodplain.
The National Sustainable Wetlands Programme and National Wetlands Strategy are
currently implemented in order to achieve sustainable utilization that also entail
inventory, research, monitoring of wetland resources, as well as addressing issues and
concerns necessary for implementation of the policies relevant to the management of
wetlands.
Other management initiatives towards curbing wetland degradation are through ongoing projects, for example LVEMP II is providing management intervention measures
for Simiyu wetland.
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CHAPTER ELEVEN
WATER QUALITY DEGRADATION AND ACCESIBILITY
11.1
Introduction
The availability of and access to water is fundamental to life and sustenance of the
environment, and plays a central role in the social and economic development. Water is
a necessary input for production in such sectors as industry, mining, hydropower
generation, tourism, agriculture, fisheries and livestock. The provision of safe water
supply and adequate sanitation facilities are essential components for a healthy and
prosperous life. Degradation of quality of water due to various human activities, poses
a great risk to both the population health and on economic sectors. Therefore, economic
security and human well-being are dependent on the protection and sustainable
management of water resources.
The main sources of water supply in the country are surface water (rivers, lakes, dams
and wetlands) and groundwater. Water accessibility varies considerably from rural
areas to urban areas. The National Environmental Policy (1997) has identified
accessibility to good quality water both in urban and rural areas as one the major
problems requiring urgent attention. Furthermore, the National Water Policy (2002)
acknowledges that despite significant investment in water supply services since early
1970s, water supply coverage is not satisfactory. The need for water supply is
fundamental to all population, and increased coverage of this essential social service
will significantly contribute to improving the quality of life of the population.
11.2
Drivers
a) Economic growth (industrial, agricultural and mining sectors)
Increase in agricultural and industrial activities and mining operations coupled with
lack or inefficient treatment of effluents and discharging of raw or semi-treated
effluents into receiving waters, contributes to pollution of water. In this regard, there
has been increasing trends in pollution levels and water quality deterioration. This is
attributed to expanding residential areas and industrial, institutional and socioeconomic activities particularly in urban areas and catchment basins in general. In
addition, uncontrolled use of agrochemicals coupled with poor agricultural practices
have led to an increase in sediments, nutrients and pollutants that directly impact water
quality.
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b) Population growth
Based on projected population from 44.9 million in the year 2012 to about 59.8 million
by the year 2025, annual average available water per capita which is 2,020 cubic meters,
will be reduced to about 1,500 cubic metres per person per year (MoW, 2013).
Correspondingly, the rapid population growth and projected economic growth will
increase water demand and henceforth place an additional burden.
c) Climate change
There is evidence that climate change is altering hydrologic cycles, with impacts
predicted to be manifested as changing precipitation patterns and more intense
droughts, particularly in semi-arid areas. Severe and recurrent droughts in the past few
years triggered a decrease in water flows in rivers, hence declines of water levels in
satellite lakes and dams, and shrinkage of receiving lakes such as Lake Rukwa and Lake
Victoria. In some areas, perennial rivers have changed to seasonal rivers, consequently
leading to shrinkage or disappearance of subsequent wetlands. In addition, sea water
intrusion into freshwater wells has been experienced especially in coastal areas due to
sea level rise, such as in Bagamoyo District, which is associated with climate change. In
this regard, climate change has the potential to seriously add pressure on the already
dwindling water resources and therefore hampering water availability and accessibility.
11.3
Pressure
a) Improper waste disposal
Increasing urbanization, mining activities, agriculture and industrialization, have

negative implications for water quality. Pollution from industrial and municipal
effluents, poor disposal of solid waste and agricultural run-off in some water bodies
and rivers, have reached alarming levels. About 90% of the population in the country
use on-site sanitation systems, majority of which are of poor standard and thus
contributing in groundwater pollution (URT, 2008). The increasing volume of untreated
or partially treated industrial wastewater discharge is one of the major causes of water
pollution.
Although most industries and establishments have wastewater treatment facilities,
untreated or partially treated effluents are being directly discharged into water bodies
due to inappropriate design, obsolete treatment technologies, or poor operation. For
instance, in a survey carried out in 2008 by the Ministry of Industry and Trade, it was
observed that more than 50% of industrial establishments in the country have improper
functioning wastewater treatment facilities. Similarly, the number of household
connected to sewerage system is 20,910 and 19,200 other urban areas and Dar es Salaam,
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respectively which represents 7.2% and 14.8% of households connected to water supply
system, respectively (URT, 2012). The low coverage of sewerage services suggest of
potential haphazard disposal of wastewater contributing to water pollution.
b) Limited capacity to invest in water supply and sanitation
Investment in water supply, either for the purpose of rehabilitation or expansion, has
been very low and inadequate in improving the levels and coverage of the services to
the population. This is largely attributed to the fact that Water Supply Authorities have
limited resources and therefore developing alternative water supply sources to meet the
demand, is a daunting challenge.
It is estimated that annual cost for meeting the water supply MDG target is about USD
272 million per year (USD 207 for urban and USD 64 for rural). Annual costs for
meeting the sanitation MDG target are estimated at USD 205 million per year (USD 55
million for urban and USD 150 million for rural). Compared to these requirements, the
Government spending for water is in the tune of USD 35 million and USD 2 million for
sanitation, falls significantly short of the target (SWA, 2012).
c) Increasing water demand
Although freshwater is in abundance in the country, with growing urbanisation,
industrialisation (about 10% per annum) and rising food demand, unprecedented
growth in water demand is foreseeable. For instance, urbanization is projected to reach
40% by 2030 and 50% by 2050, which in one way or the other, will contribute in raising
the demand for water (MoF/NBS, 2012).
d) Unsustainable human activities in water catchment basins
Human activities have significant impacts on the conservation and management of
water resources. Typically, deforestation and conversion of land for agricultural
purposes can aggravate soil erosion with adverse impact on water quality. For instance,
invasion of water hyacinth in Lake Victoria has been established to be partly associated
with excessive nutrient input, of which atmospheric inputs of nutrients accounts for
more than 70% of the Nitrogen and about 36% of the Phosphorus entering the Lake.
This nutrient load is linked to agricultural activities in the lake catchment area often
involving deforestation due to expansion for agricultural land and burning.
e) Encroachment of water sources
The country is faced with widespread degradation of land and water catchments due to
agricultural activities in water catchments, on hills and in other fragile sections of
179
ecosystems. Similarly, pastoralists move with large herds of livestock in search for
pasture and water and in the process, contributing to severe environmental degradation
on land and in water catchments. For instance, tens of hundreds of invaders from
pastoral communities in Tabora, Shinyanga and Mwanza Regions ventured into
Kilombero in 2003 with thousands of cattle, leading to massive disruption of the
existing natural habitat. In response, livestock keepers were evicted from the Kilombero
valley flood plain in 2012, relocating about 380,000 cattle to pasture lands elsewhere.
11.4
State
a) Water use by various sectors
Water is used for different purposes ranging from water supply for domestic use,
hydropower production, recreation, irrigation and livestock watering, fisheries, and
biodiversity conservation, industrial production and navigation. Demand for, and
availability of each of these uses, drives the current and future state of the water
resources in the country in both quantity and quality. The major water uses are for
irrigation and domestic purposes. Irrigation is by far the largest consumptive use
comprising about 89% of the total, with domestic water supply comprising 9% and
industrial water use 2% (URT, 2010).
b) Water quality degradation
Surface water quality
Water quality varies significantly in the country. In semi-arid regions (including
Dodoma, Singida, Tabora, Shinyanga, and Arusha), colour and turbidity levels are high
during the rainy season. Rivers in the fluoride belt, including Arusha, Kilimanjaro,
Singida, Manyara, Mara and Shinyanga regions, have naturally high fluoride
concentrations. Most recent studies have revealed deteriorating water quality in major
lakes and river systems countrywide including Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika, Lake
Nyasa, Msimbazi River (Dar es Salaam), Ngerengere River (Morogoro), Pangani River
(Tanga) and Mirongo River (Mwanza)(URT, 2008; DCC, 2011).
Water quality in Lake Tanganyika and Nyasa has deteriorated particularly around
urban areas where effluent and storm water cause local contamination. Water quality
in Lake Victoria is poor; high turbidity and nutrient levels lead to frequent blooms of
blue-green algae and infestations of water weeds. There are also local instances of toxic
contamination from mining and industrial wastes.
In the year 2011/2012, the Ministry of Water analysed a total of 5,107 water samples
collected from both urban and rural areas to determine whether they meet national
180
water quality standards acceptable for various uses. Out of these, 3,866 samples,
equivalent to 76%, were found to be of acceptable standards. The remaining samples
were found to have different pollutants, out of which 309 samples had high amount of
faecal coliform, 485 samples had significant amount of dissolved salts and 447 samples
indicated to have high levels of dissolved solids and nutrients.
Groundwater quality
The quality of groundwater in Tanzania is generally good and acceptable for most uses.
Groundwater quality is controlled largely by geology and anthropogenic activities.
Groundwater in the Rift zone of the north are typically alkaline and soft (low calcium
and magnesium concentrations) with high pH values and relatively high sodium
concentrations. Some are saline, although groundwater around the extinct volcano,
Mount Meru, is reported to be generally fresh.
Groundwater from the ancient crystalline basement of Central Tanzania also typically
has high alkalinity and relatively high sodium concentrations. The high concentration
of chloride (salinity) in groundwater is the main problem especially in the coastal and
central regions of the country (like Singida, Shinyanga, Lindi and Mtwara), where there
is a high evaporation rate and poor drainage. In Lindi and Mtwara regions, there is high
carbon dioxide in groundwater resulting in pH values of 4.0 which causes groundwater
to be corrosive.
High iron content in groundwater has been observed in Mtwara and Kagera regions
while high nitrate levels are found in the Dodoma and Singida. High fluoride
concentrations which may exceed 14 mg/L occur in both the Rift zones in Northern and
South-Western Tanzania including Shinyanga, Tabora, Dodoma, Singida, Mbeya,
Arusha and Kilimanjaro Regions.
Apart from geological control on the groundwater quality, there is also the influence of
human activities on natural quality of groundwater resources. The situation is more
alarming in urban areas, which grow at a fairly fast rate. The potential sources of
groundwater pollution include domestic and industrial wastewater, leaching of
leachate from solid waste dumpsites and mining tailings, storm water and poor
agricultural practices. Furthermore, groundwater from recent sediments in the coastal
plain is vulnerable to marine intrusion, particularly where groundwater-pumping rates
are high. Evidence of marine intrusion has been found in the coastal aquifer of the
Kigamboni Peninsula (Dar es Salaam Region) and Bagamoyo (Pwani Region).
Health risks
181
Water quality degradation presents potential risks to populations exposed to such

degraded water. However, the nature and extent of risks is associated with the type of
pollutant. Table 11.1 presents an indicative population at risk from water-borne
diseases, fluoride, nitrate, mercury and arsenic.
Mercury: Exposure to mercury is mostly associated with artisanal gold mining. It is
estimated than 2.0 million people are at risk of mercury hazards in areas where artisanal
mining is practised in the country. Such areas include Isingile and Malagarasi Rivers
catchment of the Lake Tanganyika Basin (Rwamagasa, Geita) and in Mgusu River
catchment of Lake Victoria Basin (Musoma)
Table 11.1: Human populations at risk from water quality degradation due to various
sources
Hazard
Water borne diseases
Fluoride
Nitrate (children only) D
Mercury
Arsenic
Population
Locations
at risk (M)
All basins A
35 B
10
Pangani, Internal Drainage Basin, Rukwa
~2.5
Semi-arid areas; Dodoma, Dar es Salaam
>2.0
Artisanal gold mines (6 basins)
C
1.7
Victoria Basin (gold mining)
Source: URT, 2010
A - The highest incidence is in high density urban areas

B - Water borne diseases account for more than half of the incidences of diseases in the
population of Tanzania and more than 80 % of disease incidences in rural areas.
C Regional population of 4.2 million and 40% of water sources > WHO guidelines
(Kassenga, 2008)
D Nitrate in aquifers in Dodoma Region and the City of Dar es Salaam exceeds 10
mg/L, cf. WHO DWG is 50mg/l.
Arsenic: Arsenic in portable water sources can occur naturally or from mining activities.
Potential is there for natural occurrence of elevated arsenic levels in groundwater
sources in Tanzania due to favourable geological condition indicated by high pH
values, high fluoride concentration and incidences of groundwater interaction with
magmatic material (URT, 2010). A recent survey of arsenic levels in the Lake Victoria
basin where gold mining is widespread, found that 41% of samples tested exceeded the
WHO guideline of 0.01 mg/l. If mining operations expand and are not managed
properly, it is estimated that 1.7 million people in the basin could potentially be affected
(Kassenga, 2008).
182
Fluoride: Northern and southern highland regions in the East African Rift system are
characterised by elevated fluoride levels in both surface and groundwater (URT, 2010).
The Tanzania Drinking Water Quality Standards for the maximum acceptable level of
fluoride is 1.5 and 4 mg/l for bottled water and portable drinking water respectively.
As a result human and animals in the areas are at risk of suffering from flourosis which
weakens teeth and bones. It is estimated that a total of 10.5 million people in the
country are potentially exposed to water sources with fluoride levels above the WHO
guideline for drinking water. Such areas include:- Internal Drainage Basin (7 million
people), Pangani Basin (3.4 million people), Rukwa Basin (3.1 million people) (URT,
2012).
Nitrate: Groundwater sources normally contain elevated levels of nitrate concentration
but levels in excess of 50 mg/l are almost exclusively linked to polluted sources. It is
estimated that 2.5 million children in semi-arid areas of Tanzania and Dar es Salaam,
where groundwater is a primary source and/or major supplement to surface water, are
at risk of exposure to elevated nitrate levels. Exposure to nitrate levels in excess of 50
mg/L even for a short term may cause methaemoglobinaemia in infants, which impairs
the oxygen transfer capacity of the patients blood.
c) Water Accessibility
Water supply coverage in Tanzania is 86% and 57% for urban and rural areas,
respectively (URT, 2012a). For Dar es Salaam City, the coverage is 67%. The number of
household connected to water supply system is 289,058 and 129,672 in other urban
areas and Dar es Salaam, respectively. Despite these figures, it is worthwhile to note
that more than one third of water in urban areas is lost through a leakage that is about
37% and 41.8% for other urban areas and Dar es Salaam, respectively. The proportion of
the urban population with access to improved sources of water within 30 minutes
increased from 68% in 2007 to about 73% in 2010, and the proportion of the rural
population with access within 30 minutes increased from 28% in 2007 to 47% in 2010.
Overall 52% of the entire population had access within 30 minutes in 2010 as compared
to 39% in 2007 (URT, 2012). The water supply coverage varies considerably by region.
Table 11.2 shows the water supply coverage in urban and rural areas of Mainland
Tanzania.
183
Table 11.2: Water supply coverage in urban and rural areas of Mainland Tanzania
Region
Tabora
Iringa
Singida
Morogoro
Lindi
43.36
65.82
50.44
61.89
41.38
Pwani
64.6
Dodoma
Kilimanjaro
Mbeya
Mtwara
Tanga
Mara
Shinyanga
Kagera
Ruvuma
Arusha
Manyara
Rukwa
Mwanza
Dar es Salaam
Kigoma
11.5
% of Rural
population
supplied with
water
% of urban
population supplied
with water
50.04
73.07
60.04
49.4
59.81
51.04
50.07
56.01
59.91
58.53
63.01
54.67
58.28
66.16
60.19
Source: URT, 2012
87
96
86
94
70
(combined with
Dar es Salaam)
89
95
95
82
92
60
78
76
81
97
88
85
93
67
88
Impacts
a) Water borne diseases
Pollution from both industrial/mining operations and agricultural practices limits

availability of portable water and increase the cost of treatment. In addition, diarrhoea,
dysentery, cholera and other waterborne diseases are common public health problems
throughout Tanzania which represent about 80% of disease incidences in rural areas
184
(URT, 2010). In urban areas, the rate of occurrence of the diseases is highest in
unplanned settlements. Faecal contamination has been reported to be most prevalent in
the neighbourhood of the populated urban areas. Health studies have found that 60
80% of outpatient cases are due to consumption of unsafe water and poor sanitation
(URT, 2010). Both urban and rural diarrhoea outbreaks have been related to
consumption of contaminated water.
b) Economic loss
Degradation of the quality of water results in degraded aquatic system and limits usage
of water or makes it require costly treatment. The economic losses emanating from
pollution of water is therefore significant. It is estimated that impacts resulting from
poor sanitation and hygiene cost the country about USD 206 million per year or
equivalent to 1% of annual GDP. This translates to an average of USD 5 per capita
annually (SWA, 2012).
c) Burden on time spent to fetch water
Deterioration of water quality and increased inaccessibility of water to the population
inflict the burden on distance and time spent by mostly women and children to collect
water for domestic uses. This is particularly the case in rural areas where the proportion
of the population with access to improved sources of water within 30 minutes is less
than 50%. The more time or distance required for water collection, the less the time
available for productive economic activities for adults as well as school attendance for
children.
d) Water use conflicts
Water use conflicts have been experienced in almost all water basins in the country as a
result of competition for water resources (Table 11.3). For instance, in the year
2011/2012, a total of 27 conflicts on water use were reported in the country (MoW,
2012). Civil conflicts over water resources between pastoralists and farmers, have
become a common phenomenon in Morogoro, Kilimanjaro and Mara regions.
Year
2008/09
2009/10
2010/11
2011/12
Table 11.3: Trends in water use conflicts

Water use conflicts
Number Reported
Resolved
Number
27
25
18
18
21
17
28
26
185
%
92.6
100.0
81.0
92.9
2012/13
11.6
35
129
24
110
68.6
85.3
Response
a)
Policy, Plans, Strategies and Programmes
For addressing various issues in the water sector, the Government has formulated a
number of policies, plans, legislation, strategies and programmes. Some of these
include: National Water Policy (2002); National Water Sector Development Strategy
(NWSDS)(2005-2015); Water Quality Management and Pollution Control Strategy
(2011); Water Sector Environmental Action Plan (2011); Water Resources Management
Act (2009); The Strategy for Urgent Action for Conserving Marine and Coastal
Environment, Lakes, Rivers and Dams (2008); and Water Supply and Sanitation Act
(2009).
b)
Exploration and development of new water sources
Groundwater is one of the water sources in the country particularly in semi arid areas.
In the year 2011/2012, exploration of potential areas for drilling boreholes was carried
in 563 areas as compared to 189 areas in the following basins: Lake Tanganyika (15),
Rufiji (4), Pangani (46), Lake Victoria (7), Lake Rukwa (10), Ruvuma (49), Lake Nyasa
(3), Wami-Ruvu (17) and Internal Drainage (38).
c)
Identification, demarcation and protection of water sources
In response to the implementation of the Strategy for Urgent Actions on Land

Degradation and Water Catchments (2006), efforts have been undertaken by the
Ministry of Water to identify, demarcate and conserve water sources. In the year
2012/2013, a total of 60 water sources were identified countrywide for the purpose of
demarcating and protecting them from encroachment and environmental pollution.
In addition, Makutupora well-field which is the main water source for the Dodoma
Municipality has been declared to be a groundwater controlled area and human activities
beyond sixty metres at Kawa dam (Nkasi) in Rukwa have been prohibited.
Also, in 2012, the Government evicted a total of 380,000 cattle from Kilombero Valley,
Morogoro Region, to conserve the Kilombero Valley Flood Plain Basin due to its
ecological importance designated as one of the four Ramsar sites in the country.
d)
Environmental inspection and water quality monitoring
186
Various Government Ministries and Agencies carry out regular inspections in

industries, mining sites and hotels in an effort to control pollution from these potential
sources of water pollution. The inspections are carried out by the Ministry of Water,
National Environment Management Council (NEMC), Government Chemist Laboratory
Agency (GCLA), Occupational Safety and Health Authority (OSHA) and Local
Government Authorities. For example, in the year 2012/2013, Ministry of Water
inspected a total of 41 industries, Lake Victoria Basin (18), Pangani Basin (19), Rufiji
Basin (3) and Lake Rukwa Basin (1). In addition, a total of 5 mines were inspected (Lake
Victoria Basin - 4 and Lake Rukwa Basin - 1).
187
CHAPTER TWELVE
CLIMATE CHANGE
12.1
Introduction
Climate change is a global challenge to both sustainable livelihood and economic

development. It is already having significant negative impacts in developing countries
and will affect the ability of these countries to achieve Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) (IPCC, 2007; UNDP, 2008). Climate change projection indicates that the
frequency and severity of extreme climatic events will increase, mainly associated with
flooding, droughts, cyclones, and tropical storms, which will be more intense, frequent
and unpredictable. Recent studies project that the frequency and intensity of extreme
weather events will increase, causing severe socio-economic consequences (URT, 2003d;
Shemsanga et al, 2010). Developing countries, such as Tanzania, are particularly
vulnerable because of their high dependence on climate sensitive resources and
livelihood activities and low adaptive capacity. The risks associated with climate
change are already evident in various economic sectors essential for Tanzanias
livelihood and sustenance, including water and energy resources, food security,
ecosystems/biodiversity and human health. In most vulnerable communities, the
impacts of climate change pose a direct threat to peoples survival.
12.2
Drivers
a) Dynamics of land use, land use change and forestry
The major underlying cause of climate change worldwide is greenhouse gas emissions
and global warming - a phenomena which is global but has local implications.
Greenhouse gas emission is human-induced and results from various economic
activities especially those related to industrialisation and the dynamics of land use, land
use change and forestry.
The global atmospheric concentration of CO2, the most important anthropogenic
greenhouse gas, and other greenhouse gases increased steadily from a pre-industrial
value with the annual CO2 concentration growth rate being largest during the last 18
years (IPCC, 2007)2 . Global increases in CO2 concentrations are due primarily to fossil
fuel use, with land-use change providing another significant but smaller contribution. It
is very likely that the observed increase in Methane (CH4) concentration is
predominantly due to agriculture and fossil fuel use. The increase in Nitrous oxide
(N2O) concentration is primarily due to agriculture (IPCC, 2007).
2
http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/mains2-2.html
188
Tanzania has relatively low contribution to causes of global warming compared to other
countries. In general, it contributes significantly to carbon sequestration via its massive
ocean environment, wetlands, forests and land. Her little contribution is perhaps
through deforestation, overgrazing, mining activities and land use changes (Shemsanga
et al., 2010). In terms of contribution by sector, land use change in the country
contributes more to greenhouse gas emission than from fossil fuel, because of its low
level of development. Thus, efforts to combat climate variability in the country will
have to focus more on land use change (URT, 2012).
b) Heavy dependence on fossil fuel for energy
Today, burning of fossil fuel releases greenhouse gases to the atmosphere at 10 times
the rate reported for 56 million years ago. Then global temperature rose five degrees
Celsius 56 million years ago in response to a massive injection of greenhouse gases into
the atmosphere from volcanic activity (Hardy, 2013). Past global temperature variations
are also related to natural variations in atmospheric carbon dioxide. Indeed, it is the
speed of today's human-caused temperature increase that is more troubling than the
absolute magnitude, and adjusting to rapid climate change will be difficult.
The average global temperature increase from 1850 until now has been almost 2 degrees
Fahrenheit, or 0.0122 degrees per year - a rate 41 times faster than the pre-industrial
warming (Hardy, 2013). Emissions of carbon dioxide due to the use of fossil energy will
change the climate and the temperature by 2 to 6 Celsius within year 2100, which is a
tremendous increase from the current average temperature of 1.7 Celsius (IPCC). This
will probably cause huge changes to humankind, both positive and negative, but the
total impact on our society is currently very uncertain (Singh and Singh, 2012).
Consumption of fossil fuel in Tanzania and Africa as a whole is generally very low
compared to developed countries. Fossil fuels will remain the most important energy
source, at least until 2030, and the use of oil, gas and coal is expected to grow in volume
over this period (IEA, 2009). Coal is not scarce, but is problematic for pollution and
climate change reasons (Singh and Singh, 2012).
12.3
Pressure
Rapid population growth and poverty
Population growth coupled with poverty exerts pressure to forest resources and thus
reducing the carbon sink.
189
12.4
State
Recent studies of climatological data and observational evidence from local

communities are overwhelmingly indicative of some signs of increased climate
variability and climate change over most parts of the country. Increasing temperature,
notably over highland areas are observed in most parts of the country, late rainfall onset
and early cessation, decreasing rainfall amount and seasonal shifts in rainfall patterns
are becoming more common in most parts of Tanzania. Specifically, the central and
northern zones, which are semiarid, are most vulnerable to climate variability and they
will be more vulnerable to the projected increase in frequency and amplitude of
extreme climatic events (URT, 2007).
The projection of rainfall and temperature due to global climate change for Tanzania
have been discussed by Mwandosya et al (1998), Matari et al (2008), the Initial National
Communication to UNFCCC (2003) and the 2007 National Adaptation Programme of
Action (NAPA). Results from time series analysis of temperature, rainfall and relative
humidity from selected stations are presented below. Temperature and rainfall
projections from global circulation models are also presented.
a) Temperature
Time series analysis of both mean annual maximum and minimum temperature has
revealed significantly increasing temperature trends in all meteorological stations
across the country. Figures 12.1 and 12.2 depict temperature trends from selected
stations. The increased temperature trend is more pronounced in mean annual
minimum temperature (Figures 12.3) as compared to mean annual maximum
temperature (Figure 12.2). Due to climate change, mean annual temperature for
Tanzania is projected to increase by 1.7c over north eastern areas of the country and by
2.5C over Western parts of the country (Figure 12.4).
190
Figure 12.1: Rate of change of temperature pattern in the country from 1951-2002
(Source: Climate Wizard, 2013)
191
Figure 12.2: Mean annual maximum temperature trend at a) Arusha, b) Zanzibar, c)

Mbeya and d) Dodoma stations (Source: Matari et al, 2008)
192
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 12.3: Mean annual minimum temperature trend at a) Arusha, b) Zanzibar, c)

Mbeya and d) Dodoma stations (Source: Matari et al, 2008)
193
Figure 12.4: Mean Temperature change due to 2xCO2 concentration.

(Source: Matari et al, 2008).
b) Rainfall
A slightly weak decreasing trend can be discerned from the mean annual rainfall timeseries over most of the meteorological stations (Figure 12.5 and 12.6). The observed
rainfall trends are not statistically significant, underlining the nature of uncertainty
associated with rainfall patterns. However, intra-seasonal and inter-annual variability
manifested through late onset and early cessation, increase in dry spells and shift in
rainfall patterns are becoming more common (URT, 2012). Projections from Global
Circulation Models are indicating that due to doubling concentration of CO 2 in the
atmosphere by 2100; there will be an increase in rainfall in some parts while other parts
will experience decreased rainfall (Mwandosya et al, 1999; Matari et al, 2008). The areas
with two rainfall seasons i.e., the north-eastern highland and Zanzibar, the Lake
Victoria basin and the northern coast would experience an increase in March May
(long-rains) rainfall by up to 15 percent, While, southern, south-western, western and
central areas will experience a decrease in MarchMay rainfall by up to -6%.
194
Figure 12.5: Rate of change of rainfall in the country from 1951-2002 (Source: Climate
Wizard, 2013)
195
Figure 12.6: Mean annual rainfall trend at a) Arusha, b) Zanzibar, c) Iringa and d)
Singida stations (Source: Matari et al, 2008)
12.5
Impacts
Climate change is now considered as one of the most serious global threats to
sustainable development and human kind, with adverse impacts already vivid on the
environment, human health, food security, human settlements, economic activities,
natural resources and physical infrastructure. It is a serious risk to poverty reduction
and threatens to undo decades of development efforts. In Tanzania, the impacts of
global warming are already evident in almost all sectors of the economy and
throughout the country.
Climate change projection indicates that the frequency and severity of extreme climatic
events will increase. In the last 40 years Tanzania has experienced severe and recurring
droughts with devastating effects to Agricultural, Transport and Energy sectors. It is
estimated that more than 70% of all natural disasters in Tanzania are hydro-
196
meteorological, and are linked to droughts and floods. For instance, the droughts of
2003, 2005, 2010 and 2011 severely affected agriculture, energy and business sectors in
Tanzania and, in some other places, led to loss of life. Agriculture in the affected areas
was crippled, a lot of livestock and wildlife perished due to starvation and acute water
shortage. Following these droughts, the country suffered a serious energy crisis which
had severe social and economic implications. The floods of 2009 and 2011, for instance,
were particularly devastating on humans, property and infrastructure (URT, 2012).
Some of these aspects are further elaborated in the following sections.
a) Agriculture sector
Unreliable rainfall and frequent droughts over the years have resulted into massive
crop failures, low production in agriculture and massive livestock deaths in many parts
of the country, especially in the arid and semiarid areas. For example, Tanzania has
experienced six major droughts over the past 30 years with the most recent one in 2009
having ravaged agricultural production (Plate 12.1) with massive deaths of livestock in
northern Tanzania which is estimated to have cut the GDP growth by one percent. The
droughts that struck some parts of the country in 2003, 2005, 2010 and 2011 severely
affected agriculture, energy and business sectors. Further, severe floods caused by
unpredictable and heavy rainstorms have caused damage to crops, property and loss of
lives over different areas in the country such as Kilosa and Dar es Salaam with
consequent substantial economic losses.
An assessment of the impact of climate change on food security undertaken by the
Ministry of Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives (URT, 2008b) revealed that
semiarid areas experienced more food shortages and insecurity compared to others.
Tanzanias NAPA (URT, 2007) ranked agriculture and food security as the most
vulnerable and important sector that is hit hard by impacts of climate change.
197
Plate 12.1. A farmer in Misigiri village, Iramba District, tends his

drought-hit maize crop with his children
b) Energy sector
The hydropower generation has been severely affected in recent years by recurrent
droughts in the past few years that have triggered devastating power crisis in the
country. Due to climate change and variability, all major hydropower dams which are
the main source of electrical power in the country have continuously dropped below
their lowest water levels during the dry season, resulting in long hours of power black
outs. Consequently, additional resources, which were committed for other development
programmes, had to be reallocated for thermal electricity generation. This has
compelled the Government to seriously consider diversification of energy sources in
order to get a secure and sustainable future power supply in the country (URT, 2012).
Shortage of electricity as well as high electricity tariffs force people to use biomass
energy, mostly from firewood and charcoal, resulting in deforestation. Unsustainable
forest harvesting has resulted into reduced areas under intact forests, hence habitat
fragmentation and biodiversity loss with negative impacts on biodiversity as well as
increased carbon dioxide emissions.
c) Infrastructure
Incidences of floods in recent years had also tremendously impacted infrastructure and
human lives. Floods that occurred in April, 2011 (Kilombero, Morogoro), December
198
2011 (Dar es Salaam) and January 2014 (Kilosa and Mvomero (Morogoro) and Dodoma)
caused several deaths and considerable property and infrastructure damage. These
floods damaged more than 886km of roads and 26 bridges which costed the nation
about 17 billion Tanzanian shillings for repair. Based on conservative estimates, the
restoration costs of infrastructural loss in the recent (2009) flooding in Kilosa was about
200 billion Tanzanian shillings equivalent to about 0.02%, of the GDP for Tanzania in
2009.
Sea wave protection walls along Barack Obama Road in Dar es Salaam and Pangani
Township and drainage systems along Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial University in Dar
es Salaam continued to be eroded due to rising sea levels. Furthermore, impacts of sea
level rise have continued to erode coastal beaches and have continued to destroy
cultural, historical, archaeological and heritage sites along coastal areas in Tanzania.
d) Tourism
Climate change impacts have serious effects on various businesses such as tourism,
which is considered to be a highly climate sensitive economic sector. Climate
determines the length and quality of tourism seasons and plays a major role in
destination choice. Climate affects a wide range of tourism attractions such as coral
reefs, virgin beaches, snow conditions, wildlife and biodiversity, and water levels and
quality. For example, a considerable number of tourists are interested to climb Mount
Kilimanjaro due to its uniqueness for being the only mountain in the tropics covered
with snow. The shrinkage of snow on top of Mount Kilimanjaro may potentially affect
tourism business in the country.
Plate 12.2: Mount Kilimanjaro One of important tourist attractions in
199
Tanzania
e) Livestock sector
In recent years, the country has experienced increasing incidences of recurrent and
prolonged droughts with severe implications in the livelihood activities of the
communities particularly those dependent on livestock (Plate 12.3). For instance, the
drought which occurred in 1996 in 14 regions affected about 3.9 million people, while
the one which occurred between 2009 and 2010 killed a total of 316,437 cattle, 236,359
goats and 92,640 sheep in Arusha Region alone.
Plate 12.3: Remains of Livestock that died due to severe drought,

2009 2010, Longido District
f) Health sector
Several health hazards related to climate change have been reported country-wide.
They include malaria that has spread to non-traditional areas, dysentery, cholera,
meningitis, typhoid, malnutrition and trachoma. Malaria is the largest cause of loss of
lives in the country accounting for about 16% of all reported deaths and 19% of national
health spending is on Malaria. These cases are likely to increase under various scenarios
of climate change (URT, 2007; Mckinsey and Company, 2009; Munishi et al, 2010).
Majority of central regions of Tanzania already face significant exposure to droughtrelated diseases.
200
g) Forestry and Wildlife sectors

Climate change impacts on the forestry and wildlife sectors are diverse and quite
indirect. It has been shown that sub tropical dry forests and subtropical moist forests
life zone change to tropical very dry forests, tropical dry forest and tropical moist forest
and subtropical thorny woodland (Acacia Commiphora woodlands).
Generally, subtropical dry forests decline by 61.4 percent and subtropical moist forests
by 64.3 percent. Resident species will be impacted differently depending on their
distribution and ecological preferences with species that have limited geographical
range and are drought and heat intolerant. Other resident species that are susceptible to
impacts of climate change are those with low germination/recruitment rates, low
seedling survival rate and limited seed dispersal/migration capabilities. Negative
effects of climate change have generally affected wildlife in Tanzania by affecting the
availability and quality of rangelands and forage, thus influencing the animal biomass.
h) Water sector
There has been a 68 percent decrease in dry season flow in Mara River since 1972
suggesting possible collapse of the herbivore population dependent on water from
Mara River in the Serengeti Ecosystem (Gereta et al, 2009). It is reported that annual
flows in the Kilombero/Rufiji Rivers have decreased by 8 percent (Munishi et al, 2010).
Further to this, water levels of Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Manyara and Lake
Jipe have been reported to drop in recent years. For instance, between 1965 2006,
water levels of Lake Victoria dropped by 2.57m. The impacts of the variability in flow
are diverse including floods in basins that experience increase in runoff. For example,
the 2010 floods in Kilosa and other parts of the country. In areas with a decrease in flow,
there has been an alteration in availability of water for various uses, resulting into
water-use conflicts.
201
Plate 12.4: Bismack Rocks in Lake Victoria showing

declining water levels
i) Fisheries sector
Capture fisheries in both fresh and marine waters could be affected by climate change.
Fisheries are likely to be adversely affected by lower availability of oxygen due to a rise
in surface air temperatures. Sea level rise and changes in sea water temperature,
salinity, acidification, wind speed and water current direction, strength of upwelling,
mixing layer thickness and predator response to climate change, have the potential to
substantially alter fish breeding habitats and food supply for fish (Cruz, 2007),
consequently affecting capture fisheries.
Aquaculture activities are mostly affected as a result of climate change since during
drought, supply of water in fish ponds and dams decrease, leading to disappearance of
fish habitats and shortage of fish feeds. Also, when there are floods, fish from farm
ponds are swept away with water resulting to economic loss to aqua-farmers and thus
deprive their livelihood. Farming of some fish species, such as trout, has been difficult
in Tanzania due to increased temperature in highland areas, which used to farm trout
fish.
j) Economic loss
It was estimated that the country will have its GDP reduced by U$ 6.67 billion (TZS 9.0
trillion) between 2009 and 2060, an annual loss of about $ 0.13 billion (TZS 180 billion)
202
due to climate change impacts (Munishi et al, 2010). The value of loss of agricultural
GDP from the impacts of climate change over the coming 50 years was estimated at
about US$ 27 billion which is an annual average of about US$ 540 million. This will
result into reduction of GDP from US$ 90.16 billion to US$ 63.15 billion by 2016 based
on the predicted maize loss of 33% countrywide. The value of losses due to decrease in
maize production alone would amount to US$ 3,158.1 million in 50 years or an annual
loss of US$ 63.2 million.
Recurrent drought has been leading to inadequate hydropower supply which is the
major source of electricity in the country. This has lead into additional costs for power
generation using thermal technologies which are more expensive, the costs of using
individual diesel or petrol generators during power cuts and losses of production of
40% for firms that do not have their own generators. The potential value of the losses
due to energy production on the GDP is estimated to be US$ 1,320 mill by 2030, which
is an annual loss of about US$ 66 mill (Munishi et al, 2010).
12.6
Response
Various initiatives have been undertaken at the national level and local levels by
various stakeholders to address the challenge of climate change. Some of these
initiatives are:
i)
National CDM Handbook to assist project developers to come up with their

CDM project activities that include determination of CDM project baseline and
monitoring methodologies as well as key concept of Project Development
Design.
ii)
National REDD Framework for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and

Forest degradation.
iii)
Implementation of a programme on Climate Change, Impacts, Adaptation and

Mitigation in Tanzania (CCIAM). This programme addresses research and
capacity enhancement in climate change adaptation and mitigation for increased
resilience of the country to climate change.
iv)
Conducting a study on Climate Change Impacts Assessment -Tanzania. The

overall objective was to reveal and document both the key locally based impacts
of climate change and their cultural, socio-economic and environmental
implications to the local communities and to the country as a whole among
others.
203
v)
An In-depth Analysis of Climate Change impacts on Agriculture, Health and

Water sectors (compliment to the NAPA).
vi)
Development of guidelines for mainstreaming environment into sectoral and

local government authorities plans and budgets.
vii) Implementing a programme on Supporting Integrated and Comprehensive

Approaches to Climate Change Adaptation in Africa (The Africa Adaptation
Programme AAP.
viii) Implementing a project on Empowering Vulnerable Communities to Adapt and
Mitigate the Impacts of Climate Change (Eco-villages) in Chololo-Dodoma,
Uluguru Mountains and Pemba Island.
ix) Implementating a project on Mainstreaming Environment and Climate Change
Adaptation in National Policies and development Plans.
x)
Development and implementation of the National Climate Change Strategy. The

goal of the Strategy is Tanzania to adapt to climate change and participate in
global efforts to mitigate climate change with a view to achieving sustainable
development in the context of the existing international framework.
Plate 12.5: Hon. Dr. Mohamed G. Bilal, the Vice President of

the United Republic of Tanzania (right) officially launching
the National Climate Change Strategy.
xi)
Implementation of a project on Addressing Core Capacity on Adaptation to

Climate change in Productive Coastal zones of Pangani, Bagamoyo, Rufiji and
204
Zanzibar. The project involves among other activities the rehabilitation of

Pangani sea protection wall and Bwawani in Unguja; protection of mangroves
in Rufiji; and relocation of fresh water wells in Bagamoyo and coastal
management in Pemba.
xii) Implementation of a project on Developing Core Capacity to Address
Adaptation to Climate Change in the coast of Dar es Salaam city. The objective
of the project among others is to reduce vulnerability of ecosystems,
infrastructure and economy in Tanzania to rehabilitate the sea wall along Ocean
road and Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial University.
xiii) Development of Guidelines and Action Plan for Integrating Climate Change
Adaptation (CCA) into national sectoral policies, plans and programmes of
Tanzania.
xiv) Implementation of Dar es Salaam Rapid Transit (DART) project. This is an
ambitious project to reduce emissions and alleviate the chronic congestion faced
by commuters in Dar es Salaam City.
xv) Preparation of National Liquid Bioenergy Policy. Tanzania has already
developed National Biofuel Guidelines and it is now in the process of
preparation of the National Liquid Bioenergy Policy to provide guidance for
comprehensive framework for bio-fuels feedstock production, processing,
marketing and utilization of bio-fuels products in a sustainable manner.
xvi) The private sector, local government authorities, civil societies and NonGovernmental Organizations play an important role towards reduction of
greenhouse gas emissions through tree planting campaigns, conservation as
well as production of efficient firewood and charcoal cooking stoves. Tanzania
Traditional Energy Development Organization (TaTEDO) is among the leading
national development engaged in designing and producing fuel efficient
cooking stoves for various groups (households, schools, prisons, colleges and
hospitals) (Plate 12.6) and it is also invoved in promotion of sustainable charcoal
production methods.
205
Plate 12.6: The low cost mud stove (also known as

Ukombozi Stove) constructed using clay soil
(Source: TaTEDO)
xvii) A number of other local and international organizations are also engaged in
strengthen the capacity of the communities to be resilient to the impacts of
climate change by establishing climate change adaptation and mitigation
activities such as supporting the schools with fuel efficient stoves (Plate 12.7)
and tree planting and landscape conservation activities.
Plate 12.7: The Minister of State - Union Affairs Hon. S. Suluhu and the
then Minister of State - Environment Hon. Dr T. L. Huvisa
receiving explanation on the efficient cooking stoves and wood
briquettes used for cooking at Manyara Ranch Primary School,
November 2012
206
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
NATURAL DISASTERS
13.1
Overview
Tanzania has experienced a variety of natural disasters. Experience has shown that
major hazards causing disasters include drought, floods, epidemics, windstorms,
landslides, earthquake, pest infestation and volcanic eruptions However, windstorms,
landslides, volcanoes and earthquakes are few and occur rarely, others occur more
regularly especially drought, epidemics and floods. Some of these hazards have
resulted in loss of lives, damage to properties and infrastructure consequently
disrupting the development gains made over the years. Many people are vulnerable to
various disasters because prevention, mitigation, preparedness and response measures
to disasters are inadequate (URT, 2008).
a) Hazards distribution by agro-ecological zones in Tanzania
Distribution of the main types of hazards in Tanzania based on agro-ecological zones
and regions is shown in Figure 13.1, respectively (URT, 2008). The Southern highlands
and Inland sedimentary plateau, Ufipa plateau and Western highlands have six types of
hazards each. The Central Zone has only 3 types of hazards. The common types of
hazards occurring in all zones are disease outbreaks, drought and pest infestation.
207
N
300'0"E
350'0"E
400'0"E
Lake Victoria
50'0"S
50'0"S
Indian Ocean
Lake Tanganyika
100'0"S
100'0"S
Lake Nyasa
300'0"E
LEGEND
Major Hazards (Bar Chart)
DISEASE OUTBREACK
350'0"E
400'0"E
Agro - ecological Zones

Central Plateau (1000 - 2300 masl)
Coastal Zone (below 750 masl)
Eastern Plateaux (150 - 1300 masl) and Mountain block
DROUGHT
Scale
Inland Sedimentary, Ufipa Plateau and Western Highland
HIV AIDS
Northern Riftzone and Volcanic Highlands (1000- 23)
FLOOD
Rukwa - Ruaha Riftzone (800 - 1200 Masl)
MAJOR_ACCIDENTS
Southern Highlands (1500 - 2500 masl)
1:10,000,000
1:10,000,000
June, 2008
Figure 13.1: Distribution of hazards by agro-ecological regions
208
Table 13.1: Distribution of main types of hazards by regions

S/
N
1
Zone
Coastal
Eastern plateau
and mountain
blocks
Southern
Highlands
Northern rift
valley and
volcanic lands
Central plateau
Rukwa-Ruaha
rift zone
Inland
sedimentary
plateau, Ufipa
plateau and
western
highlands
Regions
Hazard types
Dar es Salaam, Pwani,

Parts of Tanga, Lindi
and Mtwara
Pest infestation,
drought, epidemics,
floods and
landslides
Pest infestation,
epidemics, drought,
strong winds,
earthquakes
Parts of Kilimanjaro,
Tanga, Morogoro,
Lindi, Mtwara,
Dodoma, Ruvuma and
Manyara
Parts of Morogoro,
Lindi, Ruvuma
Arusha, parts of Mara

and Manyara
Singida, Tabora, large
part of Dodoma, Part
of Kigoma, small part
of Mbeya and Iringa,
Shinyanga, Mwanza
and part of Mara
Parts of Sumbawanga,
Tabora, Mbeya and
Iringa
Parts of Sumbawanga,
Kigoma and Kagera
Pest infestation,
epidemics, drought,
floods, earthquakes,
strong winds
Pest infestation,
drought, epidemics,
and floods
Epidemics, drought
and pest infestation
Total
area (%)
15
18
12
31
Disease outbreaks,
drought, fire and
pest infestation
pest infestation,
disease outbreaks,
drought, fire, strong
winds and floods
10
Source: Modified from URT (2008)

b) Natural disaster events and impacts
Between 1900 and 2012, the number of reported natural disaster events in Tanzania was
around 95, which killed 7,704 people and affected other 13,849,250 people as shown in
209
Table 13.2. Tanzanias main natural disaster hazards in terms of number of people
affected are drought, floods and epidemics (Table 13.2).
Table 13.2: Reported natural disasters in Tanzania (1900 to 2012)
S/N
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Natural Disaster
Number of
disaster
events
Number of
people
Killed
*Damage
(000 US$)
Total
number of
people
affected
12,737,483
8,991
Drought
Earthquake
(seismic activity)
Tsunami
Epidemics
Flood
Pest Infestation
Landslide
Strong winds
Wildfire
Total
10
9
1
29
34
2
4
4
1
94
10
6,673
695
13
4
7,704
96,389
1,002,455
150
3,782
13,849,250
7790
7,790
* Loss caused by other disasters has not been recorded. Therefore, the total cost does not reflect the actual
financial loss resulting from disaster events.
(Source: Modified from the OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database, 2012)

It is apparent from Figure 13.2 that the most frequent natural disaster events are floods
and epidemics. However, epidemics killed more people than all other natural disasters
combined together (Table 13.2). Drought affected significantly more people than other
disasters (92% of the total number of people affected).
210
Figure 13.2: Proportions of natural disaster events in Tanzania (1900 to 2012)

(Source: The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database, 2012)
c) Policy, Legal and Institutional Responses to Disasters
Cognizant of the adverse impacts of natural and man disasters to the social and
economic aspects of Tanzania, the Government established a Disaster Management
Department to deal with issue pertinent to disaster risk management. Considering the
disaster threats in the country, the Government enacted Disaster Relief Coordination
Act No 9, of 1990 and established an Inter Ministerial Committee on disasters known as
Tanzania Disaster Relief Committee (TANDREC) for overseeing and coordinating
overall relief operations at national level. Similar committees were established at
regional, district and ward levels. The Government has also formulated the National
Disaster Management Policy (2010). The thrust of the policy is to have safe livelihood
with minimum disaster interruptions to social and economic development issues
(URT, 2010). Other policies that address issues pertinent to disaster risk management
include the National Land Policy, 1995; the National Human Settlements Development
policy, 2000; and the National Environmental Policy, 1997. It is worth noting that the
Government has also formulated the National Operational Guidelines (NOG) for
Disaster Management (2003) and established National Relief Fund for facilitating
response during disasters. The Government has also formulated guidelines on how to
mainstream disaster risk management activities in development programs by Local
Government Authorities have been developed (2006).
211
Besides the Disaster Relief Coordination Act No. 9, of 1990, other acts that address
disaster risk management issues include the Environmental Management Act,Cap.191,
The Food Security Act, of 1991, The Water Resources Management Act, of 2009, The
Local Government (Urban Authorities) Act, of 1982 and The Local Government (District
Authorities) Act, of 1982. Besides these, the government has also prepred the National
Emergency Response and Preparedness Plan (2012) and also a National Disaster
Communication Strategy (2012).
13.2
Floods
13.2.1 Drivers
a) Climate Change
Increase in the frequency and magnitude of floods in some areas of Tanzania is
attributed to climate change and variability. Frequency of extreme heavy rainfall is
expected to increase in the wet seasons, which would imply greater flood risk (Watkiss
et al, 2011).
b) Rapid Urbanisation
Tanzania has been experiencing rapid urbanisation coupled with growing unplanned
settlements. This has resulted to the expansion of unplanned settlements into flood
prone areas. For example Msimbazi / Jangwani valley and Msasani Bonde la Mpunga
in Dar es Salaam.
c)
Population growth
Tanzania is experiencing rapid population growth which is associated with pressure on

land resources in some regions such as Kilimanjaro and Morogoro. As a result people
tend to settle in marginal lands which are prone to floods
13.2.2 Pressure
Improper land use planning, rapid urbanisation and uncontrolled population growth
means that river corridors are encroached upon, open lands are being captured and
haphazard construction practices are being used thus exposing people to flood hazards.
Inadequate enforcement of urban development and land use regulations has caused
development of human settlements in flood prone areas such as Msimbazi river valley,
Jangwani area and Msasani Bonde la Mpunga in Dar es Salaam.
212
Improper land use has caused these hazardous areas to continue to be populated,
exposing residents to life-threatening floods and flood-related health problems. Most of
urban areas in Tanzania are vulnerable to floods because more than 60% of the
inhabitants are living in unplanned areas with little or no storm water drain systems
(URT, 2011) largely due to limited financial resources. Moreover, the growth of new
informal settlements and expansion of existing ones has resulted in encroachments onto
floodplains, increasing the vulnerability of these city residents to floods.
Scarce resources to address challenges related to floods contribute to inadequate
capacity to respond to floods. This results to inadequate and defective storm water
drainage systems in most urban areas complicating the flooding problem.
13.2.3 State
Flood prone regions are Dar es Salaam, Morogoro, Tanga, Mbeya, Coast, Rukwa and
Mtwara. Areas which are mostly affected by floods are briefly discussed below.
Rufiji plains
Rufiji plains have experienced severe floods for more than a century. The 2002 floods
destroyed infrastructure and cut off communications between Dar es Salaam and
Southern Tanzanian Regions. The floods also caused a considerable loss of crops.
However, there has been reluctance of some people living in the Rufiji flood plains to
vacate the area (Meena et al, 2005).
Kilosa District
Kilosa District has been subjected to the worst flooding events in the country. The most
recent one occurred in February 2010 when River Mkondoa was swollen and busted its
banks inundating Kilosa town forcing about 23,980 residents out of their homes with
devastating damage on crop fields
Dar es Salaam City
Dar es Salaam has experienced nine (9) major flood episodes in the past 20 years (PanAfrican START Secretariat et al., 2011). The low-lying coastal areas of the City
accommodate many people, and contain important ecosystem services, and significant
economic activities, such as important port infrastructure that are key to the national
and regional trade and import/exports; these could be threatened by floods. The most
recent worst floods to hit Dar es Salaam City in 50 years occurred in December 2011
(Plate 13.1).
213
Plate 13.1: Floods at Msimbazi Valley in Dar es Salaam on 21st

December 2011
13.2.4 Impacts
In the past 20 years, floods have affected many people through loss of lives, properties
and their displacement as shown in Figure 13.3. In fact floods have affected more
people than all the other natural disasters in Tanzania except for drought (see Table
13.2).
214
Figure 13.3: Trend of number of people affected by floods between 1989 and 2011
In December 2009, at least 28,000 people had to depend on emergency food and other
relief supplies in Dodoma and Morogoro regions following floods, which also damaged
transport infrastructure. Kilosa District was flooded most where some 5,867 households
were affected. Some 1,146 houses were also extensively damaged by the floods and
4,702 others submerged. The rains also caused damage to the central railway line and
roads in Dodoma and Morogoro regions, which required 6.7 billion shillings [about
US$4.8 million] to repair and rebuild. The floods which occurred in Dar es Salaam in
December 2011 killed 41 people and 3,110 people were left homeless (URT, 2012).
13.2.5 Response
a) Policies and legislation
The Government has formulated a number of policies and legislations to address issues
pertinent to flood control such as National Environmental Policy (1997), The National
Human Settlements Development Policy (2000), The National Water Policy (2002), The
Water Resources Management Act (2009) and the National Environmental Management
Act (Cap. 191). The National Human Settlements Development Policy (2000)
215
emphasizes the need to restrict construction in hazardous and undeveloped natural

lands and it calls upon the Government to ensure that hazardous areas are protected
from encroachment. The Policy also restricts the issuance of titles to developers
invading open spaces and hazardous lands. As part of implementation of this policy,
several directives have been issued prohibiting construction in the lower lands such as
Msimbazi Valley and people residing in the flood prone areas have been allocated new
plots for house construction on higher ground. For example in 2011 critically affected
people from Jangwani Valley in Dar es Salaam were resettled in Mabwepande areas in
Kinondoni Municipality. Also the government instructed local government authorties
in the country to start programmes to ensure resettlement of people living in areas
vulnerable to floods.
b) Public warnings
The Government through (TMA) and Disaster Management Department (DMD)
provide regular flood warnings and advice to the general public.
c) Indigenous Coping Measures
The Government through TMA incorporates indigenous knowledge in prediction of
floods occurrences. People living in Rufiji floodplain have devised indigenous means
for minimising the impacts of floods. One of them is building of houses on long stilts
that put the structures above the flood level and thus keeping them dry during floods.
They also have canoes tethered to the house supports for easy escape in case floods are
threatening the solidity of the stilts.
In case upstream inhabitants along rivers and streams notice signs of swelling on
account of floods, they notify downstream inhabitants about the danger by drumming,
blowing of horns or shouting out aloud. People who live and farm in some of the Rufiji
floodplains move to higher lands during the floods and return to the valleys during the
cultivation season (Meena et al, 2005).
13.3
Drought
13.3.1 Overview
Tanzania has been facing serious drought conditions which began in 1990s, when the
rains began to stray from their traditional pattern. In some areas, the rain onset starts to
early or late, while in some pockets they have simply been insufficient. This continued
unreliability of rainfall has increased vulnerability in the drought prone areas
particularly in arid and semi arid regions.
216
13.3.2 Drivers
a) Deforestation
Drought is said to be directly linked with deforestation. The human population and
livestock in marginal areas have grown enormously in recent decades and need for
food, fibre and other resources have likewise grown thus fueling deforestation. In
addition, poor farming methods and overstocking have aggravated the deforestation
problem.
b) Climate change
Climate change is implicated for frequent and severe droughts leading to serious food
shortages. The country has experienced six major droughts over the past thirty years
(AF, 2011 and GoT, 2007). Observations of precipitation patterns also reveal statistically
significant decreasing trends, which is partly been attributed to climate change
(McSweeney, 2009).
c) Land use and land use change
There have been continued changes in land use in many parts of Tanzania. In some
cases, land use changes have occurred in various environments in response to various
situations. Adverse climatic conditions, changes in population, land pressure and
changes in socio-economics are among factors that favour or discourage certain
changes. Land use changes such as clearing of natural vegetation for farming expose
soil to agents of erosion such as water and wind thus causing drought.
13.3.3 Pressure
Population growth coupled with increase in the demand of forest products, poverty and
unequal access to land is one of the major threats to deforestation. Clearing forests for
agriculture, fires, charcoal burning and timber harvesting have contributed to the
drought situation. The majority of rural people depend heavily on the forests for their
survival and most of the export economy is land dependent.
Drought is also partly implicated to climate change and variability. The impacts of
climate variability on agriculture sector in Tanzania include prolonged dry episodes
and unpredictability in rainfall. Shortening and/or change of the growing season, a
trend that has already been observed in Tanzania is seen as a direct consequence of the
warming up and changes in rainfall (Shemsanga et al, 2010).
217
13.3.4 State
Drought is responsible for about 92% of all people affected by natural disasters (Figure
13.4) in the past twenty years in Tanzania (Table 13.2). Tanzania Mainland normally
experiences recurring droughts in every four years; the recent one occurred in 2009.
The central parts of Tanzania extending to the north eastern parts have a high
probability of drought. The most frequently hit regions are Dodoma, Singida, Mwanza,
Shinyanga, Tabora, Mtwara and Lindi. Substantial parts of Arusha (Kiteto and,
Simanjiro districts), Mara (Bunda, Mugumu and Serengeti districts), Morogoro (Gairo),
and Iringa (Isimani areas) are victims of drought. In general, the trend shows that
drought prone regions face severe droughts once in every three years while mild to
moderate droughts affect the other regions once in every two years.
13.3.5 Impacts
Drought inflicts a heavy toll on the economy of the country, which is agricultural based.
Agriculture contributes about 65% of export revenue generation (URT and DPGECC,
2011). In addition, importation of food due to scarcity as a result of drought episodes
puts a strain on already meagre foreign currency reserves. For example, following the
2005/06 drought Tanzania spent about US$ 30.9 million on food relief to people
affected by drought.
Development Partners contributed over US$ 9.0 million for the same course (URT,
2008). Major drought years lead to the loss of crops and livestock, reduce hydro-power
generation and electricity supply, and reduce industrial production. The 2005/6
drought affected millions of people and had costs of at least 1% of GDP (URT and
DPGECC, 2011). The drought in 2011/2012 affected 55 districts in which 2,186,990
people depended on relief aid of food from Government 69,688 tonnes of food worthy
30 billion shillings distributed to the affected households.
218
Figure 13.4: Trend of number of people affected by drought in Tanzania (1984 to 2011)
Drought contributes to the reduction of an areas livestock carrying capacity due to
shrinking rangelands. Some areas (Mwanza, Singida, Dodoma and Shinyanga) have
had excess livestock especially big herds of cattle numbers exceeding their carrying
capacity. As a result, there has been migration of cattle to other areas especially to the
Southern parts triggering conflicts between pastoralists and farmers leading to loss of
lives.
13.3.6 Response
The Tanzania Metrological Agency (TMA) provides weather forecasting and early
warning services. The Ministry responsible for Agriculture, Food Security and
Cooperatives has the Early Warning Unit that gives information on rainfall for crop
production, crop status and other externalities that might affect food security.
Drought-resistant crops (Cassava, coco yams, pigeon peas, finger millet, sorghum,
bulrush millet, cow peas and sweet potatoes) are used for addressing problems related
to climate variability and drought in particular. Promotion of such species is integrated
219
into national and district development policies, multi-sectoral policies, and sectoral
policies in Tanzania.
The Government has established the National Food Reserve Agency (NFRA) with the
aim of maintaining a national optimal level of food reserve to address local food
shortage and respond to immediate emergency food requirements. During the drought
of 2007/2008, the Government distributed 46,661.1 tonnes of maize and 1,403.67 of
sorghum to affected population in Arusha, Dodoma, Iringa, Kilimanjaro, Manyara,
Shinyanga, Lindi, Singida, Tabora and Mwanza (URT, 2012).
13.4
Epidemics
13.4.1 Overview
Epidemics strike fairly regularly and are among the leading disasters in the country
accounting for 31% of all disaster occurrences. The most common killer diseases are
malaria, HIV/AIDS related illnesses, cholera, dysentery and other water-borne
diseases. Other Epidemics include bubonic plague, acute watery diarrhoea syndrome,
Meningococcal disease and Rift Valley Fever (RVF), avian flue and meningitis. There
are also emerging threats like dangue fever.
13.4.2 Drivers
The major drivers of the disease outbreaks are defective environmental sanitation, lack
of clean drinking water and negligence and inadequate awareness on health issues. In
the urban areas, the rapid growth of populations and poorly planned and uncontrolled
urban development, which have resulted into the proliferation of slums and
shantytowns, deterioration of public infrastructure services, have been the major causes
for the outbreaks of diseases such as cholera, tuberculosis, typhoid fever and dysentery.
High population density in informal settlements is amongst significant factors in the
spread of communicable diseases.
The increase of disease outbreaks is attributed to climate change. Among the socioeconomic consequences of increasing temperatures due to climate change and
variability is its central role in the geographical distribution and reproduction of vectors
responsible for a number of diseases in Tanzania (URT, 2007). For example, the climate
sensitive diseases, such as cholera, malaria, rift valley fever (Paavola, 2003) and
meningitis were all eminent during the El Nio season of 1992-1993, as well as in 19971998 (Yanda et al, 2006).
220
13.4.3 Pressure
Increase of population has not matched with the provision of sanitation services in most
areas in Tanzania. Consequently, most people (60-70%) living in unplanned settlements
do not have access to hygienic toilets and thus large amounts of faecal waste are
discharged to the environment without adequate treatment (URT, 2011). Inadequate
solid waste management services is one of the major factors in disease prevalence in
unplanned settlements. Unsanitary practices/behaviour such as inadequate washing of
hands before eating, after defecation or touching waste also contribute to the disease
transmission problem.
The problem of epidemics is aggravated by insufficient health services. Tanzania's
public health service suffers from inadequate resources leading to low quality
healthcare.
13.4.4 State
a) Malaria
Global malaria mapping ranks Tanzania as a very high malaria endemicity area (as
defined by WHO) with 10 percent of its urban and rural population at risk, the most
vulnerable groups being pregnant women and children under 5 years of age (WHO,
2010). Life-threatening malaria is reported to occur largely in children, commonly those
under a year old. From Figure, 13.5, it is apparent that malaria has become endemic in
most parts of the country.
221
Figure 13.5: Spatial distribution of malaria in Tanzania

(Source: http://www.mara.org.za accessed on 19th May 2012)
b) Cholera
Cholera epidemics have been experienced in Tanzania, dating back to 1836. The first 10
cholera cases after a long period of time were reported in 1974 and since 1977, cases
were reported each year with a case fatality rate (CFR) averaging 10.5% (between 1977
and 1992). Between 2002 and 2006, most regions have reported cholera cases and nine of
them (Dar es Salaam, Dodoma, Kigoma, Lindi, Mbeya, Morogoro, Mtwara, Pwani and
Tanga) reported more than 2000 cases during this five years period. Between 1 January
and 31 December 2006, a total of 14,297 cases including 254 deaths (CFR 1.8%) were
reported from 16 regions (out of 26). The most affected region was Dar es Salaam with
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8,965 cases representing 62.7% of the total cases and 101 deaths (39.8% of total deaths)
(WHO, 2008).
c) Human Immune Deficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
(HIV/AIDS)
Human Immune Deficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
(HIV/AIDS) pandemic has seriously affected the country since 1983. The national adult
HIV prevalence peaked at 8% in 1995, and then gradually decreased to 6.5% in 2004 and
5.8% in 2007 (ASAP, 2008).
In 2007-08, 6 percent of Tanzanian adults age 15-49 were infected with HIV. There are
large variations in HIV prevalence by region. The highest HIV prevalence rate is found
in Iringa (16 percent) followed by Dar es Salaam (9 percent) and Mbeya (9 percent).
Regions on the Mainland with the lowest HIV prevalence are Manyara (2 percent),
Arusha (2 percent), and Kigoma (2 percent). In all regions except Arusha, HIV
prevalence is higher among women than men (TACAIDS et al, 2008).
Almost all Tanzanians age 15-49 years have heard of AIDS. Unfortunately, an in-depth
understanding of AIDS is less widespread, which may be contributing to the spread of
the infection. Only 40 percent of women and 44 percent of men have comprehensive
knowledge about AIDS (TACAIDS et al, 2008).
d) Rift Valley Fever (RVF)
RVF (an acute, mosquito-borne viral disease) occurred for the first time in Tanzania in
1930. This was followed by periodic epidemics of 10-20 years i.e. 1947, 1957, 1977, 1997
and 2007. During the latest disease outbreak in 2007, 52.4% of regions in Tanzania
mainland were affected and majority (72.7%) of the regions had concurrent infections in
human and animals. The latest re-emergence (2006/2007) of the disease among humans
and livestock, had expanded to cover different geographical regions with central zone
of the country been mostly affected.
e) Avian Influenza
Although no death has been reported so far, Tanzania is at high risk of Avian Influenza
introduction and spreading based on the migratory birdfly ways passing through the
country and interactions of people and goods through trade and other movements. The
Government is taking all necessary precautions for prevention of Avian Influenza
epidemic.
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13.4.5 Impacts
Epidemics have killed more people than all other natural disasters combined as Table
13.2 shows. Figure 13.6 shows the trend of people killed by epidemics between 1983 and
2007. Cholera accounts for most of the deaths in 1997 and 1998 (Figure 13.8).
Figure 13.6: Trend of people killed by epidemics between 1983 and 2007
Economically, the increased incidences of communicable diseases especially,
HIV/AIDS, malaria and cholera add to the costs of medical treatment for the
household, community and the country as whole. Diseases also reduce labour
productivity. Malaria has been and continues to be a major cause of illness and death.
The disease remains a major impediment to socio-economic growth and welfare.
The devastating impact of HIV is almost incomprehensible. The consequences of the
epidemic affect all spheres of life. At the community level, poverty imposes enormous
strains on the extended family structure, leading to a substantial burden of orphans and
vulnerable children (OVCs) estimated at 17 percent in Tanzania according to the results
of the 2007-08 Tanzania HIV/AIDS and Malaria Indicators Survey (TACAIDS et al.,
2008). A social consequence is the growing number of child- and widow-headed
households. The economy has been adversely affected by the premature death of
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women and men in their prime years of productivity. The demographic consequences
of the epidemic are reflected in the countrys quality of life indicators, including the
increasing level of infant mortality and the decreasing life expectancy estimated at 52
years at the moment.
RVF has caused serious effects on rural peoples food security and household nutrition
and on direct and indirect losses to livestock producers in the country. During the
2006/2007 outbreak, 309 human cases with 142 deaths (46% case fatality rate) were
reported in the country whereby Dodoma region experienced the highest death rate of
64% (Sindato et al, 2011). The previous RVF epidemics in Tanzania were followed by
cessation of the lucrative trade in ruminants. This resulted in serious economic losses to
the populations who were totally dependent upon this income.
13.4.6 Response
The Government, together with multinational organisations such as WHO and UNICEF
have been organizing emergency strategy to combat cholera.
The Government has formulated the National Policy on HIV/AIDS and the National
Multisectoral Strategic Framework (NMSF) as the guiding tools for the implementation
of HIV/AIDS activities. HIV/AIDS is among the development agenda in the National
Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP II) and the Tanzania
Development Vision of 2025. The Government has developed the National Guideline on
Prevention and Control of HIV/AIDS in the public sector for fighting the epidemic and
to improve the well-being of the people.
To reduce the burden of malaria, the Government is implementing the National Malaria
Control Program (NMCP). One of the strategies being employed is universal coverage
with long-lasting insecticide treated nets (LLITNs), which are being distributed free of
charge to children under 5 years of age and pregnant mothers.
During the RVF epidemic, the Government through the MoLFD took various steps to
contain the epidemic such as RVF surveillance, training of personnel and public
awareness, restriction of animal movements to and from the suspected areas,
reinforcement of abattoir regulations, ban of the slaughter of cattle and vaccination of
livestock (Sindato et al, 2011).
To prevent and control the spread of Avian Influenza, the Government has prepared
Multisectoral Avian and Human Influenza Strategic Plan.
The Government, NGOs, multinational organisations and other stakeholders are
conducting mass media health campaigns (radio, TV, newspapers, posters and leaflets)
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for educating the general public on various issues pertinent to the prevention and
control of diseases.
13.5
Pest Infestation
13.5.1 Overview
Pest infestations in this context include insects and vermin that destroy large amounts
of cropping in the fields and after harvest. Pest infestations account for about 2% of all
disaster events in Tanzania (Figure 13.1). Common pests in Tanzania include locusts,
rodents, Quelea Quelea, cassava mealy bugs, tsetse flies and armyworms.
13.5.2 Drivers
Natural phenomena such as prevailing wind direction dictate migration and spread of
pests such as locusts, quelea quelea and army worms.
13.5.3 Pressure
Due to inadequate effective strategies for surveillance of pests, contingent plans and
rapid intervention during outbreaks, Tanzania has been invaded with various types of
pests almost every year, which have caused enormous losses of crops and livelihoods of
people (Nyambo and Latchininsky, 2009).
Another pressure is inadequate financial and human resources for prevention and
control of pest invasion. For example, during the 2009 Red locust outbreak, the
Government had to seek assistance from World Food Programme (WFP) for containing
the outbreak due to the lack of internal capacity for intervention.
13.5.4 State
Pest occurrences are a problem in all agro ecological zones (Figure 13.2) but are more
pronounced in the Eastern plateau and mountain blocks. The Southern Highlands,
Northern rift valley and volcanic lands and inland sedimentary plateau, Ufipa plateau
and western highlands are also prone to pest outbreaks. Regions mostly affected by this
type of disaster are Dodoma, Tabora, Kigoma, Rukwa, Singida, Mbeya, Kagera, Arusha,
Dodoma, Singida, Shinyanga, Mwanza, Ruvuma, Iringa, Mtwara and Mara (URT, 2003).
a) Rodents
Rodents, particularly the multi-mammate rat (Mastomys natalensis) (locally known as
shamba rat), are major pests of food crops. The most affected crops are maize, millets,
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paddy and cassava. Virtually all regions are affected with more frequent outbreaks in
Lindi, Mtwara, Coast, Tanga, Rukwa (Lake Rukwa valley) and in the cotton areas of
Shinyanga Regions (URT, 2009).
b) Quelea Quelea
These are serious migratory pests of cereal crops, namely wheat, rice, sorghum and
millet across the country. The quelea birds have been responsible for famines of varying
proportions in some areas. For example, in 2001, total loss (100%) in 700 ha of wheat
was experienced in Basuto wheat farms, Hanang District (URT, 2001). Between 1998
and 2002, about 8,600 hectares of cereal were destroyed by Quelea quelea in 10 regions
(URT, 2009).
c) Locust
Locust breeding affects different areas in the country. These includs include Bahi in
Dodoma region, Wembere in Tabora region, Malagarasi in Kigoma region and Iku and
Katavi in Rukwa region. Adjacent regions of Singida and parts of Mbeya are also
affected. There are eight known red locusts outbreak in East and Central Africa, four of
these are found in Tanzania. These include the Rukewa Valley and Iku/Katavi plains in
the Southern West, the Malagarasi River basin in the West and Wembere Plains in the
Centre (URT, 2009). They cover a total of 8,000 km2. In 2009, it was estimated that up to
15,000 ha in the Ikuu-Katavi National Park were infested with widespread populations
of banding nymphs at a density of 25-100 hoppers/m2, as well as 10,000 ha in Rukwa
plains and 15,000 ha in Malagarasi (Nyambo and Latchininsky, 2009).
d) Armyworms
The African armyworm (Spodoptera exempta) is a major pest of cereal crops (maize, rice,
sorghum and millets) as well as pasture (grass family) and therefore a threat to food
security and livestock. Armyworms affect all regions except Rukwa, Kagera and
Kigoma. Overall losses of 30% for crops have been estimated though in major outbreak
years losses in maize of up to 92% are recorded (URT, 2009). Armyworm outbreaks vary
from year to year but serious outbreaks occur frequently. For example, between 1989
and 2002 there was armyworm invasion every year and a total of 1,155,000 ha were
destroyed (URT, 2009).
13.5.5 Impacts
The major implications of pest outbreaks include reduced level of crop production,
which lead to low economic gain (and sometimes famine) among households in the
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affected areas. It is estimated that 30% of crops in the country is lost annually due to
pests and disease outbreaks (URT, 2004).
In Tanzania, quelea invasion is an annual event, which occurs in 12 regions out of 26
regions (60% of cereal production in the country). Potential vulnerable cereal quelea
invasion is estimated at 2,656,000 MT, valued at Tshs 198.7 billion (equivalent to US $
183 million) (http://www.sadc.int/fanr/agricresearch/icart).
Losses of cereals due to rodent invasion are usually quite high and are in average about
15%. This loss of cereals could provide enough food for 2.3% of population for a whole
year. Annual control costs for rodents are approximately 217 million Tanzanian
Shillings (USD 197 million) (URT, 2009).
Armyworm infestation in Lindi Region in 2005/2006 destroyed crops worth T.Shs. 3.5
billion. About T.Shs. 22.5 million was used to control the infestation. It is estimated that
321,000 people were affected (URT, 2012).
13.5.6 Response
The Government has taken the following actions against pest invasion:
i)
Formulation of Integrated Pest Management Plan (IPMP) to ensure

responsible use of pesticides and effective management of potential pest
occurrences (URT, 2009).
ii)
Strengthening of the capacity for timely control of crop pests and disease
outbreaks, particularly Quelea Quelea, armyworm, locust, rodents and transboundary crop and animal disease and promote Integrated Pest Management
(IPM) (URT, 2007). For example, about 80 spray operations against Quelea
Quelea are conducted annually in the country. Moreover, farmers are trained
in Community Based Armyworm Forecasting (CBAF) (Nyambo and
Latchininsky, 2009).
iii)
Establishment of an Animal Disease Surveillance System whose purpose is to

provide information on animal diseases and other livestock production
parameters and avail inferences for planning, implementing, monitoring,
evaluating and re-planning disease control programmes.
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13.6
Earthquakes and Volcanoes
13.6.1 Overview
Earthquake and volcanoes are one of the rapid onset disasters whose activities are
common along the great East African Rift Valley corridor, account for 10% of all the
natural disaster events in the country (Figure 13.2). The structural geology of Tanzania
consists of a series of en-echelon grabens or rift valleys, often including associated
volcanism. Some of the topographical features (i.e. craters and mountains) in the
country were formed as a result of volcanic activities. Majority of the volcanoes are
dormant except for Oldoinyo Lengai, which is still active. The potential volcanism areas
are found along the rift valley.
13.6.2 Drivers
There is little public awareness about earthquakes and volcanoes, rendering people
vulnerable. The tendency for disaster is increased by poverty, lack of education, lack of
planning and lack of coordination. For example, most of structures especially
residential houses (notably adobe) are not designed and constructed to withstand
seismic forces thus making them prone to collapsing during earthquakes. Most of adobe
buildings found in Dodoma, Singida, Tabora, Shinyanga and Arusha have adobe flat
roofs in addition to adobe walls (Rubaratuka, 2012) making them highly prone to
earthquake damage. This is due to inadequate awareness on earthquake proof
construction techniques.
13.6.3 Pressure
Adobe buildings, which are common in most of the earthquake prone areas, are not safe
since they have low strength and brittle behaviour. During strong earthquakes adobe
houses are unable to resist, and therefore, they fail abruptly (Rubaratuka, 2012).
13.6.4 State
a) Earthquake-prone areas in Tanzania
Earthquakes and volcanoes are reported to occur mostly in two zones; the RukwaRuaha rift zone and Northern rift valley including volcanic lands which are all located
in tectonically active areas. The earthquake prone areas are Mbeya, Kigoma, Rukwa,
Arusha, Kilimanjaro, Dodoma, Singida, Bariadi in Shinyanga and Iringa regions. Two
major geological faults run parallel from north to south in Tanzania, forming the
country's major earthquake-prone belts with one running from Mount Kilimanjaro to
Dodoma via Arusha and the other from Kigoma to Mbeya. Both geological faults are
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part of the East African Rift Valley system that is a zone of 50-60 km wide with active
volcanoes.
Tanzania is less prone to earthquakes in the east and more prone to tremors in the west,
especially along the shores of Lake Tanganyika in westernmost Tanzania bordering the
Democratic Republic of Congo. Earthquakes are not unusual in the west especially
along the shores of Lake Tanganyika. The eastern shore of Lake Tanganyika was hit by
a quake measuring 6.6 on the Richter Scale on October 2, 2000. Another strong quake
occurred in 2005 around Kigoma.
Most of Tanzania's 26 administrative regions are located in Zone 0 or "safe zone" where
the magnitude and impact of rare quakes are minimal as this zone experiences mostly
unfelt quakes measuring 0-3 on the open-end Richter scale. The regions between the
two faults and the Indian Ocean coast are in Zone 1 where earthquakes measure
between 3 and 5 on the Richter scale in magnitude. Zone 2 includes regions of
Kilimanjaro, Arusha, Dodoma, Iringa and Ruvuma along the Mount KilimanjaroArusha-Dodoma fault (Figure 13.10). The area experiences earthquake measuring 5-6 on
the Richter scale. Zone 3 or regions along the eastern shores of Lake Tanganyika
encounter frequent and strong earthquakes that measure 6-7 on the Richter scale. It was
in Lake Tanganyika, the deepest and longest on the African continent, where the
strongest earthquakes affecting Tanzania had been recorded. Tanzania's ever-recorded
strongest earthquake was a 7.4-magnitude jolt that occurred in 1910 in Lake
Tanganyika, followed by the second strongest quake of 6.8 on the Richter scale on
December 5, 2005 (http://medilinkz.org/east-africa/tanzania/16991.html).
b) Volcanoes in Tanzania
There are five (5) large volcanic mountains in Tanzania including Kilimanjaro, Meru,
Oldoinyo Lengai, Rungwe and Kyejo. Kilimanjaro and Meru Mountains are considered
to be dormant volcanoes whereas Oldoinyo Lengai, Rungwe and Kyejo Mountains are
regarded to be volcanically active.
Oldoinyo Lengai Volcano
Oldoinyo Lengai, in the northern part of Tanzania, is the world's most peculiar volcano.
Ol Doinyo Lengai Volcano has the lowest temperature (less than 600 C) lava of any
volcano on earth and it erupts a unique sodium carbonate. The record of eruptions on
the mountain dates to 1883, and flows were also recorded between 1904 and 1910 and
again between 1913 and 1915. Larger than normal eruptions occurred in 1917, which
resulted in volcanic ash being deposited about 48 kilometres away. During the 1917
eruption, vegetation was destroyed on the volcano and ashfall caused destruction of
grazing land and death of herds of Maasai cattle (http://en.wikipedia.org).
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A similar eruption took place for several months in 1926 and between July and
December 1940, resulting in the ash being deposited as far as Loliondo, which is 100
kilometres away. An eruption in 1940-41 lasted for six months and ash fell 100 km from
the volcano. Several minor eruptions of lava were observed in 1954, 1955, 1958 and the
early 1960s.
The largest natrocarbonatite lava flow ever recorded at Oldoinyo Lengai volcano,
occurred from 25th March to 5th April, 2006. It was associated with hornito collapse,
rapid eruption of lava covering a third of the crater, eruption of a 3-km long lava flow
on the western flank. The eruption was followed by enlargement of a pit crater. In July
2007, volcanic activity in the mountain caused daily earth tremors in Kenya and
Tanzania. The strongest tremor measured 6.0 on the Richter scale. The eruption
continued intermittently into 2008, as of the end of February it was reported that the
eruption appeared to be gathering strength, with a major outburst taking place on
March 5. During April periods of inactivity have been followed by eruptions on April 8
and 17. Eruptive activity continued until late August 2008 (Plate 13.2).
Plate 13.2: Eruption of volcano of Oldoinyo Lengai Mountain in 2008
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13.6.5 Impacts
The most recent earthquakes and volcanic activities, which occurred in Rukwa, Mbeya
and Arusha regions destroyed homes and properties and a number of people were
shifted away from an active volcano mountain. Most recent earthquakes and their
impacts are briefly described in Box 13.1.
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Box 13.1: Notable recent earthquake episodes and their impacts

Between December 2000 and January 2001, intense seismic activity was felt in the
Rungwe area and along nearby Lake Tanganyika, leaving 600 houses ruined and
some 6,000 people homeless. Yet, the maximum magnitude of these events appeared
to be no greater than 4 on the Richter Scale.
On June 29, 2002 a magnitude 5.5 earthquake hit the district of Bariadi. The
earthquake and subsequent tremors destroyed people's houses and damaged
schools, clinics, water sources and other community services. The earthquake left
400 families homeless and 690 houses damaged and 636 houses suffered major
cracks in Sunzula, Nhobora, Itubukilo and Mahembe villages (Marobhe et al, 2002).
On 5th August 2002, a strong earthquake striked in Bariadi District and killed 2
people and injured 5,690 houses were completely destroyed and 636 were damaged.
In addition, 12 classrooms were destroyed.
On 26 December 2004 a tsunami created by a massive earthquake in Indonesia
triggered killed 10 people in Dar es Salaam. Five boats were sunk out at sea in the
tsunami and 26 seriously damaged.
On 5 December 2005, a strong earthquake struck the Lake Tanganyika region of
Tanzania. The tremor, which occurred at around 15:20hrs and lasted for less than a
minute, caused injuries and panic in the affected areas. Buhingu Division in Kigoma
Rural District was most affected by the tremor, with 5,000 people (9.2% of the total
population) reportedly affected. A total of 54 houses completely collapsed in 11
villages while 705 houses had cracked walls.
On 25th July 2006 an earthquake jolted Tarime of the Mara region in northern
Tanzania at around 10:30 a.m. local time (0730 GMT) in the morning. Its
measurement on the Richter Scale is yet to be known. The tremor forced people to
run out of their houses or offices, but no report about casualties or damage has been
available.
On 20th December 2009, a magnitude 6.0 earthquake hit 90 km SE of Rungwe
(Mbeya Region). The earthquake damaged school buildings, houses, police stations,
health centers and boreholes. Hundreds of people were left homeless, and one death
was reported.
On 20th December 2009, a 6.2-magnitude earthquake struck southwest Tanzania at
2:23 AM in the morning. The U.S. Geological Survey reported the earthquake's
epicenter was 84 miles south of the town of Mbeya, at a depth of 6.2 miles. No
reports of any damages or injuries were given.
Source: URT, 2012
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13.6.6 Response
The Government has established the Geological Survey of Tanzania (GST) in 2005,
which is mandated to identify geohazards monitoring, assess, find mitigation measures
and raise public awareness.
The Government and some of the key stakeholders such as UNICEF and Tanzania Red
Cross Society have been providing technical assistance for rescue and relief operations
for victims of earthquakes. For example in 2001, the 6,082 victims of an earthquake that
struck the District of Rungwe (Mbeya Region) were given shelter and blankets.
Furthermore, during eruptions of Oldoinyo Lengai volcano, a number of people were
resettled.
13.7
Landslides
13.7.1 Overview
Landslides are common in loose steep hilly lands and account for 4.2% (Table 13.1) of
all disaster occurrences in the country. Landslides cause death, loss of properties and
accelerate environmental degradation in prone areas of Tanga, Kilimanjaro, Mtwara,
Lindi, Kigoma, Mbeya Mwanza and Rukwa regions.
13.7.2 Drivers
The main driving forces causing landslides are geological, morphological and physical
features and human activities. The geological conditions include tectonic uplift, erosion
of slope toes, erosion of lateral margins, and deposition of loads on slopes or crests and
removal of vegetation. Areas affected by landslides such as Lushoto, Kilombero, Same
and Mwanga Districts normally have a lot of water flowing out during seasons of
intense rainfall.
13.7.3 Pressure
Human activities include excavation of a slope or its toe, deposition of a load on the
slope or its crest, deforestation and irrigation. Lack of awareness and poverty can
indirectly lead to landslides in hilly regions. The construction of houses and roads
without proper geological knowledge of an area also increases the probability of
landslides.
In hilly areas, house construction involves creating a flat surface on the slope, which
disrupts the slope and forms a hanging wall without support. This practice is very
234
common in Mbeya, Morogoro and Kilimanjaro regions. During seasons of intense

rainfall, the soil above the slope of the house collapses on the houses.
Increase in the population and shortage of arable land has forced people to farm in
steep and unstable slopes of mountains. Increase in population especially in
mountainous areas of Kilimanjaro, Mwanza, Arusha, Morogoro and Mbeya regions has
caused establishment of settlements in areas, which are prone to landslides. Poverty
and settlement on vulnerable sites, especially steep slopes with loose soil and marginal
zones, expose people to increased risks from landslides. Another aspect of population
growth is the need for land. People cut down trees for settlements and for cultivation,
leading to deforestation thus exposing the soil to agents of landslides.
Inappropriate agricultural practices, overstocking and clearing of vegetation cover for
establishment of human settlements have left the land unprotected against agents of
erosion and land slide. Landslide, debris flow and mudflow problems are enhanced by
the pressure of uncontrolled human activity and land use in a mechanically unstable
environment.
13.7.4 State
Landslides pose a risk to a small region in the north and south of the country including
Kilimanjaro, Arusha and Mbeya regions. The most recent and deadly landslides and
their impacts are briefly described in Box 13.2.
13.7.5 Impacts
Socio-economic impacts of landslides include loss of arable land and damage to
infrastructure and also can lead to loss of lives. Environmental impacts of landslides
include, increase of soil erosion, nutrient depletion, loss of habitat and biodiversity. For
example, landslides triggered by torrential rains in December 2012 caused hundreds
(possibly thousands) of hectares of paddy, maize, sunflower and sorghum to be buried
in mud and debris. Recent landslides episodes and their impacts are described in Box
13.2.
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Box 13 .2: Recent landslides episodes and their impacts

In 2009, landslides in Same District killed 24 people and 60 cattle. A road stretch of 15
km long was damaged as well as 15 "ndiva" (reservoirs for irrigation purposes).
In November, 2009, four days of torrential rains caused landslides in Goha village,
Kilimanjaro Region, killing at least 25 people among them seven schoolchildren.
More people were also reported missing. A landslide with a big chunk of mountain
collapsed itself and came down and fell on about seven houses with about 32
families. Hundreds of cows and goats were also reportedly swept away by mud flow.
On 3rd of December 2011, heavy and unusual rains fell for more than 13 hours in
Kilimanjaro, Arusha and Mbeya regions. The rains were accompanied by high wind
and resulted to land slides. Nine people were killed and more than 6776 people were
left homeless in Mwanga, Mto wa Mbu and Chunya.
Mwanga
Four people were killed and hundreds injured in Lambo and Mamba Villages of
Msangeni Ward in Mwanga District due to landslides. Thirty-seven houses were
completely demolished leaving 222 family members homeless and with no food as
their food stocks were washed away. 333 hectares of paddy, maize, sunflower and
sorghum were buried in mud and debris.
Mto wa Mbu
In Mto-wa Mbu community, three bridges and the tarmac road to Ngorongoro crater
were completely washed away creating a communication challenge (Plate 12.5). 7
trucks were swept away killing two people. 280 houses were submerged in mud
and/or completely washed away leaving 3,000 people homeless.
Chunya in Mbeya
One health centre building, bridges and roads were completely washed away, 296
households that comprised of 1,776 family members in Chunya Districct were left
homeless as their houses were washed away, or submerged under water. The most
affected communities include Galua A, Kasilo B, Galula C, Muhimbili and
Ilembo communities.
Source: URT, 2012
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Plate 13.3: A road damaged by a landslide in Mto-wa-Mbu, Karatu in Arusha

Region in 2013
13.7.6 Response
The Ministry responsible for agriculture is promoting soil conservation methods such as
contour cultivation, crop rotation and agro-forestry. Trees and forests play important
roles in reducing landslide risk through various mechanisms. The Ministry responsible
for natural resources is implementing various programmes on afforestation such as One
Million Hectare Afforestation Program and HASHI/ICRAF project for prevention of
landslides and soil erosion among other environmental benefits.
13.8
Windstorms
13.8.1 Overview
In the context of this report, windstorm is referred to as wind that is strong enough to
cause at least light damage to trees and buildings and may or may not be accompanied
by precipitation. Wind speeds during a windstorm typically exceed 55 km per hour.
Wind damage can be attributed to gusts (short bursts of high-speed winds) or longer
periods of stronger sustained winds (http://www.britannica.com). Tanzania unlike its
neighbour Mozambique has not experienced many events of windstorms and cyclones.
237
13.8.2 Drivers
The main source of tropical windstorms experienced in Tanzania is the warming of
Indian Ocean. Therefore, by virtual of its location in the tropics and its proximity to the
Indian Ocean, Tanzania is prone to tropical windstorms. To initiate a tropical storm the
sea-surface temperature generally needs to be above 26.5C, which is achievable in part
of the Indian Ocean located in the equator.
13.8.3 Pressure
Many buildings are not designed and constructed to withstand windstorms partly due
to lack of expertise, inadequate awareness and poverty. Lack of maps, which shows
areas most prone to windstorms, hampers efforts to put in place measures for
protecting properties against windstorms.
13.8.4 State
Windstorms occur more in Eastern plateau and mountain blocks, Southern Highlands,
inland sedimentary plateau, Ufipa plateau and western highlands. Windstorms are
often experienced in parts of Arusha, Tanga, Manyara, parts of Dodoma, Lindi, Mtwara
and Ruvuma regions. In recent years, cyclones have also affected Dar-es Salaam,
Mwanza and Mbeya regions. In Mtwara, Mbeya and regions along Lake Victoria it has
been noted that strong winds especially during heavy rain seasons are accompanied by
thunderstorms.
13.8.5 Impacts
In the 1970s and 1990s strong winds hit the coastal area killing 5 people. Uniquely
Tabora town, about 900 km from the coast, was also hit and about 216 houses were
destroyed. Windstorms cause crop damages and thereby result in farm revenue losses.
In1952, a windstorm hit Lindi, Mkindani and Mtwara towns. It is estimated that 50% of
buildings in Mtwara and Lindi towns were affected, 10 tugs and cranes at the sea port
and other infrastructures were damaged (URT, 2012).
The most recent devastating windstorm occurred in January 2012. About 60 residents of
Shambarai Village in Simanjiro District, Manyara Region were rendered homeless after
their houses were destroyed by strong winds which swept through the area. In all about
14 houses were razed down by the windstorm and trees were also uprooted.
13.8.6 Response
238
Tanzania Meteorological Agency has been providing early warnings and advice to the
public regarding windstorms.
Indigenous people especially in the coastal area protect homesteads and field crops
from wind damage by locating them inside forests and maintaining the surrounding
forests. These forests serve as windbreaks. Live fences also act as barriers to wind.
Xeroderris stuhlmannii is among the fencing trees that are useful for windbreaks.
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CHAPTER FOURTEEN
EMERGING ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Emerging environmental issues refer to topical environmental issues that are
continually evolving and expanding, but are yet to receive sufficient attention. In this
regard, addressing them early enough provides an opportunity to manage before they
become a serious threat to human health and the environment. In this context, a number
of emerging environmental issues are considered including electronic waste (or
commonly termed as e-waste); Invasive Alien Species (IAS); Genetically Modified
Organisms (GMOs); and biofuels.
14.1
Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (E-waste)
14.1.1 Introduction
Tanzania is facing a rapid increase in use of Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE),
with the amount of accumulating E-waste growing over time. Common categories of ewaste are presented in Table 14.1. E-waste is generally classified as hazardous because it
contains significant amount of toxic substances including mercury, lead, cadmium,
Brominated Flame Retardants (BFR), arsenic, Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) and
nickel (TCRA, 2012). Despite e-waste being hazardous, it is an important secondary
resource due to its suitability for direct reuse, refurbishment or recycling.
Table 14.1: Common categories of e-waste generated by various economic sectors
Category
Large household
appliances
2. Small household
appliances
1.
3.
Information
Technology (IT) and
Telecommunication
s equipment
4.
Consumer
equipment
Typical examples
Refrigerators; washing machines; microwave ovens; electric
fans; air conditioners
Vacuum cleaners; flat irons; kettles; blenders; popcorn
makers; bread toaster; fryers; electric knives; appliances for
hair cutting, hair dryers
Personal Computers (PCs); laptops; Liquid Crystal Display
(LCD) monitors and projectors; Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
monitors; printers; photocopiers; calculators; fax machines;
telephone sets; mobile phones; modems; scanners; compact
disks (CD); diskettes; memory sticks; light-emitting diode
(LED) monitors
Radios; televisions; video cameras; video recorders; Digital
Video Disc (DVD) players; Video Compact Disc (VCD)
players; audio amplifiers; musical instruments; alarm clocks;
MP3 players
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Category
5.
Typical examples
Lighting equipment
Electrical and
electronic tools
7. Toys, leisure and
sports equipment
8. Medical devices
6.
Monitoring and
control instruments
10. Automatic
dispensers
9.
Fluorescent lamps; sodium-vapour lamps; dry cells; car

batteries; accumulators
Drills; saws; sewing machines; mowers
Video games; sports equipments with electric or electronic
components; coin slot machines
Radiotherapy equipment; cardiology machine; dialysis
machine; pulmonary ventilators; nuclear medicine analyzers
Smoke detector; thermostat; household weight measurement
and control appliances and laboratory equipment
Automatic dispensers for drinks and money
(Source: URT, 2009; CPCT, 2011; TCRA, 2012)

14.1.2 Drivers
a) Rapid changes in technology
Over the last two decades, rapidly advancing technology has brought constant
upgrades to more sophisticated models of EEE with increasing short lifecycles,
contributing to increasing volumes of e-waste.
b) Changing lifestyles and consumption patterns
The changing lifestyle of people coupled with urbanization (growing urban middle
class), projected to reach 40% by 2030 and 50% by 2050, has lead to increasing rates of
consumption of EEE. Although the use of EEE in the country is low compared to other
countries in the world, its consumption is growing at a staggering pace. For instance, in
the last decade, the penetration rate of personal computers has increased by a factor of
10, while the number of mobile phone subscribers by a factor of 100 (CPCT, 2011).
14.1.3 Pressure
a) Increasing demand
The increasing demand for modern and convenient services combined with population
growth, economic projections of continued Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth, and
improving standard of living, suggest that the volume of e-waste in the country will
continue to increase substantially over time.
b) Inadequate capacity for E-waste management
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Unfortunately, the growing volume of e-waste does not match with the available
capacity of the country to manage them in an environmentally sound manner.
14.1.4 State
The exact amount of E-waste generated in the country is not known. However, a few
assessment studies have been undertaken, all of which were limited in scope in terms of
categories of equipment considered or geographical area (UDSM, 2009; and CPCT,
2011). Projections based on the results of an inventory undertaken by CPCT (2011),
indicates that the amount of E-waste generated from computers alone in 2011 was about
2,300 tonnes annually, constituting about 7-13% of total weight of the EEE. This
indicates that amount of E-waste generated in the country is in the range of 18,000 33,000 tonnes annually. However, the amount of E-waste generated is considered to be
far less than 0.5% of municipal solid waste generated in the country.
There are no formal schemes for management of E-waste in the country. Therefore,
existing crude dumpsites are commonly used for disposal of E-waste resulting into
mixing of E-waste and municipal waste and thus accentuating risk to public health and
the environment. It is worth noting that a significant portion of E-waste remains
stockpiled in garages, warehouses, offices and other forms of storage for possible future
use or resale due to absence of formal collection scheme for E-waste (UDSM, 2009).
Proliferation of counterfeit products including EEE into the country is a growing
problem. It is estimated that about 30-40% of EEE in the local market are counterfeits
(CTI, 2008). In 2010, a total of about 53 tonnes of counterfeit EEE were seized and
disposed of (CPCT, 2011). These products were crushed and burnt haphazardly in
dumpsites. Likewise, uncontrolled importation of used EEE plays a role in escalating
the volume of E-waste due to their relatively short lifespan and some of them being
sub-standard, near-end-of-life or non-functional (CTI, 2009; CPCT, 2011).
14.1.5 Potential Impacts
a) Potential health and environmental impacts
Most EEE contain hazardous materials, most of which are likely to cause cancer,
respiratory illness and reproductive problems. Mixing of E-waste with general
municipal waste due to lack of formal management scheme pose potential health
impacts.
b) Resource loss
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Generally, E-waste contains iron and steel; plastics; non-ferrous metals and other
constituents. When these materials are not recovered, raw materials have to be
extracted and processed afresh to make new products, resulting in significant loss of
resources and damage to the environment.
14.1.6 Response
There are some national policies, legislation and regulations that have bearing on
management of E-waste as presented in Table 14.2.
Table 14.2: Relevant policies and legislation on E-waste management
A. Relevant Policies
National Environmental
Policy (1997)
The Policy provides an overall framework for environmental

management in the country. It promotes recycling of waste as
well as environmentally sound management of hazardous
waste including e-waste.
National Health Policy
The Policy advocates safe handling and disposal of
(2007)
hazardous waste. Proper e-waste management reduces
pollution load to the environment and reduces risks to
human health
Sustainable Industrial
The Policy emphasizes on pollution-free industrialization and
and Development Policy promotes efficient use of resources as well as recycling
(1996)
activities.
National Information,
The Policy advocates for establishment of an enabling legal
framework, aligned with Tanzanias constitutional provisions,
Communication,
Technology Policy (ICT) legislative and regulatory environment, and consistent with
regional and global best practices.
(2003)
B. Relevant Legislation and Regulations
Environmental
Management Act (2004)
Public Health Act (2009)
Fair Competition Act

(2003)
The Act prohibits import or export of hazardous waste

(which includes e-waste) without a permit granted by the
Minister responsible for Environment. It further requires any
movement of hazardous waste within and through the
country be conducted in a manner that prevents or minimizes
adverse effects to human health and the environment .
The Act prohibits disposal of hazardous waste (including ewaste) on land or water body unless Environmental Health
Impact Assessment is carried out.
The Act regulates effective and fair competition in trade. It
protects consumers from unfair market practices and
counterfeit products which may be harmful to the
243
Merchandise Marks Act

(1963)
Hazardous Waste
Management
Regulations (2009)
Electronic and Postal
Communication Act
(EPOCA)(2010)
14.2
environment
The Act prohibits supply of fake products, unsafe products
and those which do not meet specific standards.
The Regulations establish principles for hazardous waste
management of which e-waste is one of them. Regulation 35
imposes obligation to owners of EEE to segregate into special
receptacles.
The Act provides for a comprehensive regulatory regime for
electronic and postal communications service providers, with
a view to keeping abreast with developments in the electronic
communications industry.
14.2.1 Introduction
Invasive Alien Species (IAS) are defined as species that are non-native to the ecosystem
under consideration, which have been introduced accidentally or intentionally, and
whose introduction causes or is likely to cause adverse effects to socio-economic
welfare, environmental wellbeing and human health, and does not provide an
equivalent benefit (Lyimo et al, 2009; Masters and Norgrove, 2010; UNEP, 2006). From a
policy perspective, however, the focus is generally on species whose origin lies beyond
national jurisdiction (Perrings, 2005). The IAS may be plants, birds, fungi, insects or
animals and can affect almost all types of ecosystems.
14.2.2 Drivers
a) Socio-economic and environmental benefits and problems
Some of the IAS are introduced for social, environmental, research or economic
purposes. These may include plants intended to improve soil condition, to provide
fuelwood, pasture or to prevent erosion; fish and molluscs for aquaculture and
mariculture; agricultural seeds and crops; livestock for meat, wool and fur; food plants;
and crops for biofuel or ornamental. Species may also be introduced with the intention
of control purposes such as insects, mites and fungi for biological control of other IAS;
and fast-growing plants for landscape restoration.
b) Increased mobility, human interaction and trade
Increased movement and interaction of people has tremendously increased transfer of
species from one part of the world to another. Trade is the major routes for introducing
IAS in which containers and vehicles that are used can facilitate invasions. For instance,
invasion by cassava mealy bugs in the country has been associated with importation of
244
planting materials (cuttings) from various parts of the world, introduction of Nile
Perch, Indian house crow while the Large Grain Borer was introduced through
imported maize grain.
c) Climate change
Climate change has many environmental consequences including changes in species
distribution and their abundance as a result of direct physiological impacts on
individual species and changes in abiotic factors, reproduction and recruitment
opportunities, and inter-specific interactions (Masters and Norgrove, 2010). For
example, a drought that kills native species can leave gaps in vegetation that may be
quickly occupied by invasive alien plants.
14.2.3 Pressure
Increasing food demand: As the population grows, increasing agricultural production
becomes inevitable. However, IAS may affect the productive capacity of the land and
increase agricultural labour time, affecting human well-being by threatening the
availability of food.
14.2.4 State
Occurrence of IAS: Tanzania has 67 reported IAS of different categories including plant
pathogens, pests, aquatic and terrestrial weeds, animals and trees (ISSG, 2012), some of
which are presented in Table 14.3 indicating also some of the areas that they occur.
245
Table 14.3: Some of the identified Invasive Alien Species in Tanzania

Type
Name of Invasive alien species
Typical areas of occurrence
1. Grey leaf spot (Cercospora zeae-maydis)

2. Coffee Berry Disease (CBD) (Colletotrichum coffeanum)
A. Plant
Pathogens
3. Mycosphaerella fijiensis fungus Black Sigatoka or Black

leaf Streak disease
4. Maize Chlorotic Mottle Virus (MCMV)

5. Banana Xanthomonas Wilt (Xanthomonas campestris
Southern highlands (Iringa, Mbeya, Rukwa and Ruvuma); and

Northern zone (Arusha and Kilimanjaro)
Northern (Kilimanjaro and Arusha); Southern highlands (Mbeya,
Iringa, Ruvuma and Rukwa)
Lake (Kagera, Mwanza and Mara), Northern (Arusha and
Kilimanjaro), Southern highlands (Iringa, Mbeya, Rukwa and
Ruvuma), Eastern (Tanga, Coast, Dar es Salaam and Morogoro)
and Western (Tabora and Kigoma) zones
Kilimanjaro, Manyara, Mara and Simiyu regions
Kagera, Kigoma and Mara (Tarime) regions
var. Musacearum)
Northern (Arusha and Kilimanjaro); Western (Tabora and
Kigoma); Eastern (Tanga, Coast, Dar es Salaam and Morogoro);
Central (Dodoma, Singida); and Southern (Iringa, Mbeya, Rukwa
and Ruvuma)
Ruvuma, Kigoma, Dodoma and Mara
6. Larger grain borer (Prostesphanus truncatus)
7. Cassava mealy bug (Phenacoccus manihot)

8. Cassava green mites (Mononychellus tanajoa)
9. citrus woolly white fly (Aleurothrixus flocossus)
Lake zone (Kagera, Mwanza and Mara)

Eastern (Tanga, Coast, Dar es Salaam and Morogoro); Southern
(Mtwara and Lindi); Central (Dodoma, Singida); Western (Tabora
and Kigoma); Lake (Kagera, Mwanza and Mara); Northen (Arusha
and Kilimanjaro); Southern highlands (Iringa, Mbeya, Rukwa and
Ruvuma)
Lake(Kagera, Mwanza and Mara); Northern (Arusha and
Kilimanjaro); Southern highlands (Iringa, Mbeya, Rukwa and
Ruvuma); Eastern (Tanga, Coast, Dar es Salaam and Morogoro)
and Western (Tabora and Kigoma)
Eastern zone (Tanga, Dar es Salaam and Morogoro); Western
(Tabora and Kigoma); Lake (Mwanza Shinyanga); Southern
highlands (Iringa, Mbeya, Rukwa and Ruvuma)
B. Invertebrate
(Insect)
pests
10. Banana weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus)
11. Stem borer - beetle (Chilo partellus)
246
Type

Eastern (Tanga, Coast, Dar es Salaam and Morogoro); Kagera;
Kilimanjaro
Kilimanjaro, Arusha, Tanga, Iringa, Dodoma, Mbeya, Morogoro
and Mwanza Regions
Countrywide
12. Sugarcane white grub (Phyllophaga smithi)

13. Diamondback moth (Plutella maculipennis)
14. Cypress aphid (Cinara cupressiviora)
15. Fruit fly (Bactrocera invadens)
Eastern (Tanga, Coast, Dar es Salaam and Morogoro); Northern

(Arusha and Kilimanjaro); Southern highlands (Iringa, Mbeya,
Rukwa and Ruvuma); and Western zones (Tabora and Kigoma)
Countrywide
16. Spiralling white fly (Aleurodicus dispersus )

17. Tomato spider mite (Tentranchycus evansi)
C. Vertebrate
pests
D. Weeds Aquatic
E. Weeds terrestrial
F. Animals/
fish species
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
Indian house crow (Corvus splendens)
Kilimanjaro, Arusha, Tanga, Iringa, Dodoma, Mbeya, Morogoro

and Mwanza Regions
Coastal zone (Dar es Salaam, Tanga, Morogoro and Pwani)
Black roof rat (Rattus rattus)
Countrywide
House sparrow (Passer domesticus)
Countrywide
Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes)
Lake Victoria; Kagera River; Pangani River; Sigi River; Lake Jipe
Water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes)
Sigi River; Lake Victoria; Serengenti National Park
Giant salvinia or kariba weed (Salvinia molesta)
Lake Manyara; Ngorongoro Crater
Water ivy (Ipomoea aquatic)
Sigi River
Lantana (Lantana camara)
Eastern Arc Mountains; Amani Nature Reserve
Cat-tail (Typha domingensis)
Lake Jipe
Asteraceae (Parthenium hysterophorus)
Arusha Municipality
Mexican poppy (Argemone mexicana)
Serengeti National Park; Manyara National Park
29. Mexican marigold (Targetes minuta)

30. Bitter bush (Chromoelina odorata)
Ngorongoro Conservation Area; Serengeti National Park
31. Parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus)

32. Nile perch (Lates niloticus)
33. Tilapiine spp (Oreochromis niloticus)
Serengeti National Park
Mara region
247
Lake Victoria
Lake Victoria
Type

Lake Victoria
34. Tilapiine spp (Oreochromis leucostictus)

35. Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides)
36. Maesopsis (Maesopsis eminii)
Lake Victoria
38.
39.
40.
41.
Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus chalcids)
Amani Nature Reserve (Tanga); East Usambara Mountains;

Ukaguru Mountains; Uluguru Mountains; Kwamkoro Forest
reserve
Kimboza Catchment Forest (Morogoro); East Usambara
Mountains; Amani Nature Reserve
Tabora; Shinyanga; Kibaha (Pwani Region)
Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus camaldulensis)
Ngorongoro Conservation area
Black wattle (Acacia mearnsii)
Serengeti NP; North and South Pare Mountains
Opuntia Opuntia stricta var. dillennii and Opuntia

monocantha stratiotes
Serengeti National Park (Seronera)
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
Selaginela sp.
East Usambara mountains
Common thorn apple (Datura stramonium )
Spectacular Cassia (Senna spectabilis)
Mahale Mountains National Park (Kigoma Region)
Chinese or strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum)
East Usambara Mountains; Amani Nature Reserve
Hill raspberry or Ceylon raspberry or Mysore

raspberry or snowpeaks raspberry (Rubus niveus)
Ukaguru Mountains; Uluguru Mountains; Udzungwa Mountains;
47.
48.
49.
50.
Mauritius Raspberry (Rubus rosifolius)
Amani Nature Reserve; East Usambara Mountains
Teak (Tectona grandis)
Udzungwa Mountains
African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis)
Madake or Giant Timber Bamboo or Japanese

Timber Bamboo (Phyllostachys bambusoides)
51.
52.
53.
54.
Soapbush or Koster's Curse (Clidermia hirta)
Betel nut palm (Areca catechu)
Sugar palm (Arenga pinnata)
Panama rubber (Castilla elastic)
37. Cedrela (Cedrela odorata)
G. Tree/shrub
species
248
Type
55. Camphor tree or Camphorwood or camphor laurel
(Cinnamomum camphora)
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
Spanish elm (Cordia alliodora)
Rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis)
Bamboo piper or Cow's foot (Piper aduncum)
Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala)
West Usambara mountains
Opuntia (Cylindropuntia exaltata)
Serengeti National Park
Malabar Plum, or plum rose or Malay apple (

Syzygium jambos)
62. Sensitive plant or sleepy plant or touch-me-not plant
Amani Nature Reserve
(Mimosa pudica)
63. Japanese honeysuckle plant (Lonicera japonica)

64. Mauritius Thorn (Caesalpinia decapitala)
65. Flame vine, or flaming trumpet, or golden shower
Arusha National Park; Ngorongoro Conservation Area
(Pyrostegia venusta)
66. White Rubber Vine Plant (Landolphia owariensis)

67. Prosopis (Prosopis Juliflora)
East Usambara Mountains

Kilimanjaro
Source: UNEP (2006); Lyimo et al (2009); MAFC (2009); MNRT (2007); ISSG (2012); and TAWIRI (2012)
249
Agricultural sector: Several IAS have been identified to affect agricultural sector
including Cassava mealy bug; Large Grain Borer (LGB) - Prostephanus truncatus; Grey
Leaf Spot of maize; and banana wilt. The latter is commonly found in Kagera region.
Other IAS affecting the agricultural sector includes weed species like Lantana camara,
Datura stramonium and Argemone mexicana.
Wildlife sector: Protected areas or reserves constitute about 40% of the land area in the
country. Several invasive species, mostly trees and weeds, have been observed in
protected areas, including Datura stramonium and
Argemone
mexicana (Mexican
poppy) (Lyimo et al, 2009; Foxcroft et al, 2010; Hoeck, 2010). These IAS have the ability
to colonize grazing grounds, displace palatable plant species and impede free
movement of wildlife (Plate 14.1).
a) Datura stramonium (in the

background) invasion in
b) Mexican poppy (Argemone

mexicana) in Serengeti National
Park
Plate 14.1: Invasion of alien plants in some of the important protected areas in
the country (Source: Hoeck, 2009)
Forestry sector: In the forestry sector, there are various IAS, mostly trees and shrubs,
including Maesopsis eminii, Cedrella odorata and Senna spectabilis. For instance, in
Kimboza Catchment Forest (Morogoro Region), Cedrella odorata has colonized a large
part of the forest, crowding out native species and almost replacing the indigenous tree
species (Lyimo et al, 2009). Similarly, Amani Nature Reserve is threatened by more
than 10 IAS (refer Table 14.3).
Fisheries sector: The introduction of the Nile Perch (Lates niloticus) in Lake Victoria is
believed to have led to the disappearance of several indigenous cichlid species mainly of
haplochromines (LVEMP, 2005). The introduced tilapiine species particularly Oreochromis
niloticus and O. leucostictus eliminated the native tilapiine species as a result of trophic
interactions. Water hyacinth has also invaded Lake Victoria starting early 1990s
reaching peak at 4,081 ha in March 1998 declining to 117 ha in April 2001 following
interventions by the LVEMP (LVEMP, 2001). Until 2010, the coverage of water hyacinth
remained in the range of 518 ha on the Tanzanian section of the Lake.
250
14.2.5 Impacts
a) Socio-economic impacts
Among the impacts of IAS in the agricultural sector include reduced cash income from
crop production, increased livelihood insecurity and increased public expenditure e.g.
on food relief and breeding of disease resistant varieties. For instance, the Larger Grain
Borer (Prostephanus truncatus) is estimated to cause loss of up to about US$91 million in
maize per annum in the country (Masters and Norgrove, 2010). Similarly, water
hyacinth invasion in Lake Victoria was estimated to reduce income of the fishing local
communities in the Tanzania section of the Lake by about 50% with about 8% of the
local communities forced to switch to other activities including farming and petty
trading to sustain their livelihood (LVEMP, 2001).
b) Environmental impacts
Generally, presence of IAS has resulted in loss of biodiversity. The spread of Rubus
pinnata is known to hinder forest regeneration as observed in Uluguru Mountains
(Lyimo et al, 2009). Similarly, the Indian house crow (Corvus splendens) destroys habitats
of many other birds including nests, eggs and eats chicks of the domestic chicken and
in fact has out-competed many small native birds. These birds also spread disease
including typhoid, cholera and Newcastle disease (MNRT, 2012). In addition, some
IAS transforms grasslands that support grazing. For example, Lantana camara poisons
cattle and destroys understorey species.
14.2.6 Response
a) Policy and legal framework
A number of national policies and legislation which have a bearing in addressing the
IAS challenge are presented in Table 14.4.
Table 14.4: Relevant policies and legislation for addressing IAS
Policy
Area of relevance
National
Environmental
Policy (1997)
The Policy aims to prevent and control the causes of

significant reduction or loss of biodiversity. This can
be considered to include management of IAS.
National Fisheries
Policy and
Strategy Statement
(1998)
The Policy underscores the importance of protecting

fisheries resources and aquatic environment by
discouraging the introduction and translocation of
exotic species between water systems unless sound
scientific evidence guarantees safety of genetic
251
integrity of the water ecosystems.

National
Forest One of the objectives of the Policy is to ensure
Policy (1998)
ecosystem stability through conservation of forest
biodiversity, water catchment and soil fertility.
Agricultural and The Policy, among others, aims at improving and
Livestock
Policy strengthening plant protection services so that crop
(1997)
losses, resulting from pests and diseases are
minimized.
B. Relevant Legislation and Regulations
Fisheries Act No
22 of 2003:
Plant Protection
Act No. 13 of 1997
and its regulations
Environmental
Management Act
(2004)
The Act prohibits importing or exporting of fish, fish

products, aquatic flora or products of aquatic flora
unless one obtains a permit from the Director of
Fisheries (Section 22 (1) (d))
The Act provides for the prevention of introduction
of exotic pests, their establishment and spread, the
management of outbreak and other domestic pests as
well plant protection substances.
The Act provides for the prevention of the
introduction, control or eradication of the IAS which
threaten ecosystems, habitats or species (Section
67(2))
b) Phytosanitary inspections at points of entry

The Ministry of Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives maintains the regulatory
control of imported and exported plants and plant materials through inspections at all
points of entry including harbours and ports, border outstations and airports. The
Ministry also controls importation, use, distribution and disposal of plant protection
substances.
c) Promotion and application of Integrated Pest Management (IPM):
IPM has been the successful in the control of IAS like water hyacinth in Lake Victoria
and Large Grain Borers in agriculture. Biological control using the weevils as Neochetina
eirchhorniae and Neochetina bruchi have been successful in reducing water hyacinth
infestation by over 70% over a period of 3 years and by up to 80% in the year 2004
(LVEMP, 2004). The cost of the water hyacinth control activities amounted to USD 3
million over a period of eight years (1997-2005) (World Bank, 2009). There are also
initiatives to eradicate the Indian House Crow (Corvus splendens) through specially
designed traps, a selective poison (3-Chloro-4-methylaniline or DRC 1339) and
firearms. For a period from November 2010 to February, 2012, a total of 622,485 birds
have been killed in the invaded coastal regions (MNRT, 2012). The project cost amounts
to about USD 750,000.
252
14.3
14.3.1 Introduction
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) refers to organisms such as plants, animals
and microorganisms whose genetic characteristics have been modified artificially in
order to give them new desired characteristics. The process whereby genes from one
organism are moved into the genome of another organism is termed as genetic
engineering/modification. Genetic engineering is different from traditional
biotechnology, where genes can only be exchanged between closely related species.
With genetic engineering, genes from completely different species can be inserted into
one another. Genetic engineering has a wide variety of applications ranging from
industry, agriculture, health, nutrition and the environment. However, this Chapter
focuses on potential application of genetic engineering in agricultural production in
view of its economic significance to the national economy.
14.3.2 Drivers
a) Food insecurity
From 2002 to 2010, annual agricultural growth averaged 4.2% which falls short of the
targeted growth of at least 6% (URT, 2011). This has been associated with weather,
pests and diseases. In addition, agriculture is mostly characterized by rainfed crop
production, thus output levels are very susceptible to rainfall variation and drought. In
this regard, genetic modification may contribute to food security goals through
increasing crop yields, producing improved crop varieties that can withstand drought,
insects and diseases and reducing weeds, enhancing nutritional value and improving
storability.
b) Environmental benefits
Pests and disease resistant GM crops reduce significantly the use of agrochemicals,
thereby reducing exposure to toxic chemical and environmental pollution as well as
mitigating the effects of climate change.
14.3.3 Pressure
The rapidly growing population with decreasing per capita arable land, increases
demand for food and pressure on the available land resource for food production.
Hence it results to the need for use of Genetically Modified Crops.
253
b) Climate change
Food production is aggravated by the increasingly degraded environment and
uncertainties resulting from impacts of climate change including shifts in growing
season conditions, drought and spread of pests and plant diseases.
c) Potential risks/concerns associated with GMOs
Notably, development and application of agricultural modern biotechnology presents a
potential technological intervention, however, there are associated concerns to human
and animal health, socio-economic wellbeing and the environment.
14.3.4 State
Genetic engineering activities were initiated in Tanzania, in early 2011 after the
establishment of Biosafety level II laboratories at Mikocheni Agricultural Research
Institute (MARI) and Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology (DMBB) at
theUniversity of Dar es Salaam (UDSM). Commercial introduction of GM crops in
particular, is yet to take place in the country. This is partly contributed by inadequacy
of both human resources and related infrastructure.
Currently, only a few research activities are being undertaken involving genetic
modification mainly at laboratory (or contained) research level. These include
development of cassava varieties tolerant to Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD) and
Cassava Brown Streak Disease (CBSD). In addition, efforts are also underway to initiate
Confined Field Trial (CFT) for maize tolerant to drought at Makutopora in Dodoma.
14.3.5 Impacts
a) Socio-economic and ethical concern
One of the concerns arises due to possibility for transnational companies control of
their processes, genes and chemicals. For instance, a typical example is the use of
terminator technology in agricultural seeds which would prevent farmers from
saving and replanting seeds as they do not germinate in the subsequent season. This
technology would increase poverty amongst the farmers, who rely on the use of saved
seed. This, in fact, might be seen as the real problem for small-scale and subsistence
farmers, whose lack of capital and/or access to credit are often the reason why new
seeds are not bought each season. In addition, vegetarians and religious dietary
restrictions face the prospect of unconsciously eating vegetables and fruits that contain
genetic material from forbidden animals.
b) Environmental concerns
254
Environmental concerns include contamination of crops through gene transfer and the
development of super weeds and therefore have a negative impact on biodiversity.
Another concern is that the genes could mix with non-GM crops or their weedy
relatives through cross-pollination. Furthermore, GM crops modified to be resistant to
a particular pest or disease may have a negative effect on non-target species that are
harmless or beneficial.
c) Health concerns
Concerns have been expressed particularly in the case where novel genes have been
transferred from organisms that are not normally used in food or animal feed products.
This has the potential of contaminating the food chain and potential allergenicity and
toxicity in GM foods.
14.3.6 Response
a) Policy and Legal Framework
Table 14.5: A list of relevant policies, laws and guidelines related to GM crops
Policy
Areas of relevance
National
Environmental
Policy (1997)
The Policy advocates for strategic measures to be put in place for

the development of biotechnology, especially to ensure fair and
equitable sharing of the results and benefits arising out of
utilization of foreign recipients, of genetic resources originating
from Tanzania, and biosafety.
The Policy promotes development and application of genetic
engineering to foster socio-economic development particularly in
agriculture
The Policy aims to ensure food security and to improve national
standards of nutrition by increasing output, quality and
availability of food commodities. Successful application of
modern biotechnology will contribute to achieving the policy
goals.
The Policy promotes, inter alia, biotechnology; genetics and
genetic engineering; and exploitation of medicinal, agrochemicals
and industrial chemicals.
The National
Biotechnology
Policy (2010)
Agricultural and
Livestock Policy
(1997)
National Science
and Technology
Policy for Tanzania
(1996)
B.
Relevant Legislation and Regulations
Environmental
Management Act
,2004 and Biosafety
Regulations, 2009
These provide legal framework to guide biotechnology

development and provides for, among others, the preventive,
precautionary, and strict liability regulatory regime
Plant Protection Act,
The Act provides for the prevention and control of attacks by, or
255
1997
Tropical Pesticides
Research Institute
Act, 1979
spread of harmful organisms or diseases. However, it does not

cater for biosafety with regard to plant GMOs. However, if
amended and modified, could be one of the major legislation on
biosafety.
The Act mandates the Tropical Pesticides Research Institute
(TPRI) to provide technical services including, among others,
national plant quarantine services and serve as the National
Centre for Plant Genetic Resources.
C. Framework, Guidelines and Manuals

National Biosafety
Framework (NBF)
The NBF sets overall administrative and decision making

framework for safe use of modern biotechnology in the country.
National Biosafety
Guidelines and
Manuals
These provide technical guidance and best practices on handling

and safe use of genetic modification or engineering. These
include:
National Biosafety Guidelines for Tanzania (2004);
A Practical Manual for Safe Conduct of Confined Field Trials
(2010);
Laboratory Manual for Detection of Genetically Modified
Foods and Crops in Tanzania (2010);
Manual on Procedures for Handling Requests or
Applications of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) in
Tanzania (2010); and
A Guide to Risk Assessment and Risk Management (2010).
b) Institutional capacity building

A number of initiatives have been undertaken to strengthen capacity of Regulatory
Authorities including provision of laboratory equipment and organizing short-term
training. Awareness workshops have also been conducted to several target groups
including media, agricultural researchers and judiciary.
Through regional and international initiatives, organisations such as the Association for
Strengthening Agricultural Research in East and Central Africa (ASARECA), Regional
Agricultural and Environment Initiatives Network - Africa (RAEIN Africa) and the
International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), have
collaborated with Tanzania in building institutional capacity for effective utilization of
genetic engineering. Areas that have benefitted from these initiatives include short- and
long-term training; upgrading of laboratories at the Mikocheni Agricultural Research
Institute (MARI), Dar es Salaam and the University of Dar es Salaam Department of
Molecular Biology and Biotechnology.
14.4
Biofuels
256
14.4.1 Introduction
Biofuels have come into the spotlight as alternatives to conventional fossil fuels,
particularly petrol and diesel. Liquid biofuels can be used as fuel for transportation, in
stationary engines to generate electricity, pump water and mill food grains as well as
for cooking and lighting. Two primary liquid biofuels in use today are bioethanol and
biodiesel. Bioethanol is produced from starch-bearing crops such as sugarcane, cassava
and sorghum and can be blended with petrol. Biodiesel, which is produced from oil
seeds such as sunflower and oil palm, can be blended with diesel.
Tanzania is promoting biofuels while appreciating the challenges, associated risks and
trade-off in ensuring sustainable biofuels development. The national vision for the
development of biofuel sub-sector is to contribute to the reduction of fossil fuels in
transport sector and to stimulate socio-economic development (MEM, 2010).
14.4.2 Drivers
a) Energy security
Tanzania depends entirely on imported petroleum-based fuels for local consumption.
The countrys importation of petroleum products accounts for about 40% of all the
imports and about 25% of total foreign exchange earnings (URT, 2011). In this context,
biofuels promise for enhanced energy security through diversification of energy
sources, reduced dependence and spending on oil imports.
b) Climate change mitigation
One of the motives for biofuels rests in their potential for reducing greenhouse gas
emissions from vehicles during their use as compared to conventional fossil fuels.
14.4.3 Pressure
a) Growing energy demand
Tanzania is yet to fully develop commercial sources of energy to meet the countrys
demand. Still, projected growth in population and economy are expected to continue
stretching further the energy demand.
b) Climate change
In the advent of growing fuel demand and mounting obligation to address associated
climate change impacts and environmental pollution in general, developing sustainable
biofuel industry is emerging as an alternative fuel particularly to the transportation
sector.
257
14.4.4 State
Currently, liquid biofuel industry is still at its infancy as there is yet no production or
use of biofuels. Nonetheless, there is growing investment in growing energy crops for
producing both bioethanol and biodiesel in the country. The main feedstock being
cultivated for production of biodiesel is oil seed crops mainly jatropha and oil palm.
Other prospective feedstock for production of biodiesel is Croton megalocarpus while
production of bioethanol is expected to rely mainly on sugarcane and sweet sorghum.
According to the Ministry of Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives, a total of 44
Companies are engaged in production of biofuels in Tanzania, where a total land of
more than 600,000 hectares have so far been allocated for biofuel investments,
particularly for jatropha, sugar cane and oil palm, some of the organizations are listed
in (Table 14.6). Many of the requests and allocations of land have been for jatropha
cultivation and sugarcane production in coastal areas mainly Bagamoyo, Kilwa,
Kisarawe and Rufiji Districts.
Table 14.6: Companies engaged in production of biofuels in Tanzania
S/N
Investor and nationality
Location
Size of
land (ha)
Targeted
crops
1.
Diligent Tanzania Ltd. (Dutch)
Arusha Municipality
10,000
Jatropha and
Croton
2.
SEKAB Tanzania Ltd. (Sweden)
Rufiji District
100,000
Sugarcane
3.
SEKAB Tanzania Ltd. (Sweden)
Bagamoyo District
(RAZABA & Bagamoyo
Prison)
22,000 +
500
Sugarcane
4.
BioShape Tanzania Ltd. (Dutch)
Kilwa District
80,000
Jatropha
5.
SunBiofuel Tanzania Ltd.

(British)
Kisarawe District
9,000
Jatropha
6.
PROKON Renewable Energy

Ltd. (Germany)
Mpanda District
1,750
Jatropha
7.
BioMassive Tanzania Ltd.

(Sweden)
Lindi District
50,000
Jatropha
8.
Bio-energy Tanzania Ltd.
Bagamoyo District
16,000
Jatropha
9.
Tanzania Biodiesel Plant Ltd.
Bagamoyo District
16,000
Palm oil
10.
Shanta Estates Ltd.
Bagamoyo District
14,500
Jatropha
11.
Clean Power Tanzania Ltd.
Bagamoyo District
3,500
Palm oil
12.
CMC Agric-Bioenergy Tanzania
Bagamoyo District
25,000
White
sorghum
258
S/N
Investor and nationality
Location
Size of
land (ha)
Targeted
crops
13.
Info Energy Ltd. (UK based)
Mvomero District in
Morogoro
5,818
Jatropha
14.
SYNERGY Tanzania Ltd.
Rufiji District
20,000
Sugarcane
15.
AFRICAN GREEN OIL Ltd.
Rufiji District
30,000
Palm oil
16.
Biodiesel EastAfrican Ltd.

(Kenya)
Bahi District
10,000
Jatropha
17.
KIKULETWA Farm Ltd.
Aloe vera plantation

(British) Arusha Chini
(Moshi)
400
Jatropha
18.
Fuel Stock (British)
Mtwara
120
Jatropha
19.
SUMAGRO
Unknown
3.1
Jatropha
20.
KAKUTE (Tanzania)
Arusha
2.5
Jatropha
21.
KITOMONDO Ltd. (Tanzania)
Bagamoyo District
2,000
Jatropha
22.
DONESTER
Kongwa District
2,000
Jatropha
23.
FELISA (Tanzania/Belgium
partnership)
Kigoma Region
10,000
Palm oil
24.
SAVANA Biofuels
Handeni, Dodoma and

Kongwa
5,000
Sunflower and
Jatropha
25.
TANZANIA GREEN (Tanzania)
200
Jatropha
26.
CEPA
Kilosa
27.
NESSTER
Cost region (Disunyala)

Lindi
50
Jatropha
28.
RUBANA FARM
Mwanza
400
Jatropha
29.
National Service (JKT)

(Tanzania)
Kibaha
700
Jatropha
30.
CHAWAGWA
Kisarawe
200
Jatropha
31.
Sumbawanga Local
Government (Tanzania)
Sumbawanga
50
Jatropha
32.
Nkasi Local Government

(Tanzania)
Nkasi
20
Jatropha
33.
Mpanda Local Government

(Tanzania)
Mpanda
50
Jatropha
34.
Mkuranga Local Government

(Tanzania)
Mkuranga
Jatropha
35.
Same Local Government

(Tanzania)
Same
50
Jatropha
259
Jatropha
14.4.5 Impacts
a) Potential food-biofuel conflict
Investment of biofuel projects into areas that with other productive uses of land
particularly food production is a matter of concern as this may divert agricultural
production away from food crops to biofuel crops and therefore pose the risk of food
insecurity. In addition, there is a risk of increased food insecurity caused by food crops
such as palm oil, sunflower oil, sugar cane and other cereal crops being used for biofuel
production instead. Some of the large scale biofuel projects are located in coastal and
miombo woodlands as well as watersheds important as water sources or biodiversity
conservation in Kilwa, Kisarawe, Bagamoyo and Rufiji Districts. A typical example
includes cultivation of Jatropha in the Rufiji Basin which constitute about 60% of land
suitable for irrigation as well as hydropower potential.
b) Social risks and inequity
Social risks comprise effects of relocating local communities with inadequate
compensation and resettlement schemes, and pressure on scarce natural resources such
as water and fertile farmland. Furthermore, most of the developments around biofuels
are occurring in rural areas where majority of vulnerable population, especially small
scale farmers reside. As biofuels develop, the tendency is often to seek large scale
production which can rely on intensive cultivation and mechanized harvesting and
production chains. This raises the concern of potentially aggravating socio-economic
inequity and loss of employment opportunities.
c) Environmental concerns
Clearing of large areas of natural forest habitats, including coastal and miombo
woodlands, to give way to biofuels crop farming is a major concern, which can
contribute to soil erosion, increase drought risks and affect biodiversity. It is highly
likely that increased use of fertilisers and appropriate pest control may lead to
increased pollution from nutrients and other agrochemicals. There are concerns that
some of the biofuel feedstocks have characteristic of invasive alien species. For instance,
Jatropha has traits common to invasive species including rapid growth, high water use
efficiency and long canopy duration (FAO, 2010).
14.4.6 Response
Policy and legal framework
The policy and legal framework relating to biofuel production, promotion and use in
Tanzania is largely still under development. Nevertheless, there are various policies
and legislation that have a bearing on biofuels development and management as
shown in Table 14.6. In addition, National Guidelines for Biofuels (2010) have been
developed, whose key elements include land acquisition and tenure systems;
260
resettlement and compensation scheme; local community

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for bio-energy projects.
engagement;
and
Table 14.6: A list of relevant policies and legislation in relation to development and
management of biofuels
Policy
Areas of relevance
National Energy The Policy takes into account the need for improving access to more
Policy, 2003
efficient, environmental friendly modern energy services. This is
envisaged to be achieved through substantial share of renewable
energies. However, the Policy is silent on commercial biofuels.
National
The Policy promotes renewable energy resources, however, it does
Environmental
not mention commercial biofuels.
Policy, 1997
Sustainable
The Policy promotes application of an integrated preventive
Industrial
environmental strategy to industrial processes, products and
Development
services in order to ensure promotion of environmentally friendly
Policy, 1996
and ecologically sustainable industrial development.
National
One of the objectives of the Policy is to ensure transportation is
Transportation
environmentally friendly and sustainable which in a way supports
Policy, 2003
the development of biofuels, which are considered to be
comparatively cleaner than fossil fuels.
B. Relevant Legislation
Petroleum Supply
Act (2008)
Environmental
Management Act,
2004
Land Act, 1999
and Village Land
Act, 1999
The Act provides for production of biofuels and allows blending of

biofuel with petroleum.
The Act requires all biofuel projects to undergo Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) prior to their commencement.
These Acts provide overall framework for identification and
regularization of different land uses.
261
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
SCENARIO ANALYSIS
15.1 Introduction
This Chapter presents scenarios for future status of environmental issues. A scenario is
a plausible description of how the future may unfold based on a set of if-then
propositions. Scenarios analysis explores different policy approaches and societal
actions towards a sustainable future (UNEP, 2007), based on available data, past trends
and/or models concerning how the future could unfold for the purpose of improving
decision making. Therefore scenario analysis may be developed for the identified key
environmental issues. Four types of scenarios have been considered to analyse the
plausible situations and policy actions that may be useful to be undertaken. These are
the Business as usual, Box Planning, Policy Reform, and Sustainability scenarios.
The Business as usual Scenario assumes a situation where conditions are left to continue
the way they have been. In this scenario, environmental and resource managers
continue working without considering new ideas (business as usual) to enhance
decision making, believing that they know and they are always right.
The Box Planning Scenario assumes a situation whereby managers are aware of the
situation and everyone is genuinely anxious of coming up with a solution for a step
forward. They use a lot of resources (time, personnel and finance) to produce what they
believe to be good plans and guidelines to implement policies and foster socioeconomic development. Unfortunately, both planning and policy issue are mostly done
in isolation; no or very little consultation, inadequate or no cross-referencing and/or
collaboration; there is lack of interdisciplinarity and intersectoral approaches. Managers
are not open to one another and/or stakeholders whom could complement each other;
and there is limited information sharing and dissemination for stakeholders to
understand and use the documents in their development planning and undertakings.
The Policy Reform scenario assumes a situation whereby government/managers realise
the need of taking actions on policies and guidelines to give direction in the overall
development path. In this case, policies are reviewed and/or revised while new
policies and guidelines are issued to accommodate new and emerging issues in the
development arena.
The Sustainability Scenario presents a situation whereby environmental and resource
managers and/or decision makers work very closely within themselves and in
consultation with stakeholders. As they think of the future, they build on what is
already known (including traditional environmental knowledge and practices), analyse
the situation and implications of their actions into the future. In this case, they make
effective use of key planning tools such as Strategic Environmental Assessment,
Environmental Impact Assessment, integrated environmental/ecosystems assessment,
strategic planning, participatory planning, Public Private Partnership, cost benefit
262
analysis and good governance. The issue of financial resources should be secured
insuring the sustainability for the future plans.
With eagerness of bringing change to environmental management in the country for
the improvement of state of the environment, the Policy Reform and Sustainability
Scenario have been applied in this Chapter. These are further extrapolated in chapter
sixteen as Policy options for action to achieve the desired scenario for each of the
Environmental issues of interest as identified in the report through the DPSIR
framework analysis.
This Chapter provides scenario analysis focusing on the following environmental
issues: Land degradation; Deforestation and Forest Degradation; Loss of biodiversity
Environmental pollution; Deterioration of aquatic systems; Water quality degradation
and accessibility; Climate change; Natural disasters; and Emerging issues (Genetically
Modified Organisms (GMOs), biofuels and E-waste management).
15.2 Land Degradation
Land degradation is caused mainly by poverty, rapid population growth, economic
growth, climate change, culture and beliefs. The rate of land degradation is accelerated
by unsustainable farming and mining practices; uncontrolled tree and bush clearing
and wild fires; overgrazing; inadequate livestock infrastructure; inadequate land use
plans; rapid urbanization; insufficient awareness and knowledge on relevant land
policies and laws and proper management of land and water resources; and
insufficient alternative sources for energy and construction materials.
Under Policy Reform Scenario Land Use Framework Plan 2011-2031 need to be
implemented to ensure proper land use planning and effective environmental
management in the country. Therefore, reviewing and/or putting in place relevant
policies, legal and institutional frameworks are of paramount importance. In addition,
to ensure an improved situation, the sustainability scenario will need to be adopted. In
this regard, there is a need to ensure that present policies, plans and strategies are
adequately integrated, implemented and financed in the development process to
ensure sustainable environmental and socio-economic development.
15.3 Deforestation and Forest Degradation
Deforestation and forest degradation are mainly caused by population growth,
poverty, economic growth, social instability in some neighbouring countries, biofuel
initiatives, high domestic energy demand and crop farming coupled with
unsustainable farming practices. These are exacerbated by climate change, cultural
beliefs/bush fires, land tenure, overgrazing, and inadequate enforcement of laws and
regulations. Deforestation and forest degradation are a serious concern cognizant of the
fact that about 400,000 ha of forest are lost per year.
Policy Reform Scenario
263
Relevant policies, strategies and guidelines should be reviewed by the government and
other stakeholders to ensure proper utilisation of forest resources. Mechanisms to
enhance Public Private Partnership to promote alternative energy sources and energy
efficient technologies such as solar energy, wind power, biogas, natural gas, improved
charcoal kilns, and charcoal stoves should be put in place. Likewise, the government
should transform and fully utilize NAFORMA data in forest management planning.
Sustainability Scenario
Under this scenario, numerous stakeholders need to be engaged to ensure
mainstreaming and implementation of forest management related policies, plans and
strategies. There must be a mechanism of securing funds to ensure implementation of
sustainable forest management plans and strategies. Equally, there is a need to explore
and promote traditional management practices and more alternative energy sources, as
well as tree planting campaigns.
15.4 Loss of Biodiversity
Major causes of loss of biodiversity include land degradation; environmental pollution;
deterioration of aquatic systems; and deforestation. Other causes of biodiversity loss
are habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation; overexploitation or unsustainable
exploitation of biodiversity resources for timber, food and energy; mammals for bush
meat and recreational hunting. Others are encroachment of protected areas/ nature
reserves; proliferation of invasive alien species; environmental pollution (e.g.
eutrophication); and climate change.
The Policy Reform Scenario
The Government and other environmental stakeholders through policies and
guidelines should provide directions in the overall development path, including
conservation and sustainable use of biological resources. As indicated in the previous
chapters, relevant sector policies are already in place. These policies and guidelines are
reviewed to accommodate new and emerging issues in relation to conservation and
sustainable use of biological resources.
The Sustainability Scenario
In order to achieve sustainability in combating loss of biodiversity there is a need to
address drivers and pressures that result in loss of biodiversity. This can be attained
through involvement of key stakeholders for effective implementation and monitoring
of the relevant policies, strategies and plans related to conservation and sustainable use
of biological resources.
15.5 Environmental Pollution
264
Water Pollution
Water pollution emanates from a number of point and diffuse sources including
industrial, municipal, mining and agricultural sources. Domestic wastewater is also one
of the major sources of water pollution since over 90% of the population use pit latrines
and septic tanks, most of which are sub-standard. Intensive and indiscriminate use and
storage of agrochemicals causes deterioration of water quality and soil pollution.
Under this scenario, the National Waste Management Strategy and Action Plan need to
be finalized and effectively implemented to ensure minimization of water pollution.
The National Environmental Policy (NEP) and other relevant policies are also under
review to effectively address among others issues of water pollution.
Under this scenario, effective implementation of policies and enforcement of the
legislation through involvement of key stakeholders is important. Public awareness
and participation on environmental health and sanitation as well as cleaner production
initiative, need to be promoted. For effective implementation of these policies and
measures, mobilization of adequate financial resources is important.
Air Pollution
The air pollution sources include transport activities, industrial processes, mining,
domestic biomass burning, uncontrolled waste disposal, chemicals management,
agriculture and animal husbandry. The air pollution problem is more acute in urban
areas principally due to concentration of socio-economic activities. In general, the
pollutant density level in the air around urban and industrial areas is relatively higher
than that found in rural areas.
This scenario will involve review or formulation of policies related to air pollution
control. The National Environmental Policy (NEP) is under review to effectively
address among others issues of air pollution. Other relevant policies such as transport,
energy, industry should as well be reviewed to effectively accommodate air pollutions
issues.
There is a need for effective implementation of appropriate policies, guidelines,
legislation and programmes and guidelines for sustainable control of air pollution.
Enforcement of the Air Quality Standards regulations and other relevant regulations is
imperative in order to reduce air pollution.
Noise Pollution
265
Noise pollution is a growing problem in the country particularly in urban areas. Major
sources of noise pollution include industrial activities, social activities (bars, nightclubs,
social halls and advertisements), small-scale service industries in residential areas, road
traffic, construction activities, and air traffic. Noise pollution is anticipated to increase
particularly in urban areas due to current economic growth and associated industrial
expansion.
The National Environmental Policy (NEP) is under review to effectively accommodate
issues of noise pollution and other relevant policies such as transport, industry, human
settlement should be reviewed to effectively accomodate issues of noise pollution. In
line with NEP and other relevant policies, strategies and plans should be put in place to
provide guidance for addressing noise pollution issues at all levels.
Sustainability scenario
This scenario requires stakeholders to ensure enforcement and compliance to Noise
and Vibration Regulations (2011) and other related measures in order to address noise
pollution. Further to this, adherence to strategic urban development planning is vital in
addressing the problem of noise pollution. In addition, public awareness and
community participation needs to be promoted.
15.6 Deterioration of Aquatic Systems
Aquatic systems in Tanzania are deteriorating at an alarming state; thereby decreasing
their capacity to provide ecosystem services. Environmental challenges facing aquatic
systems are erosion in watersheds; deforestation in lake and river basins;
indiscriminate disposal of domestic and industrial wastes and urban pollution; poor
agricultural practices; inappropriate use of agro-chemicals, and intensive fishing using
inappropriate methods that pose threats to the aquatic environment and its
biodiversity.
The scenario involves review and implementation of relevant sectoral policies, plans
and strategies for water, wetland, fisheries, energy, industry and trade policies, among
others, to accommodate emerging issues in relation to deterioration of aquatic systems
such as invasive alien species.
The Government, in collaboration with other stakeholders, need to implement various
measures (including relevant policies and strategies) to control degradation of aquatic
resources. Furthermore, effective implementation of the Strategy on Urgent Actions on
Conservation of Marine and Coastal Environment, Lakes, Rivers and Dams is crucial.
15.7 Water Accessibility and Quality Degradation
266
Water quality problems are mainly due to both natural factors and human activities.
Occurrence of high fluoride concentrations and salinity in water in some parts of the
country is a major problem as regards to water supply. Indiscriminate disposal of
domestic and industrial wastes into water bodies; destruction of catchments areas; and
inappropriate use of pesticides and other agro-chemicals, are a cause of water pollution
or drying of water sources. This also results in decreased accessibility of water for
various uses. In addition, inadequacies in sanitation facilities is also a cause for
consumption of unsafe or untreated water, contributing to the spread of cholera and
other water borne diseases, particularly in unplanned urban settlements and rural
areas.
Relevant policies and legal frameworks need to incorporate issues that address the
increasing demand for water and improvement of its availability, accessibility as well
as ensuring water quality.
Under this Scenario all stakeholders should participate fully in the planning and
implementation of policies and legislation related to water management. Effective
implementation of the strategies related to water management and the Integrated
Water Resource Management is key to sustainable management of water quality and
availability.
15.8 Climate Change
Major cause of climate change is green house gas emission, a human problem that
results from different economic activities. In recent years, climate change effects in the
country have been vividly noticed in various sectors including agriculture and food
security; livestock; water; energy; forestry; health; wildlife; tourism; industry; coastal
and marine resources; human settlements; and wetlands. It is expected that there will
be an increase in extreme weather events, mainly associated with flooding, droughts,
and cyclones and tropical storms, which will be more intense, frequent and
unpredictable.
Policy reform scenario
The National Environmental Policy adopted in 1997 is currently under review to
among others, integrate/mainstream climate change issues and hence provide overall
policy guidance in addressing climate change. Furthermore, the government is
developing the National Adaptation Plan (NAP) to address medium and long term
adaptaion issues. Mainstreaming of climate change issues into sectoral policies to
adequately address climate change in various sectors is important. Apart from these,
the government has developed some strategies, plans and programmes, all aimed at
addressing climate change. Some of these include the National Climate Change
Strategy, and the National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA).
267
Sustainability scenario
Under this scenario, effective implementation of various policies, guidelines, legislation
and plans as stakeholders commitment to enhance community adaptation to climate
change at various levels and establish mitigation measures. It is imperative to have
policies/strategies/ plans on climate change that can be adequately and effectively
implemented sustainably. At the base of all these adequate funding, public awareness
and participation is crucial for effective implementation of various policies and
measures with regard to climate change.
15.9 Natural Disasters
Tanzania has experienced a variety of natural disasters such as drought, floods,
epidemics, windstorms, landslides, earthquake, pest infestation and volcanic eruptions.
However, windstorms, landslides, volcanoes and earthquakes are few and occur rarely,
others occur more regularly especially drought, epidemics and floods. Some of these
hazards have resulted in loss of lives, damage to properties and infrastructure,
consequently disrupting the development gains made over the years.
Policy Reforms Scenario
This involves putting in place relevant policies, strategies and plans, as well as
instruments for dealing with disaster and risk management. The National Disaster
Management Policy of 2010 is currently under review. The review also entails the
establishment of an institutional framework from the central government to local
authorities where disaster and risk management committees will be formed in villages,
districts and regions to address the disasters issues.
This requires implementation of various interventions against natural and/or manmade disasters is jointly addressed by various stakeholders and using comprehensive
frameworks. Relevant policies, strategies, programmes and plans should be
implemented to enhance early warning and address disasters. Provision of fund is
important to ensure effective implementation of such policies and measures with
regard to disaster and risk management.
15.10 Emerging issues (GMOs, E-waste management, biofuels)
Commercial introduction of GMOs in particular, is yet to take place in the country.
However, contained research activities involving genetic modification, mainly at
laboratory research level are undertaken. Efforts are also underway to undertake
confined field trials.
268

There are several policies, legislations and guidelines which have been developed to
provide guidance on management of GMOs in the country. However there is a need to
review the relevant policies such as Agriculture, Livestock, Environment and Science
and Technology to adequately address GMO issues.
Sustainable use of GMOs requires effective implementation of interventions which
have been initiated through participation of key stakeholders. In addition, public
awareness, capacity building and research on GMOs should be given priority.
E-waste management
Emergence of E-waste has given rise to a new environmental challenge in many parts
of the country, especially in urban centres. The fast growing use of information and
communication technology and rapid turn-over in technology is creating a growing ewaste stream not only in industrialized countries but also developing countries.
Another major concern is the importation of near-end-of-life electrical and electronic
equipment. Such goods are not subject to controls under the Basel Convention.
There are some national policies, legislation and regulations that have a bearing on the
management of E-waste. Nevetheless, review of relevant sectoral policies and
legislation, such as Environment, Information and Communication Technology, Trade
and Industry, need to be done in order to among others, give specific guidance on
effective management of E-waste.
Stakeholders awareness raising and participation on E-waste management and
establishment of E-waste management system at all levels for effective segregation,
collection, recycling and disposal need to done. Under this scenario, information
should be shared among stakeholders for a good and effective E-waste management
regime. This will minimise the impact of E-waste on human health and the
environment.
Biofuels
Currently, biofuel industry is still at its infancy as there is yet no commercial
production or use of biofuels. Nevertheless, there is growing investment in energy
crops for producing both bioethanol and biodiesel in the country.
269
The policy and legal framework relating to biofuel production, promotion and use is
still under development. The completion of biofuel development policy needs to be
hastened in order to have proper guidance on production and use of biofuels in the
country. Furthermore, relevant sectoral policies and legislation such as those of
Energy, Agriculture and Environment, need to mainstream biofuel issues.
Development and implementation of policies, legislation and guidelines is of
paramount importance in order to achieve sustainable biofuel development. In order to
achieve sustainability, the Government and other stakeholders need to effectively
implement the biofuel guidelines and relevant policies and legislation. There is also a
need to promote public awareness, research and information dissemination on biofuels
development to all relevant stakeholders.
Tanzania has reported several Invasive Alien Species of various categories including
plant pathogens, pests, aquatic and terrestrial weeds, animals and trees. Major impacts
of IAS include:- reduced cash income from crop production, loss of biodiversity,
destruction of animal habitats and spread of diseases.
There is a number of policies and legislation, which has a bearing in addressing the IAS
challenge. Since IAS is an emerging issue, it is not adequately addressed in some of
these policies, strategies and legislation. Therefore, there is a need to review relevant
policies in related sectors such as agriculture, wildlife, fisheries, forest and
environment, to adequately address such issues.
In order to achieve sustainability in the management of IAS, there is a need for effective
implementation of the relevant policies and strategies through involvement of relevant
stakeholders at all levels. Capacity building and awareness-raising is also important
among stakeholders on handling and use of plant and animal species to minimise IAS
incidences. Relevant sectors need to strengthen regulatory controls of imported and
exported plants and animal species under their jurisdiction through inspections at all
points of entry.
270
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
POLICY OPTIONS FOR ACTION
Despite the fact that the Government and other stakeholders have been devising ways and means of curbing the environmental
degradation challenges as highlighted in the previous chapters, there is still a need of continuing to address these challenges in a more
concerted manner. This means that appropriate measures need to be designed and effectively implemented in order to further address
the challenges highlighted in this report in order to improve the state of environment for sustainable development. Below are proposed
broader options for actions:Issue
S/N
1.
Land degradation
1.1
Options for action

Responsible Sector Ministry/Institution
Review, formulate and implement appropriate Ministry responsible for Land, Water, Natural
policies, strategies and plans aimed at curbing land Resources, Local Government and Environment;
degradation adequately.
Land use Planning Commission, Academic and
Research Institutions, NGOs and CBOs.

1.2
1.3
1.4
Human invasion to environmentally sensitive areas Ministry

responsible
for
Lands,
Energy,
be stopped and existing settlements and businesses Agriculture, Livestock, Forestry, Wildlife, Local
in these areas should be removed.
Government and Environment; Land use Planning
Commission, NGOs and CBOs.

Speed up implementation of Land Use Master Ministry responsible for Land, Land use Planning,
Plan Framework 2011-2031
Local Government and Environment; MOW,
MNRT, Commission, Academic and Research
Institutions, NGOs and CBOs
Environmentally sensitive areas (with potential of Ministry responsible for Lands, Water, Natural
being degraded easily) such as rivers, valleys, Resources,
Energy,
Agriculture,
Livestock,
beaches and wetlands be restored and maintained.
Forestry, Wildlife, Local Government and
Environment; Land use Planning Commission,
NGOs and CBOs.
271
S/N
Issue
1.5
Options for action

Ensure effective enforcement of legislation related to
land degradation and effective implementation of
existing strategies and programmes on land
degradation.
1.6
Promote sustainable agricultural practices.
1.7
Promote use of traditional knowledge in land

management.
1.8
Promote rangeland resources management.
1.9
Ministry responsible for Land, Local Government

and
Environment;
Land
use
Planning
Commission, Academic and Research Institutions,
NGOs and CBOs.
Ministry responsible for Agriculture, Education,
Livestock and Local Government, NGOs and
CBOs.
Ministry responsible for Agriculture, Livestock
and Local Government; NGOs and CBOs.
Ministry responsible for Agriculture, Forestry,
Livestock and Local Government; NGOs and
CBOs.
Ministry
responsible
for
Lands,
Energy,
Agriculture, Livestock, Forestry, Wildlife, Local
Government and Environment; Land use Planning
Commission, NGOs and CBOs.
Mainstreaming/ integration of policies, plans and

strategies related to land degradation in the
development planning process and budgets to ensure
sustainable environmental and socio-economic
development.
1.10 Public awareness on the causes and impacts of land Ministry responsible for environment, Disaster
degradation to livelihoods.
Management and Early warning system, Ministry
2.
Deforestation and
Forest degradation
of
Land,
PMO-RALG
and
Community
development.
1.11 To develop and implement waste management Ministry responsible for Environment, PMO
strategy.
RALG, Health.
2.1 Review, formulate and implement appropriate Ministry responsible for Forestry, Wildlife, Local
policies, strategies and plans aimed at curbing Government and Environment.
2.2
deforestation and forest degradation.

Strengthen enforcement of forest related legislation Ministry responsible for Forestry, Wildlife, Local
and regulations.
Government and Environment; Private sector,
272
S/N
Issue
Options for action

2.3
2.4
2.5
NGOs/CBOs.
Strengthen enforcement and promote tools for Public MEM, MNRT-TFS, VPO DOE, PMO RALG,
Private Partnership on alternative energy sources TAFORI, TATeDO, NGOs, CBOs
and energy efficient technologies
Promote use of traditional knowledge that enhance Ministry
responsible
for
environmental conservation.
Environment, Agriculture,
Forest,
Energy,
Livestock, Local
Government, Community Development, Private
sector, NGOs/CBOs.
Strengthen national campaigns on tree planting and Ministry responsible for Forest, Environment,
growing, as well as restoration and conservation Local Government; Private sector; NGOs/CBOs.
2.6
programmes.
Prepare and disseminate awareness programme on Ministry responsible for Forest, Environment,
sustainable forest management
Local Government: Private sector, NGOs/CBOs.
2.7
Promote use of alternative energy sources.
2.8
Promote energy conservation initiatives
2.9
Promote use of NAFORMA

management planning
data
in
forest
2.10 Promote sustainable utilization and management of

forest resources.
3.
Loss of biodiversity
3.1
3.2
Ministry
responsible
for
Forest,
Energy,
Environment, Local Government: Private sector,
NGOs/CBOs.
Ministry responsible for Forest, Energy, Local
Government; Private sector, NGOs/CBOs.
Ministry responsible for Forest, Environment,
Local Government, TAFORI, NGOs, CBOs
Ministry responsible for Forest, Energy, Local
Government; Private sector, NGOs/CBOs.
Ministry responsible for Environment, Natural
Resources, Fisheries, Wildlife.
Review, formulate and implement appropriate

policies, strategies and plans aimed at adequately
curbing loss of biodiversity.
Review and implement the National Biodiversity Ministry responsible for Environment, Wildlife,
Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP)
Lands, Forestry, Water, Local Government;
273
S/N
Issue
Options for action
3.3
Strengthen Capacity Building and awareness on the

management of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
3.4
Promote international cooperation to ensure that

Tanzania benefits from transfer of its genetic
resources.
3.5
Strengthen implementation of National Strategy on

Wetlands.
3.6
Implement measures to
overgrazing and pollution.
3.7
Promote
monitoring
and
conservation
endangered and threatened species.
3.8
Promote research and dissemination of findings on

wildlife and biodiversity management and
conservation.
control
274
deforestation,
of
academic and Research Institutions; NGOs/CBOs.

Ministry responsible for Environment, Forestry,
Water,
Wildlife,
Fisheries,
Lands,
Local
Government; academic and Research Institutions;
NGOs/CBOs.
Ministry responsible for Environment, Agriculture,
Forestry, Water, Foreign Affairs, EAC, Wildlife,
Lands, Local Government; academic and Research
Institutions; NGOs/CBOs.
Livestock, Forestry, Water, Lands, Local
Government; academic and Research Institutions;
NGOs/CBOs.
Ministry responsible for Environment, Livestock,
Agriculture, Forestry, Water, Wildlife, Lands,
Local Government; academic and Research
Institutions; NGOs/CBOs.
Ministry responsible for Wildlife, Environment,
Forestry, Water, Lands, Fisheries, Tourism, Local
Government; Academic and Research Institutions;
NEMC, NGOs/CBOs, Media.
Ministry responsible for Wildlife, Science and
Technology, Local Government, Environment,
Forestry, Livestock, Academic and Research
Institutions, COSTECH, NEMC, Private sector,
NGOs/CBOs.
Issue
S/N
4.
Environmental
pollution
4.1
Options for action

Review, formulate and implement appropriate Ministry responsible for Environment, Water,
policies, strategies and plans aimed at curbing water Health, Industries and Trade, Transport and Local
environmental pollution adequately.
Government.
4.2
Strengthen enforcement of Environmental legislation Ministry responsible for Environment, Water,

and by-laws for prevention of land, air water and Health, Transport and Local Government, Private
noise pollution.
sector, NGOs/CBOs
4.3
Promote the use of appropriate liquid waste Ministry responsible for Local Government, Water,
management technologies.
Health and Environment; Urban Water Supply
and Sanitation Authorities, Private sector;

NGOs/CBOs, Media
Ministry responsible for Water, Local Government,
Transport and Environment; Urban Water Supply
and Sewerage Authority Authorities, Private
sector; NGOs/CBOs.
Ministry responsible for Local Government, Water,
NGOs/CBOs, Media
Health, Industries and Trade and Environment;
Home Affairs; TBS; Private sector; NGOs/CBOs,
Media.
4.4
Formulate water quality monitoring programmes for

all major groundwater and surface water bodies to
ensure compliance with the national environmental
standards.
4.5
Promote and encourage investments in cleaner

production technologies to address air, water, land
and noise pollution.
4.6
The reduction of air pollution through strict issuance

of licenses and vetting of imported industrial
machinery and motor vehicles for environmental
worthiness in accordance to the national air
pollution standards should be encouraged.
Strengthen enforcement of regulations and Ministry responsible for Local Government, Water,
conditions to address noise pollution in residential Health, Environment, Industries; Home Affairs;
areas.
TBS; Private sector; NGOs/CBOs, Media.
4.7
4.8
Noise pollution from road traffic should be reduced Ministry responsible for Local Government, Water,
through vehicle testing for noise emission levels for
275
S/N
5.
Issue
Deterioration of
aquatic systems
Options for action

ensuring compliance to the
Standards for Road Traffic.
5.1
5.2

National
Noise Health and Environment; Home Affairs; TBS;
Private sector; NGOs/CBOs, Media.

Review, formulate and implement appropriate Ministry Responsible for Environment, Fisheries,
policies, strategies and plans aimed at curbing Local Governments, Home Affairs.
deterioration of aquatic systems.
Strengthen Enforcement of legislation related to Ministry Responsible for Environment, Fisheries,
investment and utilization of aquatic resources.
Water, Local Governments, Home Affairs,
Defence; NEMC, BMUs, NGOs, CBOs.

5.3
5.4
Strengthen implementation of various strategies and

programmes related to aquatic resources (e.g.
National Strategy for Urgent Action to Conserve
Coastal and Marine Environment, Lakes, Rivers and
Dams).
Promote conservation and sustainable use of
mangroves and coastal forests.
5.5
Promote sustainable utilization of aquatic resources.
5.6
Prevent and Control pollution in aquatic systems

through cleaner production technologies and other
environmental sustainable practices.
5.7
Strengthen institutional and human capacity in

management of aquatic resources
5.8
Promote research and dissemination of findings on
276
Ministry Responsible for: Environment, Water,

Transport, Lands, Agriculture, Minerals, Forestry,
Fisheries, Local Government Authorities
and
Other relevant sectors; NGOs/ CBOs
Ministry Responsible for: Forestry, Fisheries,
Environment, Local Government, Lands, Minerals;
NEMC, NGOs/CBOs.
Ministry Responsible for: Fisheries, Water,
Forestry,
Agriculture,
Environment,
Local
Authorities; NEMC, NGOs/CBOs.
Ministry
Responsible
for:
Water,
Lands,
Agriculture, Environment, Fisheries, Transport,
Industries, Local Government, Energy, Private
sector and NGOs.
Ministry Responsible for: Fisheries, Environment,
Water, Local Government, Forestry; Academic and
Research Institutions; CBOs and NGOs.
Ministry responsible for Fisheries, Water, Science
S/N
6.
Issue
Water quality
degradation and
accessibility
Options for action

aquatic resources management.
5.9
Promote regional cooperation on management of

trans-boundary aquatic resources.
6.1

policies, strategies and plans aimed at adequately
curbing water quality degradation.
6.2
Strengthen enforcement of legislation related to

water resources management and Water Supply and
sanitation.
6.3
Promote local communities participation in the

enforcement of water abstraction.
6.4
Strengthen implementation of integrated water

resources management plans.
6.5
Establish/Improve wastewater management systems

in urban and rural centres.
6.6
Strengthen integrated solid waste management

system.
6.7
Introduce and sustain cleaner production techniques
277
and Technology, Local Government, Environment

,Agriculture, Forestry, Livestock, Academic and
Research Institutions, COSTECH, NEMC, Private
sector, NGOs/CBOs.
Ministry Responsible for: Environment, Foreign
Affairs, East African Cooperation, Water, Fisheries,
Local Government Authorities
Ministry responsible for Water, Local Government
and Environment; Urban Water Supply and
Sewerage Authority.
and Environment; Urban Water Supply and
Sewerage Authority; Private sector, NGOs/CBOs.
and Environment; Private sector; NGOs/CBOs.
Ministry responsible for Water, Local Government,
Environment; Urban Water Supply and Sanitation
Authorities, Water Basin Board, Private sector;
NGOs/CBOs.
NGOs/CBOs, Media.
Ministry responsible for Local Government,
Environment; NEMC, Private sector; Public,
NGOs/CBOs.
S/N
Issue
Options for action

or practices for water quality.
6.8
7.
Climate change
7.1
7.2
Environment; CPCT, NEMC, Private sector; Public,

NGOs/CBOs.
To strengthen implementation of strategies to control Ministry responsible for Local Government,
pollution from land based activities.
Environment; CPCT, NEMC, Private sector; Public,
NGOs/CBOs.
Review, formulate and implement appropriate Sector Ministries, Local Government Authorities.
policies, strategies and plans related to climate

change management.
Mainstream climate change Adaptation into sectoral Sector Ministries, Local Government Authorities,
Policies, strategies, programmes, plans and budgets.
private
sector;
Research
and
Academic
Institutions, NGOs/CBOs.
7.3
8.
Natural disasters
Enhance public awareness and understanding on Sector Ministries, Local Government Authorities,
climate change adaptation and mitigation.
private
sector;
Research
and
Academic
7.4
Design and implement programmes and projects at

LGAs level to address adaptation and mitigation.
7.5
Promote/Strengthen modern and traditional early

warning systems.
7.6
Strengthen Implementation of the National Climate

Change Strategy and Action Plan.
8.1

policies, strategies and plans related to disaster
management.
8.2
Mainstream
climate
change
into
278
disaster
risk
Sector Ministries, Local Government Authorities,
private
sector;
Research
and
Academic
Institutions. NGOs/CBOs
TMA, private sector; Research and Academic
private
sector;
Research
and
Academic
Institutions, NGOs/CBOs
PMO, Sector Ministries, Local Government
Authorities, private sector; Research and
Academic Institutions, NGOs/CBOs.
S/N
9.
Issue
Electrical and
Electronic
Equipment Waste
(E-Waste)
Options for action

management programmes.
8.3
Strengthen national institutional and human capacity

for disaster risk reduction.
8.4
Strengthen coordination and collaboration between

diverse stakeholders in disaster management.
8.5
Strengthening and scaling up national institutional

capacity in dealing with early warning systems, risk
management and preparedness, and disaster
management and response.
8.6
Developing national, regional and international

collaboration on information sharing.
9.1

policies, strategies and plans related to E-Waste.
9.2
Develop and implement national standards for

imported and locally produced E-Waste
9.3
Develop and implement guidelines for management

of E- Waste.
279
private
sector;
Research
and
Academic
Authorities, private sector; Research and
Academic Institutions, NGOs/CBOs.
PMO, Ministry responsible for Fisheries, Water,
Science and Technology, Local Government,
Environment ,Agriculture, Forestry, Livestock,
Academic and Research Institutions, COSTECH,
NEMC, Private sector. NGOs/CBOs
Authorities,
Tanzania Meteorology Agency,
private
sector;
Research
and
Academic
PMO, Tanzania Meteorology Agency, Ministry
Responsible for: Environment, Foreign Affairs,
Transport, Lands, Agriculture, Minerals, Forestry,
Fisheries, Local Government Authorities
and
Other relevant sectors; NGOs/ CBOs.
Ministry responsible for, Industry, Local
Government, and Environment
Government, Environment, TRA, TBS, TCRA,
NEMC, Private sector,
Ministry responsible for Industry, Science and
Technology, Local Government and Environment;
TBS, Private sector; NGOs/CBOs.
S/N
Issue
9.4
10.
Invasive Alien
Species (IAS)
Options for action

Conduct inventory and develop database of E- Ministry responsible for Local Government and
Waste.
Environment,
Industry,
Private
sector;
9.5
Install screening facilities for E-Waste at entry points.
9.6
Strengthen enforcement of legislation related to

management of E- Waste and their waste.
9.7
Promote public awareness on E-Waste handling.
10.1 Review, formulate and implement appropriate

policies, strategies and plans related to Invasive
Alien Species.
10.2 Promote application of Integrated Pest Management
(IPM) to control IAS.
10.3 Promote research and disseminate information on
IAS.
10.4 Strengthen phytosanitary inspection at entry points.

10.5 Develop and promote national, regional and
international cooperation on information in
280
NGOs/CBOs
Science and Technology and Environment; TRA,
Private sector; NGOs/CBOs.
Government, Environment, TRA, TBS, TCRA,
NEMC, Private sector.
Science and Technology and Environment; Private
sector; NGOs/CBOs and Media.
Ministry responsible for Environment, Fisheries,
Agriculture, Water, Forestry, Livestock; Local
Fisheries, Water, Forestry, Livestock; Local
Ministry responsible for, Science and Technology,
Local Government, Environment ,Agriculture,
Fisheries, Forestry, Livestock, COSTECH, NEMC,
Research and Academic institutions, Private sector,
NGOs/CBOs.
Ministry responsible for Agriculture, Livestock,
Local Government and Environment.
Ministry responsible for, Local Government,
Environment, Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
S/N
Issue
Options for action

management of IAS.
10.6 Strengthen public awareness on IAS and their

management.
11.
Genetically
Modified
Organisms (GMOs)

policies, strategies and plans related to Genetically
Modified Organisms.
11.2 Strengthen enforcement of legislation related to safe
use of Modern biotechnology.
11.3 Strengthen public awareness programmes on safe

use of Modern biotechnology.
11.4 Promote research and Information dissemination on

application of Modern biotechnology.
12.
Biofuels

policies, strategies and plans related to Biofuels.
12.2
Promote research and disseminate information on
281
Livestock, COSTECH, NEMC, Research and

Academic
institutions,
Private
sector,
NGOs/CBOs.
Ministry responsible for, Local Government,
Environment ,Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock, COSTECH, NEMC, Research and
Academic
institutions,
Private
sector,
NGOs/CBOs and Media.
Local Government, Environment, Agriculture,
Forestry and Livestock.
Ministry responsible for Science and Technology,
Forestry, Livestock, COSTECH, NEMC, Private
sector, NGOs/CBOs, Media
Ministry responsible for Environment, Science and
Technology, Fisheries, Health, Agriculture,
Livestock; Local Government Authorities,
Academic and Research Institutions, Media.
Forestry, Livestock, COSTECH, NEMC, Academic,
Research Institutions, Private sector, NGOs/CBOs.
Ministry responsible for Energy, Science and
Technology, Local Government, Environment,
Agriculture, Forestry and Livestock.
Ministry responsible for, Energy, Science and
S/N
Issue
Options for action

Biofuels development.
12.3
Technology, Local Government, Environment

,Agriculture, Forestry, Livestock, COSTECH,
NEMC, Private sector, NGOs/CBOs.
Strengthen public awareness programmes on Ministry responsible for Energy, Environment,
biofuels development.
Education,
Agriculture,
Livestock;
Local
Government Authorities, Institutions, Media.
282
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The United republic of Tanzania

State of the Environment report

Vice Presidents Office

CHAPTER TWO .....................................................................................................5

Location and Size ....................................................................................................... 5

CHAPTER THREE ...............................................................................................20

CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................43

CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................78

CHAPTER SIX ......................................................................................................94

CHAPTER SEVEN .............................................................................................119

CHAPTER EIGHT .............................................................................................129

Introduction ............................................................................................................ 129

CHAPTER NINE ................................................................................................144

CHAPTER TEN ..................................................................................................163

Introduction ............................................................................................................ 177

CHAPTER TWELVE ..........................................................................................188

CLIMATE CHANGE .........................................................................................188

Introduction ............................................................................................................ 188

CHAPTER THIRTEEN .....................................................................................207

13.6.5 Impacts ..................................................................................................... 232

CHAPTER FOURTEEN ....................................................................................240

Pressure .................................................................................................... 257

CHAPTER FIFTEEN ..........................................................................................262

Introduction ............................................................................................................ 262

CHAPTER SIXTEEN .........................................................................................271

The information contained in this report is an invaluable resource for individuals,

Dr. Mohamed Gharib Bilal

meeting the main environmental challenges to be evaluated; and provides an

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Acquired Immuno Defficiency Syndrome

Important Bird Areas

DEFORESTATION AND FOREST DEGRADATION

Pressure: Pressures for air pollution include inadequate enforcement of relevant

production with massive deaths of livestock in northern Tanzania which is estimated to

Pressure: Pressures for drought are population growth exacerbated by various

State: Projections based on the results of an inventory undertaken by Cleaner

change to environmental management in the country for the improvement of state of

Quality Standards and other relevant regulations need to be rigorously enforced in

policies, strategies, programmes and plans should be implemented to minimise adverse

still required to address these challenges in a more concerted manner. A number of

The Second State of the Environment Report (SoER) is a continuation of the

Objectives of the Report

Specific objectives are to:

Preparation of this Report adopted the following stages:i)

Preparatory stage: The objective of this phase was to establish consensus on

Location and Size

Coastal Plains and features

Highlands and mountains

River and lake basins

Figure 2.2: Tanzania Drainage Water Basins (Source: URT, 2012c)

(Source: URT 2012)

The dominant soils by percentage coverage include Cambisols (35.64%), Acrisols

Figure 2.4: Spatial distribution of mean annual rainfall (1970 2000)

Figure 2.6: Mean annual minimum temperature (C)

(Source: TMA, Cited URT

Based on altitude, precipitation and temperature pattern, dependable growing seasons

Table 2.2: Tanzania Agro-ecological Zones

Sub-Zone and areas

Southern: Morogoro (except

Soils and Topography

Infertile sands on gently rolling uplands,

North: Volcanic ash and sediments. Soils

Western: Wide sandy plains and Rift