Technological University of the Philippines

College of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

EE 3L
Energy Conversion, Lab

Submitted by:

Madla, Patrialope S.
Manato, Johnn Nio D.
Mascardo, Cheza Marie
Merin, Emmanuel Joshua C.
Millan, Mark Lester S.
Minguez, Grason B.
BSECE 4B

Submitted to:
Engr. Mervyn Anthony Ramos
Instructor

October 5, 2016

Table of Contents
THE RENEWABLE ENERGY.......................................................................1
WIND ENERGY.........................................................................................2
SOLAR ENERGY.....................................................................................17
BIOENERGY...........................................................................................25
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY..........................................................................39
HYDOERELECTRICITY............................................................................46
WAVE POWER........................................................................................48
TIDAL ENERGY......................................................................................56
OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION..............................................62
OSMOTIC POWER..................................................................................70
PIEZOELECTRICITY................................................................................85

THE RENEWABLE ENERGY

Renewable energy is the energy obtained from natural and
persistent flows of energy occurring in the immediate
environment. An obvious example is solar (sunshine) energy,
where repetitive refers to the 24-hour major period. Note that
the energy is already passing through the environment as a
current or flow, irrespective of there being a device to intercept
and harness this power. Such energy may also be called Green
Energy or Sustainable Energy.

The General Concept of Renewable Energy

WIND ENERGY
Wind energy is one of the fastest-growing electrical energy sources in the
United States. The United States installed over 5,200 MW in 2007 and experts are
forecasting for as much to be installed in 2008. The United States cumulative
installed capacity as of Dec. 31, 2007, was 16, 596 MW. Wind turbines have evolved
rapidly over the past 20 years and the turbines have grown in size from 100 kW in
the early 1980s to over 2.5 MW today. The evolution of wind technology is expected
to continue over the next two decades resulting in a continued improvement in
reliability and energy capture with a modest decrease in cost. The development of
new and innovative rotors, drive systems, towers, and controls is expected to
enable this continued improvement in the cost effectiveness of wind technology.
Wind energy can supply 20% of the United States electricity needs by 2030 and will
be a significant contributor to the worlds electricity supply.
INTRODUCTION TO WIND ENERGY
Wind energy is one of the fastest-growing electrical energy sources in the
United States. The United States installed over 5,200 MW in 2007, and experts are
forecasting for as much to be installed in 2008. The United States cumulative
installed capacity as of Dec. 31, 2007, was 16,596 MW. The state distribution of
wind capacity is illustrated in Figure 1. Wind capacity in the United States and
Europe has grown at a rate of 20% to 30% per year over the past decade. Despite
this rapid growth, wind currently provides just 1% of total electricity consumption in
the United States.

The United States is blessed with an abundance of wind energy potential. The
landbased and offshore wind resource has been estimated to be sufficient to supply
the electrical energy needs of the entire country several times over. The Midwest
region, from Texas to North Dakota, is particularly rich in wind energy resources, as
illustrated in Figure 2. Modern wind turbines deployed throughout the world today
have three-bladed rotors with diameters of 70 to 80 meters mounted atop 60- to 80m towers as shown in Figure 3. The typical turbine installed in the United States in
2007 can produce about 1.5 MW of electrical power. The turbine power output is
controlled by rotating the blades on their long axis to change the angle of attack
with respect to the relative wind as the blades spin about the rotor hub, which is
referred to as controlling the blade pitch. The turbine is pointed into the wind by
rotating the nacelle about the tower, which is called yaw control. Almost all
modern turbines operate with the rotor positioned on the windward side of the
tower, which is referred to as an upwind rotor. Wind sensors on the nacelle tell the
yaw controller where to point the turbine, and when combined with sensors on the
generator and drive train, tell the blade pitch controller to regulate the power
output and rotor speed to prevent overloading structural components. A turbine will
generally start producing power in winds of about 5.4 m/s (12 mph) and reach
maximum power output at about 12.5 m/s to 13.4 m/s (28 to 30 mph). The turbine
will feather the blades (pitch them to stop power production and rotation) at
about 26.8m/s (60 mph).
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The amount of energy in the wind available for extraction by the turbine
increases with the cube of wind speed; thus a 10% increase in wind speed means a
33% increase in available energy. However, a turbine can only capture a portion of
this cubic increase in energy because power above the level for which the electrical
system has been designed (referred to as the rated power) is allowed to pass
through the rotor (as will be described later). The height and the size of wind
turbines have increased to capture the more energetic winds at higher elevations.
For land-based turbines, size is not expected to grow as dramatically in the future as
it has in the past. Many turbine designers dont expect land-based turbines to
become much larger than about 100 meters in diameter, with corresponding power
outputs of about 3 to 5 MW. Larger sizes are physically possible; however, the
logistical constraints of transporting the components over the highway and
obtaining cranes large enough to lift the components are potential barriers.

Wind Turbines
A wind turbine is a machine for converting the kinetic energy in wind into
mechanical energy.
If the mechanical energy is used directly by machinery, such as a pump or grinding
stones, the machine is usually called a windmill.

If the mechanical energy is then converted to electricity, the machine is called a

wind generator.
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Two General Types of Wind Turbines

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines
A horizontal Axis Wind Turbine is the most common wind turbine design. In addition
to being parallel to the ground, the axis of blade rotation is parallel to the wind flow.

Up-Wind Turbines
Some wind turbines are designed to operate in an upwind mode (with the
blades upwind of the tower). Large wind turbines use a motor-driven
mechanism that turns the machine in response to a wind direction. Smaller
wind turbines use a tail vane to keep the blades facing into the wind.

Down-Wind Turbines
Other wind turbines operate in a downwind mode so that the wind passes the
tower before striking the blades. Without a tail vane, the machine rotor
naturally tracks the wind in a downwind mode.

Vertical Axis Wind Turbines

Although vertical axis wind turbines have existed for centuries, they are not as
common as their horizontal counterparts. The main reason for this is that they do
not take advantage of the higher wind speeds at higher elevations above the
ground as well as horizontal axis turbines.

The Persian windmill was used around 1000 b.c. to turn a grindstone. It is the oldest
known windmill design. The machine works by blocking the wind blowing on of its
sails. The sails exposed to the wind are pushed downwind due to drag, causing the
windmill to rotate.

Anemometer
The anemometer is an instrument for measuring the speed of airflow. A cup
anemometer is a drag-type vertical axis wind turbine

Savonius Wind Turbine

The Savonius turbine is S-shaped if viewed from above. This drag-type VAWT
turns relatively slowly, but yields a high torque. It is useful for grinding grain,
pumping water, and many other tasks, but its slow rotational speeds make it
unsuitable for generating electricity on a large-scale.

Flapping Panel Wind Turbine

This illustration shows the wind coming from one direction, but the wind can
actually come from any direction and the wind turbine will work the same
way.

Darrieus Wind Turbine

The Darrieus turbine is the most famous vertical axis wind turbone. It is
characterised by its C-shaped rotor blades which give it its eggbeater
appearance. It is normally built with two or three blades. The Darrieus turbine
is not self starting. It needs to start turbing before the wind will begin rotating
it.
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Giromill Wind Turbine

The giromill is typically powered by two or three vertical aerofoils attached to
the central mast by horizontal supports. Giromill turbines work well in
turbulent wind conditions and are an affordable option where a standard
horizontal axis windmill type turbine is unsuitable.

There are a number of available designs for both and each type has certain
advantages and disadvantages. However, compared with the horizontal axis type,
very few vertical axis machines are available commercially.
Parts of a Wind Turbine

The nacelle contains the key components of the wind turbine, including the
gearbox, and the electrical generator.
The tower of the wind turbine carries the nacelle and the rotor. Generally,
it is an advantage to have a high tower, since wind speeds increase farther
away from the ground.
The rotor blades capture wind energy and transfer its power to the rotor
hub.
The generator converts the mechanical energy of the rotating shaft to
electrical energy
The gearbox increases the rotational speed of the shaft for the generator.
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THE NATIONAL POTENTIAL FOR WIND ENERGY

The vision of the wind industry in the United States and Europe is to increase
winds fraction of the electrical energy mix to more than 20% within the next two
decades. Recently, the Department of Energy in conjunction with the American
Wind Energy Association (AWEA), the National Renewable Energy Laboratory
(NREL), and Black & Veatch undertook a study to explore the possibility of producing
20% of the nations electricity using wind energy. This investigation attempts to
estimate important aspects of this scenario, including the wind resource
assessment, materials and manufacturing resources, environmental and siting
issues, transmission and system integration. It should be noted that several states
have put in place Renewable Portfolio Standards that mandate comparable levels of
renewable energy be deployed within the next 20 years. The Wind Energy
Deployment System model1 developed at NREL was used to estimate some of the
important consequences associated with producing 20% of the nations electricity
from wind technology by 2030. This generation capacity expansion model selects
from electricity generation technologies that include pulverized coal plants,
combined cycle natural gas plants, combustion turbine natural gas plants, nuclear
plants, and wind technology to meet projected demand in future years. Technology
cost and performance projections, as well as transmission operation and expansion
costs, are assumed. This study demonstrates that producing 20% of the nations
projected electricity demand in 2030 from wind technology is technically feasible,
not cost-prohibitive, and provides benefits in the forms of carbon emission
reductions, natural gas, and water savings. The reader interested in additional
information on 20% Wind Energy by 2030 is referred to U. S. Department of Energy
Report2 .
The United States possesses ample wind resources, technically more than
8,000 GW, that could be harnessed to produce electricity at reasonable cost, if
transmission expenditures are excluded. Considering some elements of the
transmission required to access these resources, a supply curve that shows the
relationship between wind power class and cost is shown in Figure 4. It includes the
cost of accessing the current transmission system and shows that more than 600
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GW of potential wind capacity is available for $60 to $100/MWh. The relatively flat
supply curve for wind energy clearly shows an abundance of modestly priced wind
energy is available in the United States, even with limited transmission access.

THE HISTORY OF WIND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT

Until the early 1970s, wind energy filled a small niche market providing
mechanical power for grinding grain and pumping water. With the exception of a
small number of battery chargers and the rare experiments with larger
electricityproducing machines, the windmill of 1850, or even 1950, differed little
from the primitive devices from which they were derived. But the latter half of the
20th century saw spectacular changes in the technology. Blades that had once been
made of sail or sheet metal progressed through wood to advanced fiberglass
composites. The DC alternator gave way to the induction generator that was grid
synchronized. From mechanical cams and linkages that feathered or furled a
machine, designs moved to high-speed digital controls. Airfoils are now tested in
wind tunnels and are designed for insensitivity to surface roughness and dirt.
Current knowledge of aeroelastic loads and the ability to incorporate this knowledge
into detailed numerical models and structural dynamics codes make the machine of
today more robust, but much less expensive than those of a decade ago.

Turbine Size
Over the past 20 years, average wind turbine ratings have grown almost
linearly (Figure 6) with current commercial machines rated at 1.5 MW. Each group of
wind turbine designers has predicted that their machines are as large as they will
ever be. However, with each new generation of wind turbines, the size has
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increased along the linear curve and has achieved reductions in life-cycle cost of
energy.
The long-term drive to develop larger turbines stems from a desire to take
advantage of wind shear by placing rotors in the higher, more energetic winds at a
greater elevation above ground (wind speed increases with height above the
ground). This is a major reason that the capacity factor of wind turbines has
increased over time, as documented by Wiser and Bolinger3 . However, there are
constraints to this continued growth to larger sizes as in general it costs more to
build a larger turbine.
The primary argument for a size limit for wind turbines is based on the
squarecube law. Roughly stated, it says that as a wind turbine rotor increases in
size, its energy output increases as the rotor-swept area (the diameter squared),
while the volume of material, and therefore its mass and cost, increases as the cube
of the diameter. In other words, at some size the cost for a larger turbine will grow
faster than the resulting energy output revenue, making scaling a losing economic
game. Engineers have successfully skirted this law by changing the design rules
with increasing size and removing material or by using material more efficiently to
trim weight and cost.
Studies have shown that in recent years, blade mass has been scaling at
roughly an exponent of 2.3 instead of the expected 3, as shown by the WindPACT
blade scaling study4 . The WindPACT study shows how successive generations of
blade design have moved off the cubic weight growth curve to keep weight down as
illustrated in Figure 7. If advanced research and development were to provide even
better design methods, as well as new materials and manufacturing methods that
allowed the entire turbine to scale as the diameter squared, then it would be
possible to continue to innovate around this limit to size.

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Land transportation constraints can also pose limiting factors to wind turbine
growth for turbines installed on land. Cost-effective transportation can only be
achieved by remaining within standard over-the-road trailer dimensions of 4.1 m
high by 2.6 m wide. Rail transportation is even more dimensionally limited,
frequently eliminating that option.
Unfortunately, other constraints limit the practical size of wind turbines.
Crane requirements are quite stringent because of the large nacelle mass in
combination with the height of the lift and the required boom extension. As the
height of the lift to install the rotor and nacelle on the tower increases, the number
of available cranes with the capability to make this lift becomes fairly limited. Other
limiting factors are that cranes with large lifting capacities are difficult to transport,
require large crews, and therefore have high operation, mobilization, and demobilization costs.

The Rotor
As wind turbines grow in size, so do their blades from about 8m in 1980 to
more than 40m for many land-based commercial systems. Improved blade designs
have enabled the weight growth to be kept to a much lower rate than simple
geometric scaling, as already described. Todays blade designs are subjected to
rigorous evaluation using the latest computer analysis tools so that excess weight
can be removed. Designers are also starting to work with lighter and stronger
carbon fiber in highly stressed locations to stiffen the blade and improve fatigue
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resistance while reducing blade weight. However, carbon fiber must be used
judiciously because the cost is about 10 times that of fiberglass.
The next figure shows the power curve for a typical modern turbine and
illustrates the different control regions for the turbine. Typically, a turbine will cut-in
and begin to produce power at a wind speed of about 5.4 m/s (12 mph). It will reach
its rated power at about 12.5 m/s to 13.4 m/s (28 to 30 mph), where the pitch
control system begins to limit power output and prevent overloading the generator
and drive train. At around 26.8 m/s (60 mph), the control system pitches the blades
to stop rotation (which is referred to as feathering the blades) to prevent overloads
and damage to the turbines components.
All of the energy present in a stream of moving air cannot be extracted; some
air must remain in motion after extraction or no new, more energetic air can enter
the device. Building a brick wall would stop the air at the wall, but the free stream of
energetic air would just flow around the wall. On the other end of the spectrum, a
device that does not slow the air is not extracting any energy either. The solution for
the optimal blockage is generally attributed to the German Physicist Albert Betz and
is called the Betz limit. At best, a device can extract a theoretically maximum 59%
of the energy in a stream with the same area as the working area of the device. The
aerodynamic performance of a modern wind turbine has improved dramatically over
the past 20 years. The rotor system can be expected to capture about 80% of the
theoretically possible energy in the flow stream. This has been made possible
through the design of custom airfoils for wind turbines. In fact, it is now
commonplace for turbine manufacturers to have special airfoil designs for each
individual turbine design. These special airfoils attempt to optimize low-speed wind
aerodynamic efficiency and limit aerodynamic loads in high winds. These new airfoil
designs also attempt to minimize sensitivity to blade fouling, due to dirt and bugs
that accumulate on the leading edge and can greatly reduce efficiency. Although
rotor design methods have improved significantly, there is still room for
improvement.
Controls
Todays controllers integrate the signals from dozens of sensors to control
rotor speed, blade pitch angle, generator torque, and power conversion voltage and
phase. The controller is also responsible for critical safety decisions, such as
shutting down the turbine when extreme conditions are realized. Today, most
turbines operate at variable-speed, and the control system regulates the rotor
speed to obtain peak efficiency in fluctuating winds by continuously updating the
rotor speed and generator loading to maximize power and reduce drive train
transient torque loads. Operating variable speed requires the use of power
converters to make the generated power match the grid frequency. The power
converter also enables turbines to deliver fault ride through protection, voltage
control, and dynamic reactive power support to the grid.

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OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY

U.S. Offshore wind energy resources are abundant, indigenous, and broadly
dispersed among the most expensive and highly constrained electric load centers.
The U.S. Department of Energys Energy Information Agency shows that the 28
states in the contiguous 48 states with a coastal boundary use 78% of the nations
electricity. Nineteen offshore wind projects now operate in Europe with an installed
capacity of 900 MW. All installations have been in water depths less than 22 m.
Although some projects have been hampered by construction overruns and higherthan-expected maintenance, projections show strong offshore growth in many EU
markets. In the United States, approximately 10 offshore projects are being
considered. Proposed locations span both state and federal waters and total more
than 2,400 MW.
The current shallow-water offshore wind turbine is basically an upgraded
version of the standard land-based turbine with some system redesigns to account
for ocean conditions. These modifications include structural upgrades to the tower
to address the added loading from waves, pressurized nacelles, and environmental
controls to prevent corrosive sea air from degrading critical drive train and electrical
components, and personnel access platforms to facilitate maintenance and provide
emergency shelter. To minimize expensive servicing, offshore turbines may be
equipped with enhanced condition monitoring systems, automatic bearing
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lubrication systems, onboard service cranes, and oil temperature regulation

systems, all of which exceed the standard for land-based designs.
Todays offshore turbines range from 3 MW to 5 MW in size and typically have
three-blades, operate with a horizontal-axis upwind rotor, and are nominally 80 to
126 m in diameter. Tower heights offshore are lower than land-based turbines
because wind shear profiles are less steep, tempering the energy capture gains
sought with increased elevation. The offshore foundations differ substantially from
land-based turbines.
The baseline offshore technology is deployed in arrays using monopiles at
water depths of about 20 m. Monopiles are large steel tubes with a wall thickness of
up to 60 mm and a diameter of 6 m. The embedment depth will vary with soil type,
but a typical North Sea installation will require a pile that is embedded 25 to 30 m
below the mud line that extends above the surface to a transition piece with a
leveled and grouted flange on which the tower is fastened. Mobilization of the
infrastructure and logistical support for a large offshore wind farm is a significant
portion of the system cost.
Current estimates indicate that the cost of energy from offshore wind plants
is above $0.10/kWh and that the O&M costs are also higher than for land-based
turbines due to the difficulty of accessing turbines during storm conditions.
There are three logical pathways (Figure 12) representing progressive levels
of complexity and development that will lead to cost reductions and greater
offshore deployment potential. The first path is to lower costs and remove
deployment barriers for shallow water technology in water depths of 0 to 30 meters.
The second path is transitional depth technology, which is needed for depths where
current technology no longer works. This technology deals mostly with
substructures that are adapted from existing offshore oil and gas practices.
Transitional depths are defined to be 30 to 60 meters. The third path is to develop
technology for deep water, defined by depths between 60 and 900 meters. This
technology will probably use floating systems, which require more R&D to design
turbines that are lighter and can survive the added tower motion on anchored,
buoyant platforms.
The ultimate vision for offshore wind energy is that it would open up major
areas of the outer continental shelf to wind energy development. This would require
the use of deep water floating platforms that could be mass produced and
assembled in dry docks and then floated out and anchored without extensive
assembly at sea. Deep water technology also avoids the need for long-distance
transmission because the wind farms can be located much closer to load centers.

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New offshore technologies will be required to grow wind turbines into 5 to 10

MW sizes or greater. These technologies may include lightweight composite
materials and composite manufacturing, lightweight drive train, modular pole direct
drive generators, hybrid space frame towers, and large gearbox and bearing
designs that are tolerant of slower speeds and large scale. The cost of control
systems and sensors that monitor and diagnose turbine status and health will not
grow substantially as turbine size increases, and high reliability will be essential due
to the limited access during severe storm conditions, which can persist for extended
periods.
It is expected that over the next five years, one or more offshore wind farms
will be deployed in the United States. They will be installed in shallow water and
supply electricity to nearby onshore utilities serving large population centers. If they
are successful, the technology will develop more rapidly and the move to deep
water systems will progress at a more rapid rate. However, the path toward floating
systems must be supported by an extensive R&D program over a decade or more.

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SOLAR ENERGY
Every day, the sun radiates (sends out) an enormous amount of energycalled solar
energy. It radiates more energy in one day than the world uses in one year. This energy
comes from within the sun itself. Like most stars, the sun is a big gas ball made up mostly of
hydrogen and helium gas. The sun makes energy in its inner core in a process called
nuclear fusion. It takes the suns energy just a little over eight minutes to travel the 93
million miles to Earth. Solar energy travels at the speed of light, or 186,000 miles per
second, or 3.0 x 108 meters per second. Only a small part of the visible radiant energy
(light) that the sun emits into space ever reaches the Earth, but that is more than enough
to supply all our energy needs. Every hour enough solar energy reaches the Earth to
supply our nations energy needs for a year! Solar energy is considered a renewable
energy source due to this fact. Today, people use solar energy to heat buildings and water
and to generate electricity. Solar energy accounts for a very small percentage of U.S. energy
less than one percent. Solar energy is mostly used by residences and to generate
electricity.

Solar Collector
Heating with solar energy is not as easy as you might think. Capturing sunlight and
putting it to work is difficult because the solar energy that reaches the Earth is spread out
over a large area. The sun does not deliver that much energy to any one place at any one
time. The amount of solar energy an area receives depends on the time of day, the season

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of the year, the cloudiness of the sky, and how close you are to the Earths Equator. A solar
collector is one way to capture sunlight and change it into usable heat energy. A closed car
on a sunny day is like a solar collector. As sunlight passes through the cars windows, it is
absorbed by the seat covers, walls, and floor of the car. The absorbed light changes into
heat. The cars windows let light in, but they dont let all the heat out. A closed car can get
very hot!

Solar Spacing Heating

Space heating means heating the space inside a building. Today, many homes use
solar energy for space heating. A passive solar home is designed to let in as much
sunlight as possible. It is like a big solar collector. Sunlight passes through the windows
and heats the walls and floor inside the house. The light can get in, but the heat is
trapped inside. A passive solar home does not depend on mechanical equipment, such as
pumps and blowers, to heat the house, whereas active solar homes do.

Solar Water Heating

Solar energy can be used to heat water. Heating water for bathing, dishwashing, and
clothes washing is the second largest home energy cost. Installing a solar water heater can
reduce your water heating bill by as much as 50 percent. A solar water heater works a lot
like solar space heating. In our hemisphere, a solar collector is mounted on the south side of
a roof where it can capture sunlight. The sunlight heats water in a tank. The hot water is
piped to faucets throughout a house, just as it would be with an ordinary water heater.

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Solar Electricity
Solar energy can also be used to produce electricity. Two ways to make electricity from
solar energy are photovoltaics and solar thermal systems.
Photovoltaic Electricity. Photovoltaic comes from the words photo, meaning light, and
volt, a measurement of electricity. Sometimes photovoltaic cells are called PV cells or solar
cells for short. You are probably familiar with photovoltaic cells. Solar-powered toys,
calculators, and roadside telephone call boxes all use solar cells to convert sunlight into
electricity. Solar cells are made up of silicon, the same substance that makes up sand.
Silicon is the second most common substance on Earth. Solar cells can supply energy to
anything that is powered by batteries or electric power. Electricity is produced when
radiant energy from the sun strikes the solar cell, causing the electrons to move
around. The action of the electrons starts an electric current. The conversion of sunlight
into electricity takes place silently and instantly. There are no mechanical parts to wear
out. Compared to other ways of making electricity, photovoltaic systems are expensive and
many panels are needed to equal the electricity generated at other types of plants. It can
cost 10 to 30 cents per kilowatt-hour to produce electricity from solar cells. Most people
pay their electric companies about 12.5 cents per kilowatt-hour for the electricity they
use, and large industrial consumers pay less. Solar systems are often used to generate
electricity in remote areas that are a long way from electric power lines. In 2015, the Desert
Sunlight solar project in California opened. It is the largest photovoltaic plant in the world,
generating 550 megawatts of electricityenough to power over 150,000 homes.

Solar Thermal Electricity.Like solar cells, solar thermal systems, also called concentrated
solar power (CSP), use solar energy to produce electricity, but in a different way. Most
solar thermal systems use a solar collector with a mirrored surface to focus sunlight onto a
receiver that heats a liquid. The super-heated liquid is used to make steam to produce
electricity in the same way that coal plants do. There are CSP plants in California, Arizona,
Nevada, Florida, Colorado, and Hawaii. Some of the worlds largest CSP facilities are located
in California. Solar energy has great potential for the future. Solar energy is free, and its

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supplies are unlimited. It does not pollute or otherwise damage the environment. It cannot
be controlled by any one nation or industry. If we can improve the technology to harness the
suns enormous power, we may never face energy shortages again.

Brief History of Solar Energy

Solar technology isnt new. Its history spans from the 7th Century B.C. to today. We
started out concentrating the suns heat with glass and mirrors to light fires. Today, we have
everything from solar-powered buildings to solar-powered vehicles.

7th Century B.C.

Magnifying glass used to concentrate suns rays to make fire and to burn ants.

3rd Century B.C.

Greeks and Romans use burning mirrors to light torches for religious purposes.

2nd Century B.C.

As early as 212 BC, the Greek scientist, Archimedes, used the reflective properties of bronze
shields to focus sunlight and to set fire to wooden ships from the Roman Empire which were
besieging Syracuse. (Although no proof of such a feat exists, the Greek navy recreated the
experiment in 1973 and successfully set fire to a wooden boat at a distance of 50 meters.)

21

20 A.D.
Chinese document use of burning mirrors to light torches for religious purposes

1st to 4th Century A.D.

The famous Roman bathhouses in the first to fourth centuries A.D. had large south facing
windows to let in the suns warmth.

6th Century A.D.

Sunrooms on houses and public buildings were so common that the Justinian Code initiated
sun rights to ensure individual access to the sun.

1200s A.D.
Ancestors of Pueblo people called Anasazi in North America live in south-facing cliff
dwellings that capture the winter sun.

Different Type of Photovoltaic Systems and their Applications

Solar radiation. Electromagnetic energy emitted by the fusion of hydrogen content in the
sun. - On the solar surface to solar radiation is associated with a specific power output of
63.000 kW / m - Outside the Earth's atmosphere, the power incident on a unit area
perpendicular to the sun, has a value of about 1367 W / m ( 3% of the variability due to
ellipticity of Earth's orbit), this value is called the Solar constant - On the surface of the
Earth, at sea level, under optimum conditions and sun at noon, the power density is about
1000 W / m - The measurement of solar radiation is made by an instrument called a
pyranometer.
Photovoltaic Effect. The conversion of solar radiation into electrical energy takes place
by exploiting the effect induced by a luminous flux which invests a semiconductor
material 'doped', very often silicon. This physical phenomenon is what occurs in
photovoltaic cells.

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Conversion Efficiency. The energy exploited depends on the characteristics of the

material of the cell: the conversion efficiency (percentage of energy contained in the
solar radiation that is converted into electricity available at terminals) for commercial
silicon cells is typically between 10% and 17%, while laboratory cells have reached
values of 24%.

Different PV Technologies
The majority of solar cells is costituted by silicon semiconductors. The reason is
that silicon, unlike of other semiconductors, is avaible on our planet in unlimited
quantity.

Monocrystalline Pronounced. "Mono-Crystal-Line" Mono is the traditional checkered type

solar panel which have been commercially developed since the 1960's. These panels
tend to have the best space efficiency, meaning they take up less space than the
other technologies (a great advantage if you want to generate lots of power). The
cells in monocrystalline modules are made by a single silicon crystal. This crystal is
cut into wafers roughly 0.2mm thick before the wafers are chemically treated and

23

electrical contacts added. The fact that they are cut from a single crystal means that
they are highly efficient, with modules in production converting up to 15% of the
energy from the sun into electricity, and test models over 20%.

Policrystalline. Pronounced "Poli-Crystal-Line". Poly panels have been in mass production

since the late 70's and have become more popular over time. They're the 'blue
sparkling' looking panels. Traditionally their goal was to be more cost effective than
Monocrystalline, which at one stage did happen (However it is now again 'neck &
neck'). Polycrystalline (also known as multicrystalline) modules are made from cells
containing lots of small silicon crystals. This makes them cheaper to produce but also
slightly less efficient than monocrystalline modules. The many small crystals give
polycrystalline modules a frosted look.

24

Thin Film Silicon (Amorphous).

Thin-Film OR "A-more-fus" panels
are the latest panels to be mass produced (this however does not necessarily make
them the best). Since the 80's Thin film has been used in calculators and watches
because they perform better than others in low light. Thin film panels however take
up almost DOUBLE the space of other panels, which can be a problem is you need
to avoid areas or want to have a big system. While the 0.2mm wafers in crystalline
cells are already incredibly thin, the layers making up thin-film modules are about 40
times thinner than a strand of human hair, at just 2 microns (a micron is onemillionth of a meter). The layers can be deposited on glass forming a panel similar
to crystalline modules, but many other materials.

Hybrid Silicon (Monocrystalline/Thin-Film ). The production of hybrid panels has only

been in the last 5 years. Hybrid panels are a mixture between Monocrystalline and
Thin-Film (Amorphous) panels. This is usually mainly a Mono panel with a backing of
Thin-Film to boost the average energy. However, now Thin-Film manufacturers are
trying to introduce Mono cells into their panels to make them more space efficient.

25

BIOENERGY
INTRODUCTION
The role of renewable energy sources (RES) in the energy production is
growing. This is partly a consequence of political decisions to promote RES
26

and recent technology advancements especially in solar panels and wind

turbines. Moreover, in countries like Finland, where bio-economy has
traditionally played a strong role, the effort has also focused on new ways to
exploit bio-based energy. The increasing amount of solar and wind power
production typically leads to a situation where the power balance may
fluctuate significantly over a short period of time.
This can be problematic for the electrical power system if the power
production or consumption cannot be controlled. Thus, the electrical system
has to contain reserve power capacity and/or demand response, which can
respond to a deficiency in power production or overproduction. This can be
arranged by using power plants that can be adjusted according to the
required power. Moreover, to be able to quickly increase the power
production, the power plant cannot initially be driven with full electrical
power.
This is carried out by regulating the reduction valve, in other words,
changing the power-to-heat ratio by letting a certain part of steam to pass
the turbine. This can take place when it is predictable that the need for quick
ramping is about to arise. A small, continuous reduction is also possible.

BIOENERGY RESOURCES
Bioenergy is renewable energy made available from materials derived
from biological sources. Biomass is any organic material which has stored
sunlight in the form of chemical energy. As a fuel it may include wood, wood
waste, straw, manure, sugarcane, and many other by products from a variety
of agricultural processes. By 2010, there was 35 GW (47, 000, 000 hp) of
globally installed bioenergy capacity for electricity generation, of which 7 GW
(9, 400, 000 hp) was in the United States.
We have used biomass energy or bioenergy the energy from organic
matter for thousands of years, ever since people started burning wood to
cook food or to keep warm.
And today, wood is still our largest biomass energy resources. But many
other sources of biomass can now be used, including plants, residues from
agriculture or forestry, and the organic component of municipal and
industrial wastes. Even the fumes from landfills can be used as a biomass
energy source.
The use of biomass energy has the potential to greatly reduce our
greenhouse gas emissions. Biomass generates about the same amount of
carbon dioxide as fossil fuels, but every time a new plant grows, carbon
dioxide is actually removed from the atmosphere. The net emission of carbon
dioxide will be zero as long as plants continue to replenish for biomass
27

energy purposes. These energy crops, such as fast-growing trees and

grasses, are called biomass feedstock. The use of biomass feedstocks can
also help increase profits for the agricultural industry.
Biomass Energy Technology applications:
Biofuels: Converting biomass into liquid fuels for transportation.
Biopower: Burning biomass directly, or converting it into a gaseous
fuel or oil, to generate electricity.
Bioproducts: Converting Biomass into chemicals for making products
that typically are made from petroleum.

CURRENT APPLICATION AND CONVERSION OF TECHNOLOGIES

Bioenergy value chain from a technological perspective. This is the
overview of advantages and disadvantages, as well as status and
development trends in the Nordic countries for each of the main bioenergy
value chain components. This terminates with a view on the strongholds of
each of the Nordic countries in terms of production and application of
bioenergy technology.
The bioenergy value chain can be divided in different various ways and
along different concepts. In the Nordic Bioenergy Project, we have chosen a
technological perspective, breaking up the transformation and conversion
phases of the process.
Bioenergy in the Nordic bioenergy Project covers all areas of the
bioenergy field with the exception of peat. This means processing of raw
materials from forestry and agriculture as well as waste from wastewater
treatment plants, industrial and municipal waste and manure. The processed
biomass material can be transformed through various technologies such as
solid fuel combustion, thermal gasification and pyrolysis, biogas technology,
fermentation and esterification. The output from this transformation can be
converted to the final energy use through various types of boilers and
engines, from district heating boilers to gas turbines and fuel cells. The final
energy use covers heating, electricity and transportation. Figure 2.1 shows
an overview of the four main parts of the bioenergy value chain from a
technology perspective.
Figure 2.1 Overview of the Bioenergy Value Chain

28

The connections along the bioenergy value chain are numerous. For
instance, wastewater sludge can be utilised in solid fuel combustion and in
an anaerobic process for biogas production. The transformation of the
sewage sludge from solid fuel combustion can be applied in district heating
boilers or in steam turbines, while the biogas can be applied in stationary
engines, gas turbines, in fuel cells or automotive engines.

Processing of Raw Materials

Processing of raw materials comprises:

Firewood
Wood chips
Wood briquettes and wood pellets
Herbaceous biomass
29

Energy crops
Oil seeds
Municipal solid waste
Wet biomass

FIrewood

Firewood is split (normally at lengths 15-35 cm), round or chopped

wood from delimbed stems, cut-off root ends, and tops and branches.
Firewood is obtained primarily in hardwood stands by thinning and timber
harvesting.

Wood chips
Wood chips result from thinnings in immature stands, from timber
harvesting, and from over mature and partly damaged plantations. Wood
chips are comminuted wood in lengths of 5-50 mm in the fibre direction,
longer twigs (slivers), and a fine fraction (fines). Wood-chips are often traded
in two size qualities, coarse and fine. An overriding issue is the potential
conflicts with other (human or natural) uses of marine areas, if marine
biomass is cultivated intentionally.

Figure 3.1 Wood chips value chain

30

The production of forest chips consists of several stages: Felling,

summer drying, chipping, off-road hauling, storage, road transport.
Felling of trees usually takes place in the first three months of the year
to ensure that the wood chips produced are as dry as possible. The moisture
content of the trees is lowest from January to March, and the trees are then
left in the area for the summer. The moisture content in wood chips is thus
reduced from 50-55per cent to 35-45per cent. Also, a large part of the
nutrients in the trees contained in the needles, leaves and small branches
remains in the area.
Figure 3.2 Wood Disc Chipper

A chipper consists of a self-propelled basic machine with cabin,

chipper, in-feed opening, and crane equipment mounted at the front end.
The disc chipper, which produces a rather uniform size, is the most common
type of chipper.

Wood briquettes and wood pellets

Briquettes and pellets (together termed densified biomass) consist of

dry, comminuted wood, primarily consisting of compressed shavings and
sawdust. Pellets are produced by forcing pulverized material through a die
under high pressure (picture at left).

31

Wood briquettes are square or cylindrical fuels in lengths of 10-30 cm

and a diameter of 6-12 cm.
Wood pellets are cylindrical in lengths of 5-40 mm and a diameter of 812 mm.

Figure 3.3 Automatic pellets feeding system for residential heating.

Note: A large tank (outdoor, in garage or in basement) is refilled every 2-3 months. From
here the pellets are transported by screw conveyor directly to the burner (as in the figure) or
to a smaller intermediate indoor store

Herbaceous biomass
Straw is usually delivered in 500 kg Hesston bales (15 GJ/tonnes) to
CHP and district heating plants. Compared to coal the energy density is
about 9 times lower (per volume unit; about 2 times per weight unit). The
bales are most commonly shredded and fed by stoker screws.
For smaller applications, e.g. farm-scale systems, small bales (approx.
12 kg) are often used.

Energy crops
Energy plantation (energy crops) may be annual crops, such as cereal
grain and rape, or perennial crops, as willow, elephant grass, and reed
canary grass.
32

All energy crops may be used in combustion processes. Some annual

crops may also be used as feedstock for production of liquid biofuels or for
biogas production.
Perennial crops cannot be harvested from the very beginning; for
willow the first harvesting takes place 3-4 years after planting, when the
willow shoots are approximately 6 metres high.

Oil seeds
Primary oil seed crops in Europe are rape and sunflower.
In the oil mill, the rapeseed is crushed, and oil extracted by steam and
hexane. The by-products are rapeseed cake, a high-protein animal feed, and
glycerine. The next step is purification, in which acidity is neutralized and the
oil clarified.

Municipal solid waste

Municipal solid waste can be disposed of in several ways, e.g.
incineration (mass burning), landfills, and out separation of usable materials.
Development trends and challenges (incineration):

Pre-treatment (refuse derived fuel) to produce a storable and tradable

fuel.
Pre-separation (increasing the energy content by removing inert
materials).
Increase the steam temperature and thereby the electricity efficiency.

Wet biomass
Wet biomass, such as wastewater sludge, animal manure and several
types of residues from food processing industries, may be used as source for
production of biogas (cf. Municipal solid waste).

Transformation
Transformation processes comprise:

Combustion
Co-firing
Thermal gasification
Anaerobic digestion (producing biogas)
Landfill gas
Bioethanol (fermentation)
Biodiesel
33

Biorefinery

Combustion
Combustion can be applied for biomass feedstocks with moisture
contents up to at least 60per cent. Wood is usually the most favourable bio
fuel for combustion due to its low content of ash and nitrogen.
To produce hot water or steam different furnace technologies are
available: Grate firing, suspension firing, and fluidised bed. Grate combustion
is very robust with regard to using varying types of biomass.
For a straw district heating plant, the storage is quite space
consuming. Usually a crane lifts the bales onto a straw conveyor. The bales
are then chaff cut, shredded (brings the straw back to the condition before
baling), sliced or fed into the combustion as whole bales.

Figure 4.1 MW Chip-fired Boiler for District Heating.

Note: Example from Thyborn, Denmark. Flue-gas condensation is employed. Producer:

Vlund Systems, Denmark

Suspension firing (large plants): All fuel is grinded, blown into the
furnace and burned while flying. A major advantage with suspension firing is
that it can be applied in existing coal-fired power plants at a much lower cost
than building new power plants.
Fluidized bed combustion, which is primarily used in industrial plants
and power plants, suspends solid fuels in upward-blowing jets of air, creating
a turbulent mixing of gas and solids. The tumbling provides effective
chemical reactions and heat transfer, and allows capture of harmful
substances (e.g. sulfur and chlorine). The amount of inert bed material is
very large in comparison to that of the fuel. The large heat capacity of the
bed material stabilises the combustion process.

34

Figure 4.2 A circulating fluidised bed boiler (91 MW) of Fortum (Finland) in
Hgdalen, Sweden,

Note: The difference between the bubbling fluidised bed combustor (BFB) and the circulating
fluidised bed combustor (CFB) is the velocity of the air flow. In a BFB combustor air velocity
is low, and the particles behave like a boiling fluid but stay in the bed. In a CFB combustor
air velocity is higher, and a large proportion of the bed material leaves the bed and is
collected by cyclone separators before recirculation to the bed.

Co-firing
In a co-firing plant biomass is used in combination with another fuel,
typically coal.
In suspension firing (cf. paragraph above on combustion), which is the
preferred option in Denmark, biomass constitutes 10-15per cent of the fuel.
Another solution, which is used in Finland, is to gasify the biomass in a
separate gasifier and then co-fire the cleaned product gas in existing
pulverised coal fired or fluidised bed boilers.

Thermal gasification
A solid biomass fuel is converted into gas (producer gas or syngas),
which can be used in gas engines, boilers, gas turbines or fuel cells for power
and heat production. Syngas may also be used to produce a liquid fuel for
vehicles.
The biomass is converted through several stages. Up to 100C the
water is vaporized. By pyrolysis2 the dry fuel is converted to a tarry gas and
a char residue. Subsequently, the char residue is gasified at 800-1200C,
while water vapour and/or oxygen (air) is
In the downdraft gasifier, the fuel is fed from the top, moving to the
bottom, while the air is injected in the middle section or from the top and
35

passes downwards in the same direction as both the fuel and the developed
gasses.
Figure 4.3 Diagram of the Gas Generator Principle

Note: A: Downdraft gasifier. B: Updraft gasifier.

The pyrolysis process can be with either internal or external heating.

Internal heating is performed by addition of air/oxygen, while external
heating utilises waste heat from the produced gas and from the engine to
dry and pyrolyse the fuel.

Figure 4.4 A small-scale gasifier CHP plant, Kokemki, Finland.

Note: The Novel gasifier is a fixed-bed type with forced fuel flow, which makes it suitable for
low-bulk-density fibrous biomass fuels. The gasifier can be operated with a wide range of
biomass residues with moisture contents from 0 to 55per cent and a particle size from
sawdust to large chips. The plant is equipped with a complete gas-cleaning train consisting
of a gas reformer, filter and scrubber. Three 0.6 MWe engines generate electricity. The
gasifier was supplied by Condens Oy and VTT.

36

Anaerobic digestion (producing biogas)

Biogas plants may be single-farm units or centralized plants. In a
centralized plant, animal manure from a number of farms and organic waste
from food processing and other industries are transported to a plant. Energy
crops (e.g. corn silage) may also be used as feedstock. At the plant, the
biomass is treated in an anaerobic process, which generates biogas. The
biogas may be used as fuel in an engine, which produces electricity and
heat, or as fuel for vehicles. The digested biomass may be used as fertilizer
in crop production.

Figure 4.5 Main Features of a Centralized Biogas Plant.

Note: Slurry and organic waste is transported to pre-storage tanks, then led into the
digesters. The digested manure is used as fertilizer, while the biogas is used in a CHP plant.
Lemvig Biogas Plant, Denmark. Source: "Update on Centralized Biogas Plants", Danish
Energy Agency, October 1992.

Biogas may also be produced from wastewater treatment plants, the

organic fraction of household waste and landfill sites.

Landfill gas
Extraction of landfill gas (primarily methane and CO2) through a
system of vertical and/or horizontal pipes, cleaning of the gas and
connecting the gas to the end-user. Typically, the gas is used in an engine for
electricity generation.

Fermentation (bioethanol)
Bioethanol may be produced from sugar and starch crops, essentially
as alcohol has been manufactured since the dawn of human existence. Sugar
may be fermented right-away, whereas starch needs be turned into sugar
(hydrolysis3) before fermentation. These processes are often called first
generation biofuel.
37

Ethanol produced from lignocellulosic materials (agricultural residues,

wood, forestry residues and biodegradable fraction of municipal solid waste
and perennial annual crops) is called second generation bioethanol. The
process, Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF), breaks down
cellulose and hemicellulose into sugars and can in principle be applied to all
cellulosic materials.

Biodiesel
Esterification of vegetable oil, i.e. the reaction of the organic acids with
an alcohol, is one way to produce biodiesel. This is essential to ensure the
resulting fuel is stable. Today methanol is used as it is abundantly available
and cheap. Other alcohols, particularly bio-ethanol can be used, in principle.
The resulting fatty acid methyl ester (biodiesel) may be mixed with fossil
diesel oil.
Hydrogenation, the addition of hydrogen to convert alkenes to
alkanes4, is another method, producing a stable fuel with better properties
than even petrodiesel.

Biorefinery
The biorefinery concept aims at maximising the value derived from
biomass feedstock by using all of its components. A biorefinery is a
processing plant, which integrates biomass fractionation and conversion
processes to produce energy (fuels, power, and heat) and bio-products
(chemicals, pharmaceutical materials etc.). A biorefinery might, for example,
produce one or several low-volume, but high-value, chemical products and a
low-value, but high-volume liquid transportation fuel, while generating
electricity and process heat for its own use and perhaps enough for sale of
electricity. A biorefinery is analogous to today's petroleum refineries, which
produce multiple fuels and products from petroleum.
A key challenge is to primarily use feedstocks, which have no potential
value as food or fodder, e.g. residues from agriculture and forestry and other
organic waste materials. Both in fractionating the feedstocks and in
composing the end-products, as second generation bio-ethanol and biodiesel, advanced bio-engineering would be instrumental. This may involve
the use of enzymes, but also the perspective of applying nanotechnology has
recently attracted much attention.

Conversion
Conversion technologies comprise:

Household stoves and boilers

District Heating
Steam power plants
38

Gas turbines
Gas engines
Fuel cells
Biofuel use in transport

Household stoves and boilers

Households primarily use open fireplaces and stoves to burn firewood,
otherwise bio-pellets or wood-chips in boilers. Small boilers are either
manually or automatically fired.

District heating
If the moisture content of the fuel is above 30-35per cent, flue gas
condensation should be employed. Thereby the thermal efficiency usually
exceeds 100per cent (based on lower heating value).

Steam power plants

Steam-cycle units with either 100per cent biomass or a mixture of two
fuels, i.e. 10-20per cent biomass and 80-90per cent coal (co-firing). The
major components are: Fuel treatment and feed-in system, high-pressure
steam boiler, extraction or back-pressure steam turbine (for cogeneration
heat and power - CHP), generator and flue-gas heat recovery boiler (hot
water or steam).
Industrial plants typically deliver heat at higher temperatures than
district heating plants and therefore have lower electricity efficiencies. Also,
industrial plants are often cheaper in initial investment and O&M, among
others because they are designed for shorter technical lifetimes, with less
redundancy, low-cost buildings etc.

Figure 5.1 Straw-fired CHP.

39

Note: The flue gas passes through the combustion chamber to the superheater section and
further through an economiser and air preheater and is cleaned in a bag filter before being
released through the chimney. Source: Centre for Biomass Technology, Denmark (1998).

Gas turbines
The major components are: Industrial (also called heavy duty) or aeroderivative single-cycle gas turbine, gear (when needed), and generator. For
combined heat and power production a heat recovery boiler (hot water or
steam) is also needed.
Aero-derivative turbines have generally higher efficiency than
industrial ones. Industrial gas turbines have higher flue gas temperatures
and longer intervals between services compared to the aero-derivatives.
However the most service-demanding module of the aero-derivative gas
turbine normally can be exchanged in a couple of days thus keeping a high
availability of the machine.
For larger units, above 10-15 MW, the combined cycle technology has
so far been more attractive, when used as cogeneration plants for district
heating.
Figure 5.2 Principles in Combined Cycle Gas Turbine.

Note: Two power generation cycles are combined: A gas turbine cycle, lower left part of
figure (compressor, combustion chamber and gas turbine), and a steam cycle, upper and
right part of figure. The hot exhaust gas, which leaves the gas turbine, is used as energy
source for the steam cycle. In this case the gas turbine, the steam turbine and the electricity
generator share the same shaft. The two turbines may also drive separate generators.

40

A few gas turbines are equipped with an integrated recuperator

(preheating of combustion air) to increase efficiency - at the expense of the
exhaust gas temperature in the heat recovery boiler.
Typical fuels are natural gas and light oil. Some gas turbines can be
fuelled with other fuels such as LPG, biogas etc., and some gas turbines are
available in dual-fuel versions (gas/oil).
1 Engines
An engine drives an electricity generator, whereas engine cooling and
exhaust gas can be used for heat generation, e.g. for district heating or lowpressure steam.
Generally, there are two types of engines: Spark ignition engines
(gasoline, gas, bioethanol) and dual-fuel engines (petrodiesel, biodiesel).
Spark ignition engines are commonly categorized according to the
air/fuel-ratio:

In stoichiometric combustion the amount of air is just sufficient for

(theoretically) complete combustion. This is employed in engines with
3-way catalysts.
Lean-burn engines have a high air/fuel-ratio. The combustion
temperature and hence the NOx emission is thereby reduced. The
engines are at times equipped with oxidation catalysts for COreduction. Engines with air/fuel ratios above 1.8 are ignited by a flame
in a precombustion chamber (prechamber engines). These usually
require a gas inlet pressure of 3.5 4 bar.

A dual-fuel engine is a gas engine that - instead of spark plugs - uses a

small amount of oil (3 12 per cent) to ignite the air-gas mix by compression
(similar to the diesel engine). Low-pressure dual-fuel engines are more robust
with regards to gasses with low octane values or low heating values than
spark ignition engines. High-pressure dual-fuel engines can principally
operate on any gas, regardless of methane content.
Eight out of ten of cars in Brasil have so-called flex-fuel engines, which
can use any blend of gasoline and ethanol.

Biofuel use in transport

Bio-ethanol is primarily used to replace gasoline in spark ignition
engines, although it may also be mixed with fossil diesel for use in diesel
engines.

41

Bio-diesel, which is an oil product, is used in diesel engines only. Biodiesel may be produced from oil seeds (cf. paragraph 3) or from solid
biomass through pyrolysis (cf. paragraph 4, thermal gasification).
Biogas or landfill gas is primarily used in spark ignition engines.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
HISTORY

History says that the first use of geothermal

energy occurred more than 10,000 years ago in North
America by American Paleo-Indians. People used
water from hot springs for cooking, bathing and
cleaning. The first industrial use of geothermal
energy began near Pisa, Italy in late 18th century.
Steam coming from natural vents (and from drilled
holes) was used to extract boric acid from the hot
pools that are now known as the Larderello fields.
In 1904, Italian scientist Piero Ginori Conti (as
shown) invented the first geothermal electric power
plant in which steam was used to generate the
power. With the above experiment, the first
geothermal plant in USA started in 1922 with a
capacity of 250 kilowatts. It produced little output
and due to technical glitch had to be shut down. However, in 1946 first groundsource geothermal heat pump installed at Commonwealth Building in Portland,
Oregon
During the 1960s, pacific gas and electric began operation of first large
scale geothermal power plant in San Francisco, producing 11 megawatts. Today there
are more than 60 geothermal power plants operating in USA at 18 sites across the
country.
In 1973, when oil crisis began many countries began looking for renewable
energy sources and by 1980sgeothermal heat pumps (GHP) started gaining
popularity in order to reduce heating and cooling costs. As effect of climate change
started showing results, governments of various countries joined hands to fight
against it, for which Kyoto Protocol was signed in Japan in 1997, laid out emission
targets for rich countries and required that they transfer funds and technology to
developing countries, 184 countries have ratified it.

42

 HOW GEOTHERMAL ENERGY WORKS

The word geothermal comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and therme
(heat). So, geothermal energy is heat from within the earth. We can use the steam
and hot water produced inside the earth to heat buildings or generate electricity.
Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source because the water is replenished by
rainfall and the heat is continuously produced inside the earth.
Geothermal energy is generated in the earth's core, about 4,000 miles below
the surface. Temperatures hotter than the sun's surface are continuously produced
inside the earth by the slow decay of radioactive particles, a process that happens in
all rocks. The earth has a number of different layers: The core itself has two layers: a
solid iron core and an outer core made of very hot melted rock, called magma.
The mantle which surrounds the core and is about 1,800 miles thick. It is
made up of magma and rock. The crust is the outermost layer of the earth, the land
that forms the continents and ocean floors. It can be three to five miles thick under
the oceans and 15 to 35 miles thick on the continents.
The earth's crust is broken into pieces called plates.
Magma comes close to the earth's surface near the edges of
these plates. This is where volcanoes occur. The lava that
erupts from volcanoes is partly magma. Deep underground,
the rocks and water absorb the heat from this magma. The
temperature of the rocks and water get hotter and hotter as
you go deeper underground. People around the world use
geothermal energy to heat their homes and to produce
electricity by digging deep wells and pumping the heated
underground water or steam to the surface. Or, we can make
use of the stable temperatures near the surface of the earth to heat and cool
buildings.
Most geothermal reservoirs are deep underground with no visible clues
showing above ground. Geothermal energy can sometimes find its way to the surface
in the form of: volcanoes and fumaroles (holes where volcanic gases are released)
hot springs and geysers. The most active geothermal resources are usually found
along major plate boundaries where earthquakes and volcanoes are concentrated.
Most of the geothermal activity in the world occurs in an area called the Ring
of Fire (as shown). This area rims the Pacific Ocean. When magma comes close to the
surface it heats ground water found trapped in porous rock or water running along
fractured rock surfaces and faults. Such hydrothermal resources have two common
ingredients: water (hydro) and heat (thermal). Naturally occurring large areas of
hydrothermal resources are called geothermal reservoirs. Geologists use different
methods to look for geothermal reservoirs. Drilling a well and testing the temperature
deep underground is the only way to be sure a geothermal reservoir really exists.
Most of the geothermal reservoirs in the United States are located in the western
states, Alaska, and Hawaii. California is the state that generates the most electricity

43

from geothermal energy. The Geysers dry steam

reservoir in northern California is the largest
known dry steam field in the world. The field has
been producing electricity since 1960.

USES OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Some applications of geothermal energy use the earth's temperatures near

the surface, while others require drilling miles into the earth. The three main uses of
geothermal energy are:

1) Direct Use and District Heating Systems which use hot water from
springs or reservoirs near the surface.
2) Electricity generation in a power plant requires water or steam at very
high temperature (300 to 700 degrees Fahrenheit). Geothermal power plants
are generally built where geothermal reservoirs are located within a mile or
two of the surface.
3) Geothermal heat pumps use stable ground or water temperatures near
the earth's surface to control building temperatures above ground.

GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS

Geothermal power plants use hydrothermal resources which have two

common ingredients: water (hydro) and heat (thermal). Geothermal plants require
high temperature (300 to 700 degrees Fahrenheit) hydrothermal resources that may
come from either dry steam wells or hot water wells. We can use these resources by
drilling wells into the earth and piping the steam or hot water to the surface.
Geothermal wells are one to two miles deep.

The United States generates more geothermal electricity than any other
country but the amount of electricity it produces is less than one-half of a percent of
electricity produced in United States. Only four states have geothermal power plants:

44

1. California - has 33 geothermal power plants that produce almost 90

percent of the nation's geothermal electricity.
2. Nevada - has 14 geothermal power plants.
3. Hawaii and Utah - each have one geothermal plant

BASIC TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS

1. Dry steam plants - use steam piped

directly from a geothermal reservoir to turn
the generator turbines. The first geothermal
power plant was built in 1904 in Tuscany,
Italy at a place where natural steam was
erupting from the earth.

2. Flash steam plants - take high-pressure

hot water from deep inside the earth and
convert it to steam to drive the generator
turbines. When the steam cools, it
condenses to water and is injected back into
the ground to be used over and over again.
Most geothermal power plants are flash
plants.

45

3. Binary power plants - transfer the heat

from geothermal hot water to another
liquid. The heat causes the second liquid to
turn to steam which is used to drive a
generator turbine.

LIST OF GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS IN THE PHILIPPINES

Station

BacMan Geothermal
Production Field Energy
Development Corporation

Capac
ity
(MW)

Commission
ed

1979

46

Community

Sorsogon City,
Sorsogon

Status

Operation
al

BacMan 1 Geothermal
Power Station Energy
Development Corporation
BacMan 2 Geothermal
Power Station Energy
Development Corporation
Leyte Geothermal
Production Field Energy
Development Corporation
Malitbog Geothermal
Power Station
Upper Mahiao Geothermal
Power Station
Mahanagdong Geothermal
Power Station
Leyte Optimization
Geothermal Power Station

120

1993

Sorsogon City,
Sorsogon

Operation
al

20

1995

Sorsogon City,
Sorsogon

Operation
al

1975

Operation
al

232.5

1996

125

1996

180

1997

Kananga, Leyte
and Ormoc
City, Leyte
Malitbog, Tongonan
, Kananga, Leyte
Limao, Kananga,
Leyte
Ormoc City, Leyte

50.9

1997

Tongonan Geothermal
Power Plant
Mindanao Geothermal
Production Field Energy
Development Corporation

112.5

1982

1987

Mindanao 1 Geothermal
Power Plant

52

1997

Mindanao 2 Geothermal
Power Plant

54

1999

Southern Negros
Geothermal Production
Field Energy Development
Corporation
Palinpinon 1 Geothermal
Power Plant
Palinpinon 2 Geothermal
Power Plant
Nasulo Geothermal Power
Plant
Tiwi Geothermal Power
Plant
Maibarara Geothermal
Power Plant
Makiling-Banahaw (MakBan) Geothermal Power
Plant
Ampiro Geothermal Power
Project
Mt. Sibulan-Kapatagan
Geothermal Power Project
Balatukan-Balingasag
Geothermal Prospect
Lakewood Geothermal
Prospect
Montelgao Power Plant

1983, 1993 1994, 1995

112.5

49.4

1983,
1994,
1983,
1994,
2015

275

1979

20

2014

480

1979, 1980,
1984, 1996

Operation
al

Operation
al

Operation
al

Santo Tomas,
Batangas
Brgy. Bitin, Bay,
Laguna

30

Misamis Occidental

Proposed

300

Davao del Sur

Proposed

40

Balingasag, Misami
s Oriental
Lakewood, Zamboa
nga del Sur
Oriental Mindoro

Proposed

40
44

2016

47

Valencia, Negros
Oriental
Valencia, Negros
Oriental
Valencia, Negros
Oriental
Tiwi, Albay

Operation
al
Operation
al

Operation
al
Operation
al
Operation
al
Operation
al
Operation
al
Operation
al

60

1993 1995
1993 1995

Tongonan and
Limao, Kananga,
Leyte
Limao, Kananga,
Leyte,Leyte
Mount
Apo, Kidapawan
City,North
Cotabato
Mount
Apo, Kidapawan
City,North
Cotabato
Mount
Apo, Kidapawan
City,North
Cotabato
Valencia, Negros
Oriental

Operation
al
Operation
al
Operation
al
Operation
al

Proposed
Operation

Biliran Geothermal Plant

49

2016

Biliran

al
Under
Constructi
on

PHOTOS OF SOME GEOTHEMAL POWER PLANT IN THE PHILIPPINES

1. BacMan Geothermal Production Field Energy Development

Corporation

2. Leyte Geothermal Production Field Energy Development

Corporation

3. Matibog Geothermal Power Station

48

4. Mahanagdong Geothermal Power Station

5. Togonan Geothermal Power Plant

6. Mindanao Geothermal Production Field Energy Development

Corporation

49

7. Tiwi Geothermal Power Plant

8. Maibarara Geothermal Power Plant

9. Makiling-Banahaw Geothermal Power Plant

50

HYDOERELECTRICITY
Hydroelectricity is electricity produced from hydropower. In 2015
hydropower generated 16.6% of the world's total electricity and 70% of all
renewable electricity, and was expected to increase about 3.1% each year
for the next 25 years.

Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region

generating 33 percent of global hydropower in 2013. China is the largest
hydroelectricity producer, with 920 TWh of production in 2013, representing
16.9 percent of domestic electricity use.

The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a competitive

source of renewable electricity. The hydro station consumes no water, unlike
coal or gas plants. The average cost of electricity from a hydro station larger
than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour. With a dam and
reservoir it is also a flexible source of electricity since the amount produced
by the station can be changed up or down very quickly to adapt to changing
energy demands. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project
produces no direct waste, and has a considerably lower output level of
greenhouse gases than fossil fuel powered energy plants
falling water into mechanical
energy. Then a generator converts
the mechanical energy from the
turbine into electrical energy.

How Hydropower works

Hydropower plants capture
the energy of falling water to
generate electricity. A turbine
converts the kinetic energy of

Hydroplants range in size

from "micro-hydros" that power
51

only a few homes to giant dams

like Hoover Dam that provide
electricity for millions of people.

on the Wisconsin River, a mediumsized plant that produces enough

electricity to serve about 8,000
people.

The photo on the right shows

the Alexander Hydroelectric Plant

52

Parts of Hydroelectric Plant

Most conventional hydroelectric plants include four major components (see
graphic below):
1. Dam. Raises the water level of the river to create falling water. Also
controls the flow of water. The reservoir that is formed is, in effect,
stored energy.
2. Turbine. The force of falling water pushing against the turbine's
blades causes the turbine to spin. A water turbine is much like a
windmill, except the energy is provided by falling water instead of
wind. The turbine converts the kinetic energy of falling water into
mechanical energy.
3. Generator. Connected to the turbine by shafts and possibly gears so
when the turbine spins it causes the generator to spin also. Converts
the mechanical energy from the turbine into electric energy.
Generators in hydropower plants work just like the generators in other
types of power plants.
4. Transmission lines. Conduct electricity from the hydropower plant to
homes and business.

WAVE POWER
Ocean wave energy is captured directly from surface waves or from
pressure fluctuations below the surface.
Waves are caused by the wind blowing over the surface of the ocean.
In many areas of the world, the wind blows with enough consistency and
force to provide continuous waves along the shoreline.Ocean waves contain
tremendous energy potential. Wave power devices extract energy from the
surface motion of ocean waves or from pressure fluctuations below the
surface. A machine able to exploit wave power is generally known as a wave
energy converter (WEC).
As long as the waves propagate slower than the wind speed just above
the waves, there is an energy transfer from the wind to the waves. Both air
pressure differences between the upwind and the lee side of a wave crest, as
well as friction on the water surface by the wind, making the water to go into
the shear stress causes the growth of the waves.
Wave height is determined by wind speed, the duration of time the
wind has been blowing, fetch (the distance over which the wind excites the
waves) and by the depth and topography of the seafloor (which can focus or
disperse the energy of the waves). A given wind speed has a matching
practical limit over which time or distance will not produce larger waves.
When this limit has been reached the sea is said to be "fully developed".
In general, larger waves are more powerful but wave power is also
determined by wave speed, wavelength, and water density.
Oscillatory motion is highest at the surface and diminishes
exponentially with depth. However, for standing waves (clapotis) near a
reflecting coast, wave energy is also present as pressure oscillations at great
depth, producing microseisms. These pressure fluctuations at greater depth
are too small to be interesting from the point of view of wave power.
The waves propagate on the ocean surface, and the wave energy is
also transported horizontally with the group velocity. The mean transport
rate of the wave energy through a vertical plane of unit width, parallel to a
wave crest, is called the wave energy flux (or wave power, which must not
be confused with the actual power generated by a wave power device).

Wave power varies considerably in different parts of the world. Areas of

the world with abundant wave power resource include the western coasts of
Scotland, northern Canada, southern Africa, Australia, and the northwestern
coast of the United States, particularly Alaska.
Whereas wind resource potential is typically given in gigawatts (GW),
wave and tidal resource potential is typically given in terawatt-hours/year
(TWh/yr). The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) has completed a
recent analysis of the U.S. wave energy resource potential. EPRI estimates
the total wave energy resource along the outer continental shelf at 2,640
TWh/yr. That is an enormous potential, considering that just 1 TWh/yr of
energy will supply around 93,850 average U.S. homes with power annually.
While an abundance of wave energy is available, it cannot be fully harnessed
everywhere for a variety of reasons, such as other competing uses of the
ocean (i.e. shipping, commercial fishing, naval operations) or environmental
concerns in sensitive areas. Therefore, it is important to consider how much
resource is recoverable in a given region. EPRI estimates that the total
recoverable resource along the U.S. shelf edge is 1,170 TWh/yr, which is
almost one third of the 4,000 TWh of electricity used in the United States
each year.

History of Wave Power

1799
First patent of a device designed to use ocean waves to generate power.

1910
An early application of wave power was a device constructed by Bochaux-Praceique to
light and power his house at Royan, near Bordeaux in France. It appears that this was
the first oscillating water-column type of wave-energy device.

1940

Modern scientific pursuit of wave energy was pioneered by Yoshio Masuda's

experiments.

1950
Among of Yoshio Masudas experiments was the concept of extracting power from the
angular motion at the joints of an articulated raft.

1973
A renewed interest in wave energy was motivated by the oil crisis. A number of
university researchers re-examined the potential to generate energy from ocean waves.

1974
Stephen Salter's invention became known as Salter's duck or nodding duck, although it
was officially referred to as the Edinburgh Duck. In small scale controlled tests, the
Duck's curved cam-like body can stop 90% of wave motion and can convert 90% of that
to electricity giving 81% efficiency.

1980
As the oil price went down, wave-energy funding was drastically reduced. Nevertheless,
a few first-generation prototypes were tested at sea. More recently, following the issue
of climate change, there is again a growing interest worldwide for renewable energy,
including wave energy.

2003
The world's first marine energy test facility was established to kick start the
development of a wave and tidal energy industry in the UK. Based in Orkney, Scotland,
the European Marine Energy Centre (EMEC) has supported the deployment of more
wave and tidal energy devices than at any other single site in the world.

Types of Wave Power Technologies

Point Absorber Buoy
This device floats on the surface of the water, held in place by cables connected
to the seabed. Buoys use the rise and fall of swells to drive hydraulic pumps and
generate electricity. EMF generated by electrical transmission cables and acoustics of
these devices may be a concern for marine organisms. The presence of the buoys may
affect fish, marine mammals, and birds as potential minor collision risk and roosting
sites. Potential also exists for entanglement in mooring lines. Energy removed from the
waves may also affect the shoreline, resulting in a recommendation that sites remain a
considerable distance from the shore.

Surface Attenuator
These devices act similarly to point absorber buoys, with multiple floating
segments connected to one another and are oriented perpendicular to incoming waves.
A flexing motion is created by swells that drive hydraulic pumps to generate electricity.
Environmental effects are similar to those of point absorber buoys, with an additional
concern that organisms could be pinched in the joints.

Oscillating Wave Surge Converter

These devices typically have one end fixed to a structure or the seabed while the
other end is free to move. Energy is collected from the relative motion of the body
compared to the fixed point. Oscillating wave surge converters often come in the form
of floats, flaps, or membranes. Environmental concerns include minor risk of collision,
artificial reefing near the fixed point, EMF effects from subsea cables, and energy
removal effecting sediment transport. Some of these designs incorporate parabolic
reflectors as a means of increasing the wave energy at the point of capture. These
capture systems use the rise and fall motion of waves to capture energy. Once the wave
energy is captured at a wave source, power must be carried to the point of use or to a
connection to the electrical grid by transmission power cables.

Oscillating Water Column

Oscillating Water Column devices can be located on shore or in deeper waters
offshore. With an air chamber integrated into the device, swells compress air in the

chambers forcing air through an air turbine to create electricity. Significant noise is
produced as air is pushed through the turbines, potentially affecting birds and other
marine organisms within the vicinity of the device. There is also concern about marine
organisms getting trapped or entangled within the air chambers.

Overtopping Device
Overtopping devices are long structures that use wave velocity to fill a reservoir
to a greater water level than the surrounding ocean. The potential energy in the
reservoir height is then captured with low-head turbines. Devices can be either on shore
or floating offshore. Floating devices will have environmental concerns about the
mooring system affecting benthic organisms, organisms becoming entangled, or EMF
effects produced from subsea cables. There is also some concern regarding low levels of
turbine noise and wave energy removal affecting the nearfield habitat.

List of Wave Power Stations

Azura Wave Power Device (United States)

Azura is a wave power device currently being tested in Hawaii. It is

connected to the municipal grid providing electricity to Hawaii. According to
the United States Department of Energy, this is the first time that a wave
power generator has been officially verified to be supplying energy to a
power grid in North America. This has been verified by the University of
Hawaii. The device can generate 20 kilowatts of power.

Orkney Wave Power Station (United Kingdom)

In March 2012, Aquamarine announced it has plans to install 50 Oyster

devices on the seabed off of the Western Isles in Scotland. The project was
intended to be able to supply electricity to more than 38,000 homes (2.4 MW
in installed capacity).

Islay Limpet (United Kingdom)

Islay LIMPET is the world's first commercial wave power device

connected to the United Kingdom's National Grid. Following the construction
of a 75 kW prototype in 1991, a 500 kW unit was built in 2000, and is located
at Claddach Farm on the Rhinns of Islay on the Scottish island of Islay. The
capacity was later downgraded to 250 kW. Islay LIMPET (Land Installed
Marine Power Energy Transmitter) was developed by Wavegen in cooperation
with Queen's University Belfast. Islay LIMPET is a shoreline device uses an
Oscillating Water Column to drive air in and out of a pressure chamber
through a Wells turbine.

Mutriku Breakwater Wave Plant (Spain)

The Mutriku Breakwater Wave Plant is a wave power plant commissed

by the Basque Energy Agency in the bay of Mutriku in the Bay of Biscay and
is the world's first breakwater wave power plant with a multiple turbine
arrangement. The plant has a capacity of 300 kW from 16 turbo generator
sets. It was inaugurated on July 8, 2011.

Agucadoura Wave Farm (Portugal)

The Aguadoura Wave Farm was the world's first wave farm. It was
located 5 km (3 mi) offshore near Pvoa de Varzim north of Porto in Portugal.
The farm was designed to use three Pelamis Wave Energy Converters to
convert the motion of the ocean surface waves into electricity, totalling to
2.25 MW in total installed capacity. The farm was officially opened on 23
September 2008, by the Portuguese Minister of Economy. The wave farm was
shut down two months after the official opening in November 2008.

SDE Sea Waves Power Plant (Israel)

The device is made of horizontal buoys, one end of which is attached to a

breakwater, or on some other sea based structure, which create a vertical
motion, according to the frequency of the sea wave.

Common environmental concerns associated with marine energy

developments include:
The risk of marine mammals and fish being struck by tidal turbine
blades;
The effects of EMF and underwater noise emitted from operating
marine energy devices;
The physical presence of marine energy projects and their potential to
alter the behavior of marine mammals, fish, and seabirds with
attraction or avoidance;
The potential effect on nearfield and farfield marine environment and
processes such as sediment transport and water quality.

TIDAL ENERGY
INTRODUCTION

TIDAL power, also called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that converts
the energy of tides into electricity or other useful forms of power. The first largescale tidal power plant (the Rance Tidal Power Station) started operation in 1966.
Although not yet widely used, tidal power has potential for future electricity
generation. Tides are more predictable than wind energy and solar power. Among
sources of renewable energy, tidal power has traditionally suffered from relatively
high cost and limited availability of sites with sufficiently high tidal ranges or flow
velocities, thus constricting its total availability. However, many recent technological
developments and improvements, both in design (e.g. dynamic tidal power, tidal
lagoons) and turbine technology (e.g. new axial turbines, cross flow turbines),
indicate that the total availability of tidal power may be much higher than
previously assumed, and that economic and environmental costs may be brought
down to competitive levels. Tidal power traditionally involves erecting a dam across
the opening to a tidal basin. The dam includes a sluice that is opened to allow the
tide to flow into the basin; the sluice is then closed, and as the sea level drops,
traditional hydropower technologies can be used to generate electricity from the
elevated water in the basin.
GENERATION OF TIDAL ENERGY
Tidal power is the only form of energy which derives directly from the
relative motions of the EarthMoon system, and to a lesser extent from the Earth
Sun system. Tidal forces produced by the Moon and Sun, in combination with Earth's
rotation, are responsible for the generation of the tides. Other sources of energy
originate directly or indirectly from the Sun, including fossil fuels, conventional
hydroelectric, wind, biofuels, wave power and solar. Nuclear energy makes use of
Earth's mineral deposits of fissile elements, while geothermal power uses the
Earth's internal heat which comes from a combination of residual heat from
planetary accretion (about 20%) and heat produced through radioactive decay
(80%).
Tidal energy is extracted from the relative motion of large bodies of water.
Periodic changes of water levels, and associated tidal currents, are due to the
gravitational attraction of the Sun and Moon. Magnitude of the tide at a location is
the result of the changing positions of the Moon and Sun relative to the Earth, the
effects of Earth rotation, and the local geography of the sea floor and coastlines.
Because the Earth's tides are ultimately due to gravitational interaction with
the Moon and Sun and the Earth's rotation, tidal power is practically inexhaustible
and classified as a renewable energy resource.
A tidal generator uses this phenomenon to generate electricity. Greater tidal
variation or tidal current velocities can dramatically increase the potential for tidal
electricity generation.
The movement of the tides causes a continual loss of mechanical energy in
the EarthMoon system due to pumping of water through the natural restrictions
around coastlines, and consequent viscous dissipation at the seabed and in
turbulence. This loss of energy has caused the rotation of the Earth to slow in the

4.5 billion years since formation. During the last 620 million years the period of
rotation has increased from 21.9 hours to the 24 hours we see now; in this period
the Earth has lost 17% of its rotational energy. While tidal power may take
additional energy from the system, increasing the rate of slowdown, the effect
would be noticeable over millions of years only, thus being negligible.

Generating methods
Tidal power can be classified into three generating methods: Tidal stream
generator, Tidal barrage, Dynamic tidal power.
TIDAL STREAMGENERATOR
A tidal stream generator is a machine that extracts energy from moving
masses of water, or tides. These machines function very much like underwater wind
turbines, and are sometimes referred to as tidal turbines. Tidal stream generators
are the cheapest and the least ecologically damaging among the three main forms
of tidal power generation.

Types of tidal stream generators

Since tidal stream generators are an immature technology, no standard
technology has yet emerged as the clear winner, but large varieties of designs are
being experimented with, some very close to large scale deployment. Several
prototypes have shown promise with many companies making bold claims, some of
which are yet to be independently verified, but they have not operated
commercially for extended periods to establish performances and rates of return on
investments.
Energy Calculations

Various turbine designs have varying efficiencies and therefore varying

power output. If the efficiency of the turbine "" is known the equation below can be
used to determine the power output of a turbine. The energy available from these
kinetic systems can be expressed as:

Where:
= the turbine efficiency
P = the power generated (in watts)
= the density of the water (seawater is 1025 kg/m)
A = the sweep area of the turbine (in m)
V = the velocity of the flow
Relative to an open turbine in free stream, depending on the geometry of the
shroud shrouded turbines are capable of as much as 3 to 4 times the power of the
same turbine rotor in open flow.
Resource Assessment
While initial assessments of the available energy in a channel have focus on
calculations using the kinetic energy flux model, the limitations of tidal power
generation are significantly more complicated. For example, the maximum physical
possible energy extraction from a strait connecting two large basins is given to
within 10% by:

Where = the density of the water (seawater is 1025 kg/m),

g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
Hmax = maximum differential water surface elevation across the
channel
Qmax= maximum volumetric flow rate though the channel.

TIDAL BARRAGE
A Tidal barrage is a dam-like structure used to capture the energy from
masses of water moving in and out of a bay or river due to tidal forces. Instead of
damming water on one side like a conventional dam, a tidal barrage first allows
water to flow into the bay or river during high tide, and releasing the water back

during low tide. This is done by measuring the tidal flow and controlling the sluice
gates at key times of the tidal cycle. Turbines are then placed at these sluices to
capture the energy as the water flows in and out.
Generating Methods
The barrage method of extracting tidal energy involves building a barrage
across a bay or river that is subject to tidal flow. Turbines installed in the barrage
wall generate power as water flows in and out of the estuary basin, bay, or river.
These systems are similar to a hydro dam that produces Static Head or pressure
head (a height of water pressure). When the water level outside of the basin or
lagoon changes relative to the water level inside, the turbines are able to produce
power. The basic elements of a barrage are caissons, embankments, sluices,
turbines, and ship locks.

Ebb Generation
The basin is filled through the sluices until high tide. Then the sluice gates are
closed. (At this stage there may be "Pumping" to raise the level further). The turbine
gates are kept closed until the sea level falls to create sufficient head across the
barrage, and then are opened so that the turbines generate until the head is again
low. Then the sluices are opened, turbines disconnected and the basin is filled
again. The cycle repeats itself. Ebb generation (also known as outflow generation)
takes its name because generation occurs as the tide changes tidal direction.
Flood Generation
The basin is filled through the turbines, which generate at tide flood. This is
generally much less efficient than ebb generation, because the volume contained in
the upper half of the basin (which is where ebb generation operates) is greater than
the volume of the lower half (filled first during flood generation). Therefore the
available level difference important for the turbine power produced between
the basin side and the sea side of the barrage, reduces more quickly than it would
in ebb generation. Rivers flowing into the basin may further reduce the energy

potential, instead of enhancing it as in ebb generation. Of course this is not a

problem with the "lagoon" model, without river inflow.
Pumping
Turbines are able to be powered in reverse by excess energy in the grid to
increase the water level in the basin at high tide (for ebb generation). This energy is
more than returned during generation, because power output is strongly related to
the head. If water is raised 2 ft (61 cm) by pumping on a high tide of 10 ft (3 m),
this will have been raised by 12 ft (3.7 m) at low tide. The cost of a 2 ft rise is
returned by the benefits of a 12 ft rise. This is since the correlation between the
potential energy is not a linear relationship, rather, is related by the square of the
tidal height variation.
Two-Basin Schemes
Another form of energy barrage configuration is that of the dual basin type.
With two basins, one is filled at high tide and the other is emptied at low tide.
Turbines are placed between the basins. Two-basin schemes offer advantages over
normal schemes in that generation time can be adjusted with high flexibility and it
is also possible to generate almost continuously. In normal estuarine situations,
however, twobasin schemes are very expensive to construct due to the cost of the
extra length of barrage. There are some favorable geography, however, which are
well suited to this type of scheme.
Tidal Lagoon Power
Tidal pools are independent enclosing barrages built on high level tidal
estuary land that trap the high water and release it to generate power, single pool,
around 3.3W/m2. Two lagoons operating at different time intervals can guarantee
continuous power output, around 4.5W/m2. Enhanced pumped storage tidal series
of lagoons raises the water level higher than the high tide, and uses intermittent
renewable for pumping, around 7.5W/m2 i.e. 10 x 10 km delivers 750MW constant
output 24/7. These independent barrages do not block the flow of the river and are
a viable alternative to the Severn Barrage.
Energy Calculations
The energy available from a barrage is dependent on the volume of water.
The potential energy contained in a volume of water is:

Where: h is the vertical tidal range, A is the horizontal area of the barrage
basin
is the density of water = 1025 kg per cubic meter (seawater varies
between 1021 and 1030 kg per cubic meter) and g is the acceleration due to the
Earth's gravity = 9.81 meters per second squared.

The factor is half due to the fact that the basin flows empty through the
turbines; the hydraulic head over the dam reduces. The maximum head is only
available at the moment of low water, assuming the high water level is still present
in the basin.

DYNAMIC TIDAL POWER

Dynamic tidal power or DTP is a new and untested method of tidal power
generation. It would involve creating large damlike structure extending from the
coast straight to the ocean, with a perpendicular barrier at the far end, forming a
large 'T' shape. This long T-dam would interfere with coast-parallel oscillating tidal
waves which run along the coasts of continental shelves, containing powerful
hydraulic currents.

A DTP dam is a long dam of 30 to 60 km which is built perpendicular to the

coast, running straight out into the ocean, without enclosing an area. The horizontal
acceleration of the tides is blocked by the dam. In many coastal areas the main tidal
movement runs parallel to the coast: the entire mass of the ocean water
accelerates in one direction, and later in the day back the other way. A DTP dam is
long enough to exert an influence on the horizontal tidal movement, which
generates a water level differential (head) over both sides of the dam. The head can
be converted into power using a long series of conventional low-head turbines
installed in the dam.
Benefits
A single dam can accommodate over 8 GW (8000 MW) of installed capacity,
with a capacity factor of about 30%, for an estimated annual power production of
each dam of about 23 billion kWh (83 PJ/yr). To put this number in perspective, an
average European person consumes about 6800 kWh per year, so one DTP dam
could supply energy for about 3.4 million Europeans. If two dams are installed at the
right distance from one another (about 200 km apart), they can complement one
another to level the output (one dam is at full output when the other is not
generating power). Dynamic tidal power doesn't require a very high natural tidal

range, so more sites are available and the total availability of power is very high in
countries with suitable conditions, such as Korea, China, and the UK (the total
amount of available power in China is estimated at 80 - 150 GW).
Challenges
A major challenge is that a demonstration project would yield almost no
power, even at a dam length of 1 km or so, because the power generation capacity
increases as the square of the dam length (both head and volume increase in a
more or less linear manner for increased dam length, resulting in a quadratic
increase in power generation). Economic viability is estimated to be reached for
dam lengths of about 30 km. Other concerns include: shipping routes, marine
ecology, sediments, and storm surges. Amidst the great number of challenges and
few environmental impacts the method of utilizing tidal power to generate
electricity has great potential and is certainly a technology most of the countries
will try to harness in near future.

OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION

Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) generates electricity indirectly from solar
energy by harnessing the temperature difference between the sun-warmed surface of
tropical oceans and the colder deep waters. A signiRcant fraction of solar radiation incident
on the ocean is retained by seawater in tropical regions, resulting in average year-round
surface temperatures of about 283C. Deep, cold water, meanwhile, forms at higher latitudes
and descends to Sow along the seaSoor toward the equator. The warm surface layer, which
extends to depths of about 100}200m, is separated from the deep cold
waterbyathermocline.Thetemperaturedifference, T, between the surface and thousandmeter depth ranges from 10 to 253C, with larger differences occurring in equatorial and
tropical waters, as depicted in Figure 1. T establishes the limits of the performance of OTEC
power cycles; the rule-ofthumb is that a differential of about 203C is necessary to sustain
viable operation of an OTEC facility. Since OTEC exploits renewable solar energy, recurring
costs to generate electrical power are minimal. However, the Rxed or capital costs of OTEC
systems per kilowatt of generating capacity are very high because large pipelines and heat
exchangers are needed to produce relatively modest amounts of electricity. These high Rxed
costs dominate the economics of OTEC to the extent that it currently cannot compete with
conventional power systems, except in limited niche markets. Considerable effort has been
expended over the past two decades to develop OTEC by-products, such as fresh water, air
conditioning, and mariculture, that could offset the cost penalty of electricity generation.
State of the Technology
OTEC power systems operate as cyclic heat engines. They receive thermal energy
through heat transfer from surface sea water warmed by the sun, and transform a portion of
this energy to electrical power. The Second Law of Thermodynamics precludes the complete
conversion of thermal energy in to electricity. A portion of the heat extracted from the warm
sea water must be rejected to a colder thermal sink. The thermal sink employed by OTEC
systems is sea water drawn from the ocean depths by means of a submerged pipeline. A
steady-state control volume energy analysis yields the result that net electrical power
produced by the engine must equal the difference between the rates of heat transfer from
the warm surface water and to the cold deep water. The limiting (i.e., maximum) theoretical

Carnot energy conversion efRciency of a cyclic heat engine scales with the difference
between the temperatures at which these heat transfers occur. For OTEC, this difference is
determined by T and is very small; hence, OTEC efRciency is low. Although viable OTEC
systems are characterized by Carnot efRciencies in the range of 6}8%, state-of-the-art
combustion steam power cycles, which tap much higher temperature energy sources, are
theoretically capable of converting more than 60% of the extracted thermal energy into
electricity.
The low energy conversion efRciency of OTEC means that more than 90% of the
thermal energy extracted from the oceans surface is wasted and must be rejected to the
cold, deep sea water. This necessitates large heat exchangers and seawater Sow rates to
produce relatively small amounts of electricity.
Carnot efRciency applies only to an ideal heat engine. In real power generation
systems, irreversibilities will further degrade performance. Given its low theoretical
efRciency, successful implementation of OTEC power generation demands careful
engineering to minimize irreversibilities. Although OTEC consumes what is essentially a free
resource, poor thermodynamic performance will reduce the quantity of electricity available
for sale and, hence, negatively affect the economic feasibility of an OTEC facility.
Process and Technology Status
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) technologies use the temperature
difference between warm seawater at the surface of the ocean, and cold seawater at
between 8001 000 metres (m) depth to produce electricity. The warm seawater is used to
produce a vapour that acts as a working fluid to drive turbines. The cold water is used to
condense the vapour and ensure the vapour pressure difference drives the turbine. OTEC
technologies are differentiated by the working fluids that can be used. Open Cycle OTEC
uses seawater as the working fluid, Closed Cycle OTEC uses mostly ammonia. A variation of
a Closed Cycle OTEC, called the Kalina Cycle, uses a mixture of water and ammonia. The use
of ammonia as a working fluid reduces the size of the turbines and heat exchangers
required.
Other components of the OTEC plant consists of the platform (which can be
land-based, moored to the sea floor, or floating), the electricity cables to transfer
electricity back to shore, and the water ducting systems. There is considerable experience
with all these system components in the offshore industry. The technical challenge is the
size of the water ducting systems that need to be deployed in large scale OTEC plants. In
particular, a 100 megawatt (MW) OTEC plant requires cold water pipes of 10 m diameter or
more and a length of 1 000 m, which need to be securely connected to the platforms.
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) projects have been around since the 1970s
(Cohen, et al., 1986). Since the beginning of the millennium, a number of OTEC projects are
being actively pursued. These projects are particularly focused on the multi-use
possibility of power generation and cooling on islands in tropical regions.
OTEC power generation makes use of temperature differences between upper
surface layer and deeper layers (8001 000 m) of the sea, generally operating with
temperature differences of around 20 degrees centigrade (C) or more. Considering that
temperature levels at one kilometre depth are relative constant at about 4C, this means
that OTEC is particularly suitable for mean surface temperatures around 25C
(Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), 2012).

This small temperature difference is converted into usable electrical power through
heat exchangers and turbines. First, through a heat exchanger or a flash evaporator (in the
case of an open cycle turbine) warm seawater is used to create vapour pressure as a
working fluid. The vapour subsequently drives a turbine-generator producing electricity. At
the outlet of the turbine, the working fluid vapour is cooled and condensed back into liquid
by colder ocean water brought up from depth or the sea bed. A heat exchanger is also
used for this process. The temperature difference, before and after the turbine, is needed to
create a difference in vapour pressure in the turbine. The cold seawater used for
condensation cooling is pumped up from below and can also be used for air-conditioning
purposes or to produce fresh drinking water (through condensation). The auxiliary power
required for the pumps is provided by the gross power output of the OTEC power generating
system.
The advantages of OTEC include being able to provide electricity on a continuous
(non-intermittent) basis, while also providing cooling without electricity consumption. The
capacity factor of OTEC plants is around 90%-95%, one of the highest for all power
generation technologies. Although the efficiency of the Carnot cycle is very low
(maximum 7%), this does not impact on the feasibility of OTEC as the fuel is free. The
energy losses due to pumping are around 20%-30%.
The technological challenge is that the small temperature difference requires very
large volumes of water at minimum pressure losses (Cooper, Meyer and Varley, 2009). This
requires large seawater pumps, large piping systems, and large cold water pipes operating
almost continuously in a hostile and corrosive environment. For example, 100 MW OTEC
plants would have several seawater pumps, each the same size as a locomotive engine.
These pumps would guide 750 tonnes per second of seawater through the OTEC system
(US. Department of Energy (DOE), 2012).
There are four main types of OTEC. These are as follows:
Open cycle OTEC. Warmer surface water is introduced through a valve in a low pressure
compartment and flash evaporated. The vapour drives a generator and is condensed by the
cold seawater pumped up from below. The condensed water can be colected and because it
is fresh water, used for various purposes (figure 1). Additionaly, the cold seawater pumped
up from below, after being used to facilitate condensation, can be introduced in an airconditioning system. As such, systems can produce power, fresh water and air-conditioning.
Furthermore, the cold water can potentialy be used for aquaculture purposes, as the
seawater from the deeper regions close to the seabed contains various nutrients, like
nitrogen and phosphates.

Closed cycle
OTEC. Surface
water, with higher
temperatures, is
used to provide heat to a working fluid with a low boiling temperature, hence providing

higher vapour pressure (figure 2). Most commonly ammonia is used as a working
fluid, although propylene and refrigerants have also been studied (Bharathan, 2011).
The vapour drives a generator that produces electricity; the working fluid vapour is then
condensed by the cold water from the deep ocean and pumped back in a closed system.
The major difference between open and closed cycle systems is the much smaler duct size
and smaler turbines diameters for closed cycle, as well as the surface area required by heat
exchangers for effective heat transfer. Closed conversion cycles offer a more efficient use of
the thermal resource (Lewis, et al., 2011).

Kalina cycle OTEC. The Kalina cycle is a variation of a closed cycle OTEC, whereby instead of
pure ammonia, a mixture of water and ammonia is used as the working fluid. Such a mixture
lacks a boiling point, but instead has a boiling point trajectory. More of the provided heat
is taken into the working fluid during evaporation and therefore, more heat can be
converted and efficiencies are enhanced.
Hybrid system. Hybrid systems combine both the open and closed cycles where the steam
generated by flash evaporation is then used as heat to drive a closed cycle (Charlier and
Justus, 1993; Vega, 2012). First, electricity is generated in a closed cycle system as
described above. Subsequently, the warm seawater discharges from the closed-cycled OTEC
is flash evaporated similar to an open-cycle OTEC system, and cooled with the cold water
discharge. This produces fresh water.
All four types of OTEC can be land-based, sea-based, or based on floating
platforms. The former has greater installation costs for both piping and land-use. The
floating platform installation has comparatively lower land use and impact (figure 3), but
requires grid cables to be installed to land and has higher construction and maintenance
costs. Finally, hybrid constructions (figure 3) combine OTEC plants with an additional
construction that increases the temperature of the warm ocean water (e.g., solar ponds,
solar collectors, and waste water treatment plants). They are mostly fixed on the shallow
seabed not far from the coast.

Multifunctionality of OTEC
Besides electricity production, OTEC plants (figure 4) can be used to support airconditioning, seawater district cooling (SDC), or aquaculture purposes. OTEC plants can also
produce fresh water.1 In Open-Cycle OTEC plants, fresh water can be obtained from the
evaporated warm seawater after it has passed through the turbine, and in Hybrid-Cycle
OTEC plants it can be obtained from the discharged seawater used to condense the vapour
fluid.
Another option is to combine power generation with the production of desalinated
water. In this case, OTEC power production may be used to provide electricity for a reverse
osmosis desalination plant. According to a study by Magesh, nearly 2.28 million litres of
desalinated water can be obtained every day for every megawatt of power generated by a
hybrid OTEC system (Magesh, 2010).
The production of fresh water alongside electricity production is particularly
relevant for countries with water scarcity and where water is produced by the desalination
process. For island nations with a tourism industry, fresh water is also important to support
water consumption in the hotels. Based on a case study in the Bahamas, Muralidharan
(2012) calculated that an OTEC plant could produce freshwater at a costs of around USD
0.89/kgallon. In comparison, the costs for largescale seawater desalination technologies
range from USD 2.6/kgallon to 4.0/kgallon.
Given that deep seawater is typically free of pathogens and contaminants, whilst being
rich in nutrients (nitrogen, phosphates, etc.), land-based systems could further benefit from
the possibility of using the deep seawater for parallel applications, such as cooling for
buildings and infrastructure, chilled soil, or seawater cooled greenhouses for agriculture,
and enhanced aquaculture among other synergetic uses.
Using deep seawater to cool buildings in district cooling configurations can provide a
large and efficient possibility for overall electricity reduction in coastal areas, helping to
balance the peak demands in electricity as well as the overall energy demand.

Innovation

Challenges

Most technology components for OTEC plants up to 10 MW are well-understood and

demonstrated, but several issues remain to be resolved in scaling up plants to 100 MW and
beyond. Existing platforms, platform mooring, pumps, turbines and heat exchanger
technologies are modular, and can be scaled up easily. However, marine power cables, cold
water pipes and the platform/pipe interface still present deployment changes for larger
scale facilities (Coastal Response Research Center (CRRC), 2010; Muralidharan, 2012). For
example, based on experience from the offshore oil industry, cold water pipes for 10 MW
facilities (4 m up to 7 m in diameter) can be constructed, but they have not been
successfully demonstrated yet. Cold water pipes for 100 MW plants (10 m diameter) have
yet to be constructed. Other scaling issues that still need to be addressed are biofouling of
heat exchangers, corrosion, frequency instabilities in generator and violent outgassing of
cold seawater in condensers (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
(CSIRO), 2012; Lewis, et al., 2011).
On the positive side, new advances from the offshore industry can be used to support
and de-risk the development of larger scale OTEC projects. Furthermore, there are a number
of projects that are looking at potential byproducts from OTEC, including hydrogen, lithium,
and other rare elements, which could improve the economic viability of OTEC (Lewis, et al.,
2011).
Finally, there are also developments in OTEC utilisation expected by raising the
temperature difference between the cold sea water and the surface water. For example, the
surface water temperature could be increased in combination with offsho re solar ponds or
solar thermalheating, although the flow of water required for a 10 MW plant (100 000
m3/hour) is too large for any common heating device or method.
Overview of Plants and Projects
Currently, the largest OTEC project built is still the 1 MW plant located in Hawaii, which
ran from 1993 to 1998. There are a number of 10 MW plants that are in various
stages of development, and planned for operation by 2015. A number of smaller projects,
to provide cooling in particular, are set up or are in the process of being set up; e.g., at
Curacao Airport and as part of the resort industry on Bora Bora.
Besides these projects, ideas and prototypes are also being explored for plants
elsewhere, e.g., in China, Curacao, France (La Runion), Malaysia, Oman, Philippines, South
Korea, the USA (Hawaii, Guam, Puerto Rico), and Zanzibar. Also, sites are being explored on
some parts of the African coast for later initiatives (University of Boras, 2013). OTEC
companies include, amongst others, Bell Pirie Power Corp., Bluerise Delft, DCNS France,

Energy Island Ltd., Lockheed Martin, Offshore Infrastructure Associates, Inc., Ocean Thermal
Energy Cooperation, OTEC International, SBM Offshore, and Xenesys.
Performance and Costs
OTEC provides electricity on a continuous (nonintermittent) basis and has a high
capacity factor (around 90%). Although, small-scale applications have been tested and
demonstrated since the late 1970s, most components have already been tested and
are commercially available in the offshore industry.
There are considerable economies of scale. Small scale OTEC plants (<10 MW) have
high overheads, and installation costs lie between USD2010 16 400 and USD2010 35 400
per kilowatt (/kW). These small-scale OTEC plants can be made to accommodate the
electricity production of small communities (5 000-50 000 residents), but would require
the production of valuable by-products like fresh water or cooling to be
economically viable. For island states with electricity prices of USD 0.30 per kilowatt-hour
(/kWh), OTEC can be an economically attractive option if the high up-front costs can be
secured through loans with low interest rates.
The estimated costs based on feasibility studies for larger scale installed
OTEC plants range between USD2010 5 000-15 000/kW, and the costs for large scale
floating OTEC plants could be as low as USD2010 2 500/kW that results in a levelised cost of
electricity of around USD 0.07-0.19/kWh. These cost estimates are highly dependent on the
financing options. Furthermore, these cost projections require large-scale deployment and a
steep learning curve for OTEC deployment costs.
Potential and Barriers
OTEC has the highest potential when comparing al ocean energy technologies, and as
many as 98 nations and territories have been identified that have viable OTEC resources in
their exclusive economic zones. Recent studies suggest that total worldwide power
generation capacity could be supplied by OTEC, and that this would have no impact on the
oceans temperature profiles.
The existing barriers are high up-front capital costs, and the lack of experience building
OTEC plants at scale. Most funding still comes from governments and technology
developers, but for large scale deployment, suitable finance options need to be developed to
cover the upfront costs. From an environmental perspective, OTEC plants at scale will
require large pipes to transport the volumes of water required to produce electricity, which
might have an impact on marine life, as well as the infrastructures to transfer the water (for
land-based systems) or electricity (for off-shore systems) to and from the coast line. Also
because it is not a tried and tested technology at large scale, there are unknown risks
to marine life at depth and on the seabed where there is large scale upward transfer of cold
water with high nutrient content. From a technical perspective, the large-scale pipes, biofouling of the pipes and the heat exchangers, the corrosive environment, and discharge
of seawater are still being researched.
Environmental Considerations
OTEC systems are, for the most part, environmentally benign. Although accidental
leakage of closed cycle working Suids can pose a hazard, under normal conditions, the only
efSuents are the mixed seawater discharges and dissolved gases that come out of solution
when sea water is depressurized. Although the quantities of outgassed species may be
signiRcant for large OTEC systems, with the exception of carbon dioxide, these species are

benign. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and can impact global climate; however, OTEC
systems release one or two orders of magnitude less carbon dioxide than comparable fossil
fuel power plants and those emissions may be sequestered easily in the ocean or used to
stimulate marine biomass production.
OTEC mixed seawater discharges will be at lower temperatures than sea water at the
ocean surface. The discharges will also contain high concentrations of nutrients brought up
with the deep sea water and may have a different salinity. It is important, therefore, that
release back into the ocean is conducted in a manner that minimizes unintended changes to
the ocean mixed layer biota and avoids inducing longterm surface temperature anomalies.
Analyses of OTEC efSuent plumes suggest that discharge at depths of 50}100m should be
sufRcient to ensure minimal impact on the ocean environment. Conversely, the nutrient-rich
OTEC discharges could be exploited to sustain open-ocean mariculture.
Economics of OTEC
Studies conducted to date on the economic feasibility of OTEC systems suffer from the
lack of reliable cost data. Commercialization of the technology is unlikely until a full-scale
plant is constructed and operated continuously over an extended period to provide these
data on capital and personnel and maintenance expenses.
Uncertainties in Rnancial analyses notwithstanding, projections suggest very high Rrst
costs for OTEC power system components. Small land-based or near-shore Soating plants in
the 1}10MW range, which would probably be constructed in rural island communities, may
require expenditures of $10000}$20000 (in 1995 US dollars) per kW of installed generating
capacity. Although there appears to be favorable economies of scale, larger Soating (closed
cycle) plants in the 50}100MW range are still anticipated to cost about $5000kW1. This is
well in excess of the $1000}$2000kW1 of fossil fuel power stations.
To enhance the economics of OTEC power stations, various initiatives have been
proposed based on marketable OTEC by-or co-products. OTEC proponents believe that the
Rrst commercial OTEC plants will be shore-based systems designed for use in developing
PaciRc island nations, where potable water is in short supply. Many of these sites would be
receptive to opportunities for economic growth provided by OTEC-related industries.
Fresh Water
The condensate of the open and hybrid cycle OTEC systems is desalinated water,
suitable for human consumption and agricultural uses. Analyses have suggested that Rrstgeneration OTEC plants, in the 1}10MW range, would serve the utility power needs of rural
PaciRc island communities, with the desalinated water by-product helping to offset the high
cost of electricity produced by the system.
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
The cold, deep sea water can be used to maintain cold storage spaces, and to provide
air conditioning. The Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority (NELHA), which manages
the site of Hawaiis OTECexperiments, has air-conditioned its buildings by passing the cold
sea water through heat exchangers. A new deep seawater utilization test facility in Okinawa
also employs cold seawater air conditioning. Similar small-scale operations would be viable
in other locales. Economic studies have been performed for larger metropolitan and resort
applications. These studies indicate that air conditioning new developments, such as resort
complexes, with cold seawater may be economically attractive even if utility-grid electricity
is available.

Mariculture
The cold deep ocean waters are rich in nutrients and low in pathogens, and therefore
provide an excellent medium for the cultivation of marine organisms. The 322-acre NELHA
facility has been the base for successful mariculture research and development enterprises.
The site has an array of cold water pipes, originally installed for the early OTEC research, but
since used for mariculture. The cold water is applied to cultivate Sounder, opihi (limpet; a
shellRsh delicacy), oysters, lobsters, sea urchins, abalone, kelp, nori (a popular edible
seaweed used in sushi), and macro-and microalgae. Although many of these ongoing
endeavors are proRtable, high-value products such as biopharmaceuticals, biopigments, and
pearls will need to be advanced to realize the full potential of the deep water.
The cold sea water may have applications for open-ocean mariculture. ArtiRcial
upwelling of deep water has been suggested as a method of creating new Rsheries and
marine biomass plantations. Should development proceed, open-ocean cages can be
eliminated and natural feeding would replace expensive feed, with temperature and nutrient
differentials being used to keep the Rsh stock in the kept environment.
Agriculture
An idea initially proposed by University of Hawaii researchers involves the use of cold
sea water for agriculture. This involves burying an array of cold water pipes in the ground
near to the surface to create cool weather growing conditions not found in tropical
environments. In addition to cooling the soil, the system also drip irrigates the crop via
condensation of moisture in the air on the cold water pipes. Demonstrations have
determined that strawberries and other spring crops and Sowers can be grown throughout
the year in the tropics using this method.

Energy Carriers
Although the most common scenario is for OTEC energy to be converted into electricity
and delivered directly to consumers, energy storage has been considered as an alternative,
particularly in applications involving Soating plants moored far offshore. Storage would also
allow the export of OTEC energy to industrialized regions outside of the tropics. Longterm
proposals have included the production of hydrogen gas via electrolysis, ammonia synthesis,
and the development of shore-based mariculture OIL POLLUTION systems or Soating OTEC
plant-ships as oceangoing farms. Such farms would cultivate marine biomass, for example,
in the form of fast-growing kelp which could be converted thermochemically into fuel and
chemical co-products.

OSMOTIC POWER
INTRODUCTION
During the past decade, global climate change challenges and the
worlds steadily growing demand for energy have brought the need for more
renewable energy to the top of the international communitys agenda.
Therefore, the United Nations decided at the first World Summit on
Sustainable Development (2002, Johannesburg) to create a specific forum
dedicated to further advance the deployment of renewable energy sources:
the International Conference for Renewable Energies. At the forums first
meeting, all countries reaffirmed their commitment to substantially increase
with a sense of urgency the global share of renewable energy in the total
energy supply. During a follow-up meeting in 2008, it was clearly stated that
in order to reach this goal, it is imperative to use both existing and new
renewable energy sources.
The pressure on the environment caused by human activities and
especially the climate change challenges related to continuously increasing
greenhouse gas emissions, calls for a thorough research of alternatives.
Since the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, efforts to reduce carbon emissions have
been intensified. Among others, the EU adopted an integrated energy and
climate change policy in December 2008, including ambitious targets for
2020. It aims at bringing Europe onto a more sustainable energy track
towards a low-carbon future with an energy-efficient economy, which will cut

greenhouse gases emissions by 20%, reduce energy consumption by 20%

through increased energy efficiency, and meet 20% of Europes energy
needs from renewable sources.
OSMOTIC POWER RESOURCES
It has been known for centuries that mixing freshwater and seawater
releases energy converted into electricity by means of a turbine and it is
called Osmotic power or salinity gradient power or blue energy. For example,
a river flowing into the salty ocean is releasing large amounts of energy. This
energy can be harvested and made into electricity using pressure retarded
osmosis (PRO) but there are two practical methods for this which are called
Reverse Electrodialysis (RED) and PRO. Both processes rely on osmosis with
ion specific membranes. The key waste product is blackish water. This by
product is the result of natural forces that are being harnessed: the flow of
fresh water into seas that are made up of salt water. This is the concept of
osmotic power, a new and yet unexploited source of renewable energy.
The method of generating power by pressure retarded osmosis was
invented by Prof. Sidney Loeb in 1973 at the Ben-Gurion University of the
Negev, Beersheba, Israel. As he observed the Jordan River flowing into the
Dead Sea, he wanted to harvest the energy of mixing of the two aqueous
solutions (the Jordan River being one and the Dead Sea being the other) that
was going to waste in this natural mixing process. In 1977, Prof. Loeb
invented a method of producing power by a reverse electrodialysis heat
engine. The technologies have been confirmed in laboratory conditions. They
are being developed into commercial use in the Netherlands (RED) and
Norway (PRO). The cost of the membrane has been an obstacle. A new, lower
coast membrane, based on an electrically modified polyethylene plastic,
made it fit for potential commercial use. Other methods have been proposed
and are currently under development. Among them, a method based on
electric double layer capacitor technology, and a method based on vapour
pressure difference.

The challenge is to utilise this energy, since the energy which is

released from the mixing of salt and freshwater leads only to a very small
increase of the local water temperature. During the last few decades at least
two concepts for converting this energy into electricity instead of heat have
been identified. One of these is Pressure Retarded Osmosis (PRO). Thanks to
this technology it may be possible to utilise the enormous potential of a new,
renewable energy source. This potential represents a worldwide electricity
production of more than 1600 TWh per year equivalent to half the annual
power generation in the European Union. For Pressure Retarded Osmosis,
also known as Osmotic Power, the released chemical energy is transferred
into pressure instead of heat. This was first pointed out by Professor

Sidney Loeb in the early 1970s, when he designed the worlds first
semi-permeable membrane for desalination of saline water for production of
drinking water based on reverse osmosis. Statkraft has been engaged in the
research and development of Osmotic Power and related enabling
technologies since 1997. Together with its international R&D partners,
Statkraft is the main active and most progressive technology developer
globally and therefore an Osmotic Power knowledge hub. The team has made
state-of-the-art achievements in terms of developing a new energy efficient
membrane technology during the past years.
Osmotic Power is based on naturally occurring osmosis, triggered by Natures
drive to establish equilibrium between different concentrations in liquids.
Osmosis is a process by which solvent molecules pass through a semipermeable membrane from a dilute solution into a more concentrated
solution as illustrated in Figure 1.
The difference in concentration of salt between seawater and
freshwater creates a strong force towards mixing. The effects of this strong
force to mix can be intensified through a special membrane which separates
salt and freshwater in a finite space and which only lets the water pass
through the membrane, while the salt ions are rejected. In this way, an
osmotic pressure can be achieved by the amount of freshwater moving to
the seawater side. This pressure can be in the range of 24 to 26 bars
depending on the salt concentration of seawater.

More precisely, in a PRO system filtered freshwater and seawater are

led into a closed system as illustrated in Figure 2. Before entering the
membrane modules, the seawater is pressurised to about half the osmotic
pressure, approximately 12-14 bars. In the module freshwater migrates
through the membrane into the pressurised seawater. This results in an
excess of diluted and pressurised seawater which is then split into two
streams. One third of this pressurised seawater is used for power generation
in a hydropower turbine, and the remaining part passes through a pressure
exchanger in order to pressurise the incoming seawater. The outlet from such
a plant will mainly be diluted seawater (brackish water) that will be led either
back to the river mouth or into the sea.

Figure 2: The principle of Osmotic Power utilises the energy outcome of mixing water with
different salt gradients. In the process the water with low salt content moves through the
membrane to the side with the higher salt concentration and creates increased pressure due
to osmotic forces. Given the sufficient control of the pressure on the saltwater side,
approximately half the theoretical energy can be transformed to electrical power, meaning
that the operating pressure is in the range of 11-14 bars enabling the generation of 1MW per
m3/s of freshwater.

Consequently, the higher the salinity gradient between fresh- and

saltwater, the more pressure will build up in the system. Similarly, the more
water that enters the system, the more power can be produced. At the same
time, it is important that the freshwater and seawater is as clean as possible.
Substances in the water may get captured within the membranes support
structure or on the membrane surfaces, reducing the flow through the
membrane and causing a reduction in power output and overall system

efficiency. This phenomenon, commonly known as fouling, is linked to the

design of the system, to the characteristics of the membrane, to the
membrane module, and to the pre-treatment of the fresh water and the sea
water.
An Osmotic Power plant will to a large degree be designed of existing
off-the-shelf technology. The key components are the membranes, the
membrane modules, and the pressure exchangers and the lions share of
efforts to commercialize Osmotic Power is dedicated to improving and scaling
up these components.

Environmental issues
The mixing of seawater and freshwater is a process that occurs
naturally all over the world.
Osmotic Power plants will extract the energy from this process without
polluting discharges to the atmosphere or water. Moreover, this process
produces no other emissions that could have an impact on the global
climate. Osmotic Powers excellent environmental performance and CO2-free
power production will most likely qualify for green certificates and other
supportive policy measures to increase the share of renewable energy. One
area where there has been some discussion is whether there will be a
negative effect on the marine environment due to the discharge of brackish
water by the Osmotic Power plant. This may alter the local marine
environment and result in changes for animals and plants living in the
discharge area. However, the osmotic plant will only displace the formation
of brackish water in space without modifying the water quality so this will not
be a significant environmental impact.
Since most rivers run into the ocean at a place where people have
already built cities or industrial areas such as harbours, most of the potential
sites for Osmotic Power generation can be utilized without affecting pristine
areas. Moreover, the plants can be constructed partly or completely
underground (e.g. in the basement of an industrial building or under a park)
which will make them very discreet. In these areas the environmental
impacts on shore are estimated to be of minor importance. These impacts
will mainly be related to the building of access roads, channels and
connections to the electricity grid. A power plant the size of a football
stadium could supply around 30 000 European households with electricity.
Careful building of a plant in already-developed areas will cause no
negative effects, since its visual impact can easily be minimised through
underground locations or mitigated through appropriate landscaping such as
tree and bush planting. It might even be possible to improve the present
condition of biotopes along the river or in the estuary and the sea.

The market potential

To establish an understanding of the potential addition of power
generation capacity
Osmotic Power might represent, surveys of the sites where freshwater meets
seawater has been made. To evaluate the potential power production from a
river detailed information about water quality, seasonal variations, sea water
salinity and quality, and also of course the amount of freshwater available is
required. Based on this information it is obvious that there are several
regions in both the northern and southern hemisphere that has a significant
potential. North-America, South-America, Europe, North Asia and Africa all
has a substantial resources that can contribute to their renewable energy
mix.
The worldwide potential is more than 1 600 TWh per year, whereas 170
TWh per year could be generated in Europe. It is likely that Osmotic Power
can make a sizeable contribution to the growth of renewable energy in the
future. This would also represent a new attractive business potential for both
the commercial power companies and the technology suppliers.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Steady, predictable output

Adaptable for small or large generating stations

Scalable or modular design (membrane modules added as required), making

it possible to increase installed capacity

Generating sites near load centres, limiting power transmission needs

Good potential for power plant sites

Technology similar and complementary to that of hydroelectric power, with

osmotic power plants able to be built on already-harnessed rivers

High risk of clogging and gradual degradation of semipermeable membranes,

necessitating pressure-filtering pre-treatment of fresh water and periodic
membrane replacement (every 5 to 7 years)

OSMOTIC POWER DEVELOPMENT STATUS

The efforts by Statkraft in the field of Osmotic Power was initiated
already in 1997 when the Norwegian research organization SINTEF was
engaged to perform feasibility studies of the concept on behalf of the

company. The result of the study was that Osmotic Power could have a
significant, global potential and also involved similar activity to hydropower
regarding the use of water to produce renewable energy. But the studies also
revealed that in particular one component would require significant
improvement, and this was the semipermeable membrane.
Based on the early findings, the work since then has mainly been
focused on the design and production of a semi-permeable membrane
optimized for Osmotic Power. From economical calculations and estimations
of the development in the energy market, a target for the efficiency of the
membranes have been set at 5 W/m2 for producing Osmotic Power on
commercial basis. During these years the power density of the membrane
developed by Statkraft has increased from less than 0.1 W/m2 up to todays
membranes producing close to 3 W/m2. The development has been aimed at
testing commercial membranes, as well as developing new membranes
designed for Osmotic Power.
The main challenges one has experienced when testing existing
membranes and also through the development of new membranes, are
related to the internal concentration polarization within the membrane. To
exploit the driving force that the osmotic pressure differences represent, the
membrane needs to be as thin as possible, but at the same time withstand
the pressure difference. The water flux should be in the similar range as the
common RO membranes and also the retention of salt is important. Although
the best RO membranes today has the potential of producing more than 6
W/m2 based on their water flux and salt retention, the internal concentration
polarization due to the thickness limits the efficiency to less than 1 W/m2.
In addition to the development of the membrane, there are also
significant activities on the design and development of the membrane
modules. The standard spiral wound module design has limitations both in
the internal flow pattern and pressure losses, and there are also limitations in
regards to the common design for scaling up to larger units. Since an
Osmotic Power plant will require several million square meters of membrane,
the module should contain several hundreds or even thousands of square
meters. In this respect, the following design criteria have been suggested:
The elements must be able to have flow on both the freshwater and
the seawater side of the membrane
The elements must contain a large membrane area
Fouling must be minimised
The design must be cost-effective
This development of Osmotic Power is managed by Statkraft, and is
executed mainly by research groups in Germany, Norway and the

Netherlands, as well as in the USA. There are, however, several other groups
working on elaborative topics both in North America and in Asia.
Based on the last years results of development of membranes in particular,
but also an improved understanding of the system technology and potential,
Statkraft decided in fall 2007 to build a complete system for testing the
Osmotic Power concept. Based on this decision Statkraft has designed a
prototype plant where pressure retarded osmosis is used to drive a turbine,
based on feed of sea water and fresh water from natural sources.

THE OSMOTIC POWER PROTOTYPE

The worlds first osmosis driven prototype for power generation has
now been put into operation. In the southern part of Norway, approximately
1 hour drive from Oslo, a complete prototype of an Osmotic Power plant has
been built. The prototype represents a major milestone towards the
commercialization of Osmotic Power and creates a unique test site for future
technology development of Osmotic Power. The plant did generate the first
small kWh of electricity from osmosis in November 2009, and the first proof
of the concept of producing power by osmosis has been recorded.
The prototype is designed to be used as a laboratory for the ongoing
development of the technology. In this respect, it will contribute to
technology enhancements in order to reach the objective of producing power
at a competitive cost, and creating the basis for up-scaling the various
components to commercial scale.

Figure 3: The Osmotic Power prototype located at the

east coast of Norway

In addition to the on-going research, with the main focus being on the
membranes and the membrane modules, the prototype will serve as a

catalyst for developing partnerships and building relationships with

interested parties. The prototype facilitates the creation of partnership for
development of Osmotic Power outside Statkrafts core geographic area, and
it increases the awareness of Osmotic Power among governments and
manufacturers that are invited to test the technology. Furthermore, the
prototype will be a starting point to test and measure environmental
challenges such as measuring potential algae bloom related to the discharge
of brackish water.
When building a prototype for a complete new technology, several
considerations had to be made related to the choice of location. First of all,
fresh water and sea water with satisfactory quality must be available.
Secondly, the location shall be available for the researchers, suppliers and
also governmental representatives, hence not too far from a large city. Based
on these requirements, the small community of Tofte, 1 hour drive from Oslo,
was chosen.

Design of the prototype

The prototype is designed with all necessary systems and components
for continues PRO operation. Based on the assumption that a membrane with
an efficiency of 5 W/m2 will be developed during the lifetime of the plant, 10
kW installed power capacity was set as the overall design criteria. This gave
the lead for water supply for both water qualities, as well as sizing of the
individual components. The sea water feed to the plant is supplied trough
water pipes from approximately 30 meters below sea level, just outside the
harbour. The water is filtered through a mesh before it enters the plant.
The fresh water at the Tofte location flows from a small lake up in the
hillside. The water quality is typical for this kind of water sources in the
southern part of Norway. The content of NOM (Natural Organic Matter) is
significant, and also the content of other particles. There are also large
seasonal variations in the water quality. The water is filtered through a mesh,
but for safeguarding of the PRO membranes, the secondary treatment of
water is done by ultrafiltration.

Picture 2: The PRO membranes with pressure vessels and PE piping

A major focus activity will be to identify the minimal pre-treatment

necessary to operate the plant, and to design the appropriate system
optimised to fulfil the requirements for operating the membrane system in a
continuous mode through the entire lifetime of the membranes. For this plant
2000 m2 of membrane has been installed based on a modified spiral wound
8 module. This is a convenient and standardised design where membranes
easily can be replaced and also a standard that other suppliers can relate to.
After some time in operation we also expect to test alternative module
design optimised for PRO operation. The first membranes installed are based
on conventional cellulose acetate membranes, redesigned for PRO operation.
The membranes will be replaced when new and improved membranes are
designed and produced in sufficient amounts.
Besides the membrane system, the plant is equipped with 2 specially
design energy recovery devices. Although this technology is well proven in
desalination system, the installation in this plant is unique due to the low
operating pressure. It will be very important to learn the operations of these
units in PRO, and also to test the efficiency and leakages experienced in a
low pressure system. A turbine with a generator is installed to generate
electricity from the pressurised water. With continues flow of water at
approximately 12 bar, a Pelton turbine was chosen. To be able to generate as
much electricity as possible from the membranes installed, the turbine must
be optimised for the correct flow of water at the given pressure. In a full
scale installation, the combined efficiency of the turbine and generator is
expected to exceed 85%.

Picture 3: 2 energy recovery devices recycling the PRO pressure

The overall objectives of the prototype are twofold. Firstly, confirming that
the designed system can produce power on a reliable 24-hour/day
production. Secondly, the plant will be used for further testing of technology
achieved from parallel research activities to substantially increase the
efficiency. The performance and efficiency of the individual component, as
well as the system efficiency as a whole, will be directed towards the targets
for commercial production of Osmotic Power. These activities will mainly be
focused on membranes, membrane modules, pre-treatment of water,
pressure exchanger equipment, and power generation (turbine and
generator).

Picture 4: The turbine generating electricity in the Osmotic Power prototype

The prototype as an attractive test site

The prototype will be the first complete test site for Osmotic Power
where one can test single components as well as the entire Osmotic Power
system. Statkraft will use the prototype for enabling testing also for groups
or companies other than their partners to spur the interest and knowledge
for Osmotic Power. Representatives for technologies such as promising
forward osmosis membranes, alternative energy recovery units or alternative
solutions for energy efficient pre-treatment of water will be welcome to both
gain knowledge as well as possible testing at the site. Statkraft believes that

the bridging of knowledge and common efforts among all the different
groups working on Osmotic Power or similar technologies is crucial to
achieve commercial operation in the foreseeable future.

THE ROAD TOWARDS COMMERCIAL OSMOTIC POWER

GENERATION
Based on the information provided in this paper one can clearly
understand that there are several technical and system-related tasks to be
addressed. And there are today several groups of companies and research
institutes working to solve the challenges discussed earlier. So, what is then
necessary for establishing Osmotic Power as one of the contributor to the
generation of renewable energy in the future? We believe that to succeed in
the development of Osmotic Power, one need to understand the most
important value drivers. Statkraft has spent significant time and effort on the
development of Osmotic Power, and will continue to do so. The solution is
very attractive due to the environmentally friendly solution it represent, but
to really make this a new and attractive solution in the renewable energy
market one will depend on the three major factors.

Supplier industry
It is well known that Osmotic Power was founded in the field for
desalination. And there are still significant resemblance looking into the
individual components. It is crucial that the future suppliers for Osmotic
Power such as membrane manufacturers are willing to spent time and
resources on bringing the technology from where it is today and improve and
scale it up into an industrial size.

Energy utilities
Statkraft strategic long term interest in Osmotic Power is to include it
in the renewable energy portfolio. With the increasing focus on the
environment and similar prising of renewable energy, this will also be the
case for several other utilities around the world. To be able to verify for the
future supplier industry that with the right solutions and pricing level, the
demand will be unlimited, more utilities such as Statkraft must show their
believes in Osmotic Power. Statkraft alone will not as a single player be able
to establish a global Osmotic Power market necessary to realise the waste
potential.

Framework conditions
During the last few decades one has seen the growth of new solutions
for harvesting renewable energy in Europe. These solutions, such as wind
power, solar power and soon also marine energies has been considered

much to expensive compared to the alternative fossil solutions. But with the
increasing understanding of the consequences and the accompanying
expenses using polluting solutions for producing power, a change in the
whole market pricing has been establish. These days, several European
countries give substantial economical support to the establishment and
growth of new, renewable solutions. For example, countries such as Spain,
Germany and also Italy have established support schemes for solar power
that has spurred a whole new industry. A similar situation is also in the UK
where marine energy will be supported for the establishment and growth of a
business that is crucial for the country to reach their ambitions for renewable
solutions.
These framework conditions will also be critical for Osmotic Power. With
a predictable support scheme and incentives for competitiveness also in the
early maturing phase, both the supplier industry and the utilities will be
ready to participate. Statkraft has already encouraged the European Union to
include Osmotic Power as a recognised part of the marine energy sector, and
will continue to do so also for the individual countries.

THE COMPETITIVENESS OF OSMOTIC POWER

The estimated energy cost of Osmotic Power is comparable and
competitive with the other new renewable energy sources, such as wave,
tidal and offshore wind being in the range of 50-100 /MWh. This cost
analysis is based to the major extent of the existing market pricing for the
individual components in large scale project. For the membranes and also
other units that still requires more extensive development one has used the
assumption that the future pricing will not be very different from similar
technology today due to the enormous potential in the economy of scale for
this global market. In the illustration below a comparison with other energy
technology is given, and it is obvious that with a success in the areas
described in this paper, Osmotic Power has a bright future.

Figure 4: Competitiveness of Osmotic Power compared to other renewable and nonrenewable sources by 2030.

HOW AN OSMOTIC GENERATING STATION WORKS

When fresh water is separated from seawater by a semipermeable

membrane, the fresh water moves by osmosis through the membrane into
the seawater, raising the pressure on the seawater side. This is referred to as
osmotic pressure and is used to drive a turbine.
Osmotic pressure is the cornerstone of the energy-generating method
conceived by American Sydney Loeb in the 1970s but developed and put into
practice by Norways Statkraft Group between 1997 and 2013.
An osmotic generating station has a limited number of components:

A semipermeable membrane contained in modules

Freshwater and seawater filters that optimize membrane performance

A turbine that generates a driving force based on the osmotic pressure

and permeation flow rate

A pressure exchanger that pressurizes the seawater feed required to

maintain high salinity levels downstream from the membrane

Climate change and air quality

In osmotic power, greenhouse gas and air contaminant emissions are
produced solely during infrastructure manufacturing and installation. During
the operations phase, osmotic generating stations do not produce any
emissions.

Life cycle assessment

At this time, there are no available studies on the osmotic generating
station life cycle. However, the environmental impacts of osmotic power are
thought to be similar to those of other renewable energy sources. Except for
biomass, all such sources all have one thing in common: there are no
greenhouse gas or air contaminant emissions during the operations phase

Ecosystems and biodiversity

Aquatic ecosystems in river mouths, deltas and estuaries are fragile. For that
reason, it is important to have a solid grasp of the possible repercussions of
building an osmotic generating station on the following:

Topography and geomorphology (shoreline erosion, landslides, etc.)

Sediment, riverbed and seabed properties (sediment displacement,

increased turbidity, soil compaction)

Water quality (chemical and wastewater spills)

Hydrology (changes in flow rates and current directions, changes to

fresh water/seawater mixing zones, etc.)

Local aquatic animal and plant species

Birds that feed in intertidal zone mudflats, which are rich in mollusks
and microorganisms

Fresh water and seawater sampling and discharges of brackish water

during plant operations could affect the profile of the fresh water plume at
the mouth of a river. This could result in a degradation of the environment

and possibly have an impact on the fauna and flora living in the affected
area.
The ambient water temperature would rise because of the heat given off
by the energy-generating process. However, this increase would be less than
C and would pose no danger to marine organisms.
Some chemicals used in pretreating water and cleaning membranes could
become concentrated in the food chain, with repercussions for marine
ecosystems. A well-known example is the anti-scale products released by
desalination plants, a source of nutrients that stimulates primary production.
As a result, they can lead to a proliferation of algae in environments that
usually contain few such organisms.

Health and quality of life

There is no anticipated impact on human health or quality of life.

Land use
The presence of an osmotic generating station (the facility and associated
power lines) has a visual impact on the landscape, just as a road or aqueduct
would. When a station is built in an environment that has already been
modified by human activity, the impact is mitigated.
An osmotic generating station may produce light pollution and obstruct
the view of a picturesque landscape. To mitigate these nuisances, a suitable
location must be found and the necessary infrastructure must be
harmoniously integrated into the surroundings. Infrastructure can be built
partly or entirely underground, considerably reducing the visual impact.
Operating an osmotic generating station at the mouth of a river could
have an impact on fishing, recreational boating, water sports, coastal
tourism, etc. Such operations could require the creation of exclusion zones
where such activities are off-limits and may sometimes meet with opposition.

Regional economy
In Qubec, the construction of osmotic generating stations would spur
economic development in communities in the Cte-Nord, Baie-James, Baie
dHudson and Baie dUngava regions. However, an in-depth evaluation of the
social and environmental impacts on communities located at river mouths
would be required. These impacts may include the following:

Restrictions on commercial and recreational fishing

Loss of community access to the site

Use of a landfill or composting facilities for the disposal of sludge and

used membranes

Social acceptability
A number of steps could enhance the social acceptability of osmotic
generating projects. They include the following:

Locating the generating station at the mouth of a river where a small

community may already be found. This would eliminate or minimize
the need to transmit electricity over significant distances, the scale of
infrastructure required and the scope of associated activities.

Integrating the facility harmoniously into the surrounding environment.

This could involve building the powerhouse partly underground and
adapting the buildings architecture and colors to the surrounding
environment.

PIEZOELECTRICITY
It is the electric charge that accumulates in certain solid materials
(such as crystals, certain ceramics, and biological matter such as bone, DNA
and various proteins) in response to applied mechanical stress. The word
piezoelectricity means electricity resulting from pressure. It is derived from
the Greek piez or piezein, which means to squeeze or press, and lektron,
which means amber, an ancient source of electric charge. Piezoelectricity
was discovered in 1880 by French physicists Jacques and Pierre Curie.

The piezoelectric effect is understood as the linear electromechanical

interaction between the mechanical and the electrical state in crystalline
materials with no inversion symmetry. The piezoelectric effect is a reversible
process in that materials exhibiting the direct piezoelectric effect (the
internal generation of electrical charge resulting from an applied mechanical
force) also exhibit the reverse piezoelectric effect (the internal generation of
a mechanical strain resulting from an applied electrical field). For example,
lead zirconate titanate crystals will generate measurable piezoelectricity
when their static structure is deformed by about 0.1% of the original
dimension. Conversely, those same crystals will change about 0.1% of their
static dimension when an external electric field is applied to the material.
The inverse piezoelectric effect is used in the production of ultrasonic sound
waves.

Piezoelectricity is found in useful applications, such as the production and

detection of sound, generation of high voltages, electronic frequency
generation, microbalances, to drive an ultrasonic nozzle, and ultrafine
focusing of optical assemblies. It is also the basis of a number of scientific
instrumental techniques with atomic resolution, the scanning probe
microscopies, such as STM, AFM, MTA, SNOM, etc., and everyday uses, such
as acting as the ignition source for cigarette lighters, and push-start propane
barbecues, as well as the time reference source in quartz watches.

Mechanism
The nature of the piezoelectric effect is closely related to the
occurrence of electric dipole moments in solids. The latter may either be
induced for ions on crystal lattice sites with asymmetric charge surroundings
(as in BaTiO3 and PZTs) or may directly be carried by molecular groups (as in
cane sugar). The dipole density or polarization (dimensionality [Cm/m3] )
may easily be calculated for crystals by summing up the dipole moments per
volume of the crystallographic unit cell. As every dipole is a vector, the
dipole density P is a vector field. Dipoles near each other tend to be aligned
in regions called Weiss domains. The domains are usually randomly oriented,
but can be aligned using the process of poling (not the same as magnetic
poling), a process by which a strong electric field is applied across the
material, usually at elevated temperatures. Not all piezoelectric materials
can be poled.

Of decisive importance for the piezoelectric effect is the change of

polarization P when applying a mechanical stress. This might either be
caused by a reconfiguration of the dipole-inducing surrounding or by reorientation of molecular dipole moments under the influence of the external
stress. Piezoelectricity may then manifest in a variation of the polarization
strength, its direction or both, with the details depending on: 1. the
orientation of P within the crystal; 2. crystal symmetry; and 3. the applied
mechanical stress. The change in P appears as a variation of surface charge
density upon the crystal faces, i.e. as a variation of the electric field
extending between the faces caused by a change in dipole density in the
bulk. For example, a 1 cm3 cube of quartz with 2 kN (500 lbf) of correctly
applied force can produce a voltage of 12500 V.

Piezoelectric materials also show the opposite effect, called the converse
piezoelectric effect, where the application of an electrical field creates
mechanical deformation in the crystal.