Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
by
T. H. Lewis, Jr.
RE., C.S., C.RS.
Published by
NACE INTERNATIONAL
NACE INTERNATIONAL
P.O. Box 218340
Houston, TX 77218-8340
www.nace.org
ISBN 978-1-57590-111-4
Printed in the United States of America. All rights reserved.
Reproduction of contents in whole or part without permission of
copyright owner is expressly forbidden.
CONTENTS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Purpose .................... .................... .... 1
Deep Groundbed Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Advantages .................... .................... . 1
Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Disclaimer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 3
Gathering Design Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Determining Design Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Determining Geology and Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Researching Existing Data Bases .................... .... 6
United States Geological Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
State District Office of USGS ................... ........6
American Geological Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
State Geological Surveys .................... ........... 7
Local Water Well Drillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Surface Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Driven Rod Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Pilot Hole Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Two-Point Test Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Three-Point Test Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Four-Point Test Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Determining Water Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Materials Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Electrochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Anodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Graphite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
High-Silicon Chromium Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Platinum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 2 6
Mixed-Metal Oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Other Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Carbon Backfill .................... ................. 28
Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Other Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Casings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Anode Support Structures .................... ......... 34
Centralizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Vent Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Environmental Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
iv
CONTENTS
2.5.1
2.5.2
2.5.3
2.5.4
2.6
3
3.1
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.2
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.3
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
3.4
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.4.3
3.5
3.5.1
3.5.2
3.5.3
3.6
3.6.1
3.6.2
3.6.3
3.7
3.7.1
3.7.2
3.7.3
3.7.4
3.7.4.1
3.7.4.2
3.7.5
3.7.6
36
37
37
37
38
41
41
41
42
45
45
45
46
46
47
48
48
49
50
51
51
52
52
53
54
54
56
56
56
57
58
60
60
61
61
62
62
63
64
64
CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 PURPOSE
The purpose of this manual is to provide the design engineer with a
single-source guide for designing, installing, and operating deep anode
systems. The design and installation process for a successful deep anode
system involves a combination of gathering data, preforming design
calculations, selecting specific materials and techniques, and planning the
installation method. Besides the mathematical calculations necessary to
complete a specific design, many design decisions require the exercise of
good engineering judgment. Decisions such as equipment requirements,
hole completion techniques, site problems, materials selection, and safety
procedures often require a combination of experience, knowledge,
forethought, and judgment. This design manual will discuss many
engineering judgment decisions and provide some possible options
available with an indication of the factors that influence the particular
choice for a specific design.
1.3 ADVANTAGES
Although a complete list of the advantages in using a deep anode system
can be found in RP0572, it is worthwhile to elaborate on several of the
most important points. Since the current discharge occurs deep in the body
INTRODUCTION
of the earth rather than near the surface, the anodic potential gradient is not
as extensive in the near-surface soils where most utility structures are
found. This means that the potential for anodic interference is greatly
reduced. Therefore, deep anode systems can represent a significant
advantage in areas with many foreign metallic surface structures such as
municipalities and large industrial facilities.
Another significant advantage often possible using a deep anode design is
the limited surface land area necessary for the installation. Since all of the
anodes are stacked vertically in a single drilled hole, the installation can be
completed with very limited surface land required. Not only is this an
advantage in congested areas where surface land may be very limited, but
also the cost of additional right-of-way can often be avoided in less
congested areas. It is often even possible to install the deep anode system
within the existing right-of-way for facilities such as transmission
pipelines. This is possible because the anodes can be made remote from the
structure by placing the discharge zone deeper in the body of the earth.
The primary operating cost of an impressed current cathodic protection
system is the cost of the commercial AC power required. The electric
utility bill represents a charge for the energy consumed by the cathodic
protection system. Energy is the power delivered over a certain time
interval. Power is determined by the current input squared times the load
resistance. Since the current input is predetermined by the current required
to achieve a specific level of cathodic protection, it cannot be reduced
without losing some degree of protection. However, if the input resistance
can be reduced, then the power delivered to obtain cathodic protection is
also reduced. With high surface soil resistivities, it is possible to
significantly reduce the system input resistance by placing the anodes
deeper in the body of the earth where low resistivity strata can often be
found. Further, the resistance remains more stable over time because the
factors that control the resistance (moisture content and temperature) are
more constant in deep strata.
1.4 DISADVANTAGES
Again, a complete list of the disadvantages in using a deep anode system
can be found in RP0572. Although most of the disadvantages can be
overcome or minimized with proper consideration and design, the most
serious disadvantage is usually the additional installation cost per ampere
of cathodic protection required when compared to surface groundbed
designs. However, this cost is sometimes overshadowed by the savings that
DISADVANTAGES
1.5 DISCLAIMER
Although every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy and
completeness of the information contained in this manual, neither Loresco
International nor any of the specific contributors to this manual warrant or
accept any liability for use of the manual or the information contained in
the manual. Further, it is recognized that many specific site conditions and
variables can exist which require careful consideration and application of
engineering judgment by individuals with knowledge and experience in a
specific area. Therefore, individuals using this manual are cautioned to seek
competent scientific or engineering advice and assistance in those areas.
REFERENCES
1. NACE Standard RP0572, Design, Installation, Operation, and Maintenance of Impressed
Current Deep Groundbeds (Houston, TX: NACE, 1995). Approved June 1972, Revised 1995.
Chapter 2
the water table (phreatic surface). Of course, the more detailed the available
information becomes, the better the design will be.
What constitutes a low-resistivity stratum adequate for current discharge
is relative. It depends entirely upon the types of soil layers and their relative
resistivities in a given area. Except for certain electronically conductive
minerals, such as magnetite (Fe304), specular hematite (Fe,O3), carbon,
graphite, pyrite (FeS,), galena (PbS), chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), bornite
(Cu5FeS4), covellite (CuS), copper, and pyrrhotite (FeS), most minerals
which make up soil and rock layers are electrical insulators. Therefore, the
conduction method in most soils and rocks is electrolytic in nature taking
place through the moisture contained within the pores and channels of the
layer. Consequently, the moisture content and chemistry are very important
determinants of the conductivity.'-'
Some of the most commonly sought sediments due to their relatively low
resistivities are: clay, shale, marl, chalk, and sands or porous formations
containing conductive waters. The suitability of any one of these
formations is dependent upon its depth and relative resistivity.
2.2.1.2
State District Office of USGS - Each state has a district office of the
USGS that maintains geologic profile information for the state. These
offices are usually located in the state capital and may be contacted by
telephone using the federal government information section of the
telephone directory. Information may be obtained by telephone or fax
request to the District Office with location descriptions providing the
county, section, township, and range or longitude and latitude for the point
of interest.
2.2.1.3
American Geological Institute (AGI) - This office is located in
Alexandria, Virginia, at (703) 379-2480. The AGI can also be contacted
on the InterNet at http://www.agiweb.org/. The AGI maintains a geological
database of records for North America since 1785 and other areas of the
world since 1933. The AGI provides a geoscience database on CD-ROM
known as GEOREF. This information is commercially available via
annual subscription, and is usually available at university or research
libraries.
2.2.1.4
State Geological Surveys or Department of Natural Resources - Many
states provide helpful geological information from reported drillers' logs.
These offices are generally located in the state capital and may be contacted
by telephone using the state government information section of the
telephone directory.
2.2.1.5
Local Water Well Drillers - Often, helpful information can be obtained
from local water well drillers. Not only can they usually provide
information about the stratification of soils, but also they can provide
information about drilling conditions and anticipated installation problems
based on previous drilling experience in the area. Local water well drillers
can be located in the Yellow Pages section of the telephone directory.
2.2.2 SURFACE TESTING
Depending upon the surface topology, location of underground metallic
structures, and available open testing area, it is possible to estimate subsoil
resistivities using data obtained from surface testing techniques. The FourPoint test method is the most accurate method of measuring the average
resistivity of large volumes of earth, in-situ.' Two of the four test electrodes
are current injection points, and two are potential measurement points.
Resistance is determined by dividing the magnitude of the test current
flowing between the current electrodes into the voltage drop measured
between the potential electrodes. There are several commercially available
instruments that perform this calculation internally and provide the
resistance directly.
Although there are a number of electrode arrangements possible, the most
commonly used technique is based on the Wenner arrangement. This
electrode arrangement, as shown in Figure 2-1, involves equally spacing
the four electrodes distance a apart and along a straight line with the
current electrodes on the outside and the potential electrodes on the i n ~ i d e . ~ - ~
If the depth of the electrodes does not exceed 0.1 a, then the apparent
resistivity to depth a is given by the formula:
p=ZnaR
Equation (2-1)
Wenner Arrangement Equation
p = 191.5 a R
Equation (2-2)
A baseline for the electrode array should first be established, which is
three times the depth of soil to be investigated. The baseline should be
straight and cross relatively level terrain. The center of the baseline should
be established and used as the center of the electrode array. As resistance
measurements are recorded for various electrode spacings, the array should
be expanded about the established center point. Incremental electrode
spacings from 10 to 50 feet are suggested depending upon the detail
desired.
11
TYP
P1
c1
TEST ELECTRODE
c2
P2
12
sufficiently far from the test electrode. However, the method checks this
placement at each step of the test procedure allowing electrode relocation if
necessary without invalidating previous test data.
Next, the resistances measured using the center potential electrode verses
driven depth of the test rod are analyzed using a modification of Blattners
equation.I Z
Equation (2-3)
Modified Blattner Equation
where T = layer thickness or increment of rod depth (m)
o = conductivity of layer (Siemendm)
N = layer number being analyzed
L = total rod depth at N (rn)
D = rod diameter (m)
R = resistance measured at N (ohms)
i = counter for previous layer numbers
Define: Tooo= 0
Analysis of the test data is based upon reiterative use of the modified
Blattner equation for each additional increment of driven rod depth. Notice
the summation term will be zero for the first layer analyzed. An example of
this analysis, which used a 0.019 m (3/4 in.) sectional ground rod for the
test, is shown in Table 2-2.
2.2.4 PILOT HOLE TESTING
The best method of determining the layer resistivities involves lowering a
test probe into a drilled test or pilot hole. This method not only produces
more reliable resistivity data, but also provides direct evidence on the
location of layer boundaries, drilling conditions, and water chemistry. This
procedure can be undertaken before or during the actual deep anode
installation. Due to the cost of drilling the test hole, the procedure is
generally not economically justifiable before the actual installation unless
the testing cost is a small percentage of the complete project cost. This may
be the case when many deep anode holes are anticipated within a limited
area such as a specific oil field, industrial plant, or generating station.
The best application of this technique involves using the test procedure as
13
14
diameter is reamed due to the reduction in actual volume of soil that must
be removed from the hole. Also, due to information about actual drilling
conditions obtained at the specific location, often additional time can be
saved in producing the final hole diameter.
Next, several specific test procedures and probes for conducting the pilot
hole test are discussed. The specific procedure and probe that should be
used depend upon the desired detail, accuracy of the information desired,
and the equipment available.
2.2.4.1 Two-Point Test Procedure
The two-point test procedure is the simplest and most commonly used
procedure for estimating the layer resistivities and boundary locations. This
procedure is based upon measuring the resistance between a single test
electrode lowered into the pilot hole and a remote, low-resistance ground
existing on the surface, such as an electrical grounding system, a pipeline,
or a tank battery? ' I
The resistance-to-earth of the low-resistance ground must be several
15
16
4-TERMINAL SOIL
RESISTANCE METER
WEIGHTED TEST
ELECTRODE
electrode is stopped, and the new resistance is measured and recorded. This
procedure is continued until the test electrode reaches the bottom of the
hole. The test electrode is then removed from the hole, and the test data are
analyzed.
Analysis of the test data consists of calculating the average electrolyte
resistivity necessary to produce the resistance value measured based on the
dimensions of the test electrode. This can be accomplished by solving
Dwight's equation for an infinitely submerged cylinder ')-I4 for resistivity in
terms of measured resistance, as shown on the following page:
P=
17
2nLR
Equation ( 2 4 )
Resistivity Estimate for Two-Point Test
where p = resistivity (ohm-m)
R = measured resistance (ohms)
L = electrode length (m)
D = electrode diameter (m)
If the electrode dimensions given above are used, Equation (2-4) can be
simplified as shown.
p = 2.27R
Equation (2-5)
where p = resistivity (ohm-m)
R = resistance (ohm)
Ia
GATHERING DESIGNINFORMATION
COPPER ELECTRODE
- INSULATED
CONDUCTOR
CABLE
CENTER OF
WENNER ARRAY
CENTER OF
NORMAL ARRAY
The sonde shown in Figure 2-5 contains five contact electrodes allowing
the tool to be employed in each of two specific arrangements: Wenner or
normal array. This flexibility in electrode arrangement is often used by
logging with one array type as the sonde is lowered into the pilot hole and
logging using the other array upon retrieval of the sonde. Each of the five
electrodes is connected by an individual measurement lead to the surface,
and the electrodes are insulated from each other by the body of the sonde.
Terminals A and E function as current electrodes with terminals C and D
serving as potential electrodes for the Wenner arrangement. As shown in
Figure 2-5, the center of the Wenner array is located halfway between
terminals C and D. Since the array is electrically symmetrical with respect
to this location, the depth of the array during testing is recorded at this
19
p=4naR
Equation (2-6)
Sonde Calibration Equation
where p = resistivity (ohm-cm)
a = electrode spacing (cm)
R = resistance (ohms)
For the dimensions of the sonde in Figure 2-5, the calibration equation for
the Wenner array becomes:
p = 2000 R
Equation (2-7)
Wenner Array Calibration Equation
The radius of investigation using the Wenner electrode arrangement is
approximately equal to the spacing between the electrodes or 1.6 m (5.2 ft).
For the normal array, terminals A and E serve as current injection
terminals while terminal B and a surface electrode function as potential
measurement terminals. Since the normal array is electrically symmetrical
with respect to the center point between terminals A and B, the depth of the
tool is recorded based upon this point when employing the normal array.
The radius of investigation using this electrode arrangement is
approximately twice the spacing between terminals A and B or 1.6 m (5.2
ft). The equation relating the layer resistivity to measured resistance is the
same as Equation (2-6) for the normal array except that the spacing, a, is
the distance between terminals A and B. Therefore, with the dimensions
given for the sonde in Figure 2-5, the calibration equation becomes:
p = l000R
Equation (2-8)
Normal Array Calibration Equation
The derivation of Equation (2-6), which is the calibration equation for
both the Wenner and normal sondes, is based on the assumption of infinite
immersion in a homogeneous, conducting electrolyte. Of course, the
20
21
2.4.1 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
The most common electrochemical reactions occurring within an
impressed current deep anode system involve either metal consumption or
gas evolution. The generalized metal consumption reaction is
M
+M
+n
+ ne -
The metal ion reacts with water in neutral environments to form a metallic
hydroxide.
M +n + nH,O
+ M(OH), + nH
(2-2)
22
+ 0,t + 4H
+ 4e- + 2SO;'
(2-41
+ Cl,t
+ 2e-
(2-51
The chlorine produced will further react with water producing hydrochloric
and hypochlorous acids [21].
CI, + H,O
+ HCI + HOCl
(2-61
+ CO 1 + 2H
+ 2e-
+ CO, t + 4H + + 4e-
(2-7)
(2-8)
2.4.2ANODES
With very few exceptions, most impressed current anodes are classified
as inert or insoluble type anodes. This means that the anode can provide a
surface for oxidation reactions with minimal consumption of the base
anode material. The two major exceptions are aluminum anodes used in
fresh water applications and scrap steel anodes. Both of these anodes are
soluble anodes. With soluble anodes large amounts of metal are necessary
to provide a useful life due to the rapid consumption rate.
Insoluble impressed current anodes can be further classified as massive or
dimensionally stable anodes (DSA). Although the rate of material loss is
relatively low (a few pounds per ampere year or less), massive anodes
become smaller with time due to the slow, steady oxidation of the anode.
MATERIALS SELECTION
23
24
MATERIALS SELECTION
25
fillers are often used to reduce the porosity. The most commonly available
22
treatments are linseed oil, wax, and
Graphite anodes function well in chloride-containing waters. The
consumption rate for graphite is less in chloride environments than in fresh
waters. However, caution should be exercised in using graphite anodes in
high temperature (> 50C),low pH, or high-sulfate environments due to the
increased consumption rate anticipated. Also, since graphite is soft and may
be easily damaged by fast water flow, impingement attack, or cavitation,
these conditions should be avoided.l9
When used in deep anode systems with carbon backfill, the maximum
recommended current density is 10 amps/m2 ( 1 amp/ft2). Assuming all of
the current discharged from the graphite surface results in the generation of
carbon dioxide gas, the theoretical consumption rate of the anode is 1
kg/amp-year (2.2 Ibs/amp-year).9-20.
22 In practice, the typical graphite
consumption rate in carbon backfill ranges from 0.1 to 1 kg/amp-year (0.2
to 2 lbs/amp-year).27
26
2.4.2.3 Platinum
Platinum-coated anode materials were installed in land-based cathodic
protection systems in Great Britain as early as 1961. However, the first
land-based testing of platinum-coated anodes in the United States began in
1977. Some of the first installations in the U.S. were in deep anode
systems. Although early reports from the U.K. were good, the experience
of U.S. companies employing platinum-coated anodes is mixed.2n,z8-z9
To produce an economical anode for the cathodic protection industry,
very thin coatings of platinum are plated or clad onto a substrate of
titanium or niobium, as described in Section 2.4.2. The most common
platinum thicknesses range from about 1 to 8 microns (50 to 300
microinches). Although these anodes are available in wire, rod, plate, and
mesh form, the most common arrangement for deep anode systems is wire
with some rod anodes used in higher current applications. Available wire
and rod diameters range from 2 mm to 20 mm (0.08 to 0.8 i n c h e ~ ) . ~ " . ~ ~ - ~ ~
Platinum-coated anodes have been used successfully when surrounded by
carbon backfill. The dissolution rate of platinum is 2.4 to 12
to 2.6 X 10-5 Ibs/amp-year) in sea water
milligrams/amp-year (5.3 X
where the evolution of chlorine gas is the primary reaction. The rate of
dissolution is approximately ten times higher when oxygen is the primary
gas generated.I9
Care should be utilized in designing deep anode systems using platinumcoated anodes to avoid localized high-current density discharge areas along
the anode surface that can promote premature failure. This can occur with
long wire anodes placed in variable soil resistivity environments. The
maximum current density suggested for platinum-coated anodes
surrounded by carbon backfill in a deep anode system is 50 amps/m2 (5
amps/ft* ).
Other factors that can result in poor performance of platinum-coated
anodes include anode scales or deposits, certain organic compounds, lowfrequency ripple, current reversals, and specific environmental components,
such as manganese and iron. Acid attack of the substrate materials can
result in premature anode failure in confined, stagnant environments.
Finally, breakdown of the passive oxide film on the substrate materials can
occur with excessive voltage stress across the oxide-electrolyte interface,
resulting in dissolution of the substrate. Titanium in a chloride environment
MATERIALS SELECTION
27
20
MATERIALS SELECTION
29
800C (950 to 1500F) without air contact. This results in the evolution of
various gases and liquids from the coal leaving a porous, solid residue of
carbon coke. Due to large variations in temperature within the coking ovens
and the variability of the naturally produced coal, metallurgical coke has
highly variable characteristics. In general, metallurgical cokes are low in
carbon content, porous resulting in a low specific gravity, and high in ash
content and volatiles. These factors result in a product that is relatively high
in resistivity and not suitable for deep anode systems.
Petroleum cokes are produced using the heavy residue from the
distillation of crude oil. After the initial hydrocarbon cracking process, the
heavy oil residue is used as feedstock for the coking process. Although
there are several different types of cokers, the two primary production
techniques are batch and continuous-feed cokers.
A delayed coker is an example of a batch process coker where the
feedstock is heated to the range of 480 to 500C (900 to 930F) and charged
into large coking drums operated between 10 and 18 psi. The coke
precipitates out of the solution onto the walls of the coking drums. After a
period of time, the operation is discontinued, and the coke is cut from the
drum walls in large chunks using hydraulic cutting nozzles. This type of
petroleum coke, delayed coke, is shown in Figure 2-tLrn
A fluid coker is a continuous process where coke deposits on the surface
of fluidized seed coke circulating within the reactor vessel. The reactor
operates between 480 and 565C (900 to 1050F) at atmospheric pressure.
As the carbon particles become larger and heavier, they are removed from
30
the reactor. This process results in dense, spherical coke particles, fluid
coke, as shown in Figure 2-9.O
Figure 2-9: Fluid Coke
MATERIALS SELECTION
31
Magnified view
of Anode-Coke
interface ,
CARBON
PARTICLES
GROUND
WATER
e- Electronic
Ionic
32
MATERIALS SELECTION
33
2.4.4 WIRE
Each anode in a deep anode system is usually installed with an individual
lead wire connected to an individual shunt for current adjustment and
measurement. Although it is possible to connect several anodes to one lead
wire, this practice is not recommended for several reasons. First,
independent anode position and current adjustment is not possible without
individual lead wires. This is important since relatively small changes in
earth resistivity along a deep anode column will result in nonuniform anode
discharge current densities. For multiple anodes on a single lead wire, it is
impossible to determine the individual anode current densities. Therefore,
one anode may be severely overloaded, resulting in premature failure.
Upon failure of the first anode, the next anode becomes overloaded
resulting in a domino effect. Also, with multiple anodes per lead wire,
failure of one anode in the string can result i n loss of the electrical
connection to other anodes in the same string.
With individual lead wires, #8 AWG copper is usually an adequate
conductor size both from the current capacity and mechanical strength
perspectives. A single lead of this wire size can conduct at least 45 amps
without insulation damage. Since the DC resistance is around 2.1
milliohms/m (0.65 milliohms/ft) at 25C for this conductor size, the voltage
drop along an individual deep anode lead wire is not usually excessive. The
breaking strength of #8 AWG copper is approximately 200 kg (450 Ibs).
The most common insulation type used in cathodic protection applications
is high-molecular-weight polyethylene (HMWPE) conforming to ASTM
D 1248 type 1, Class C5, Grade 5-3,with an average insulation thickness of
2.8 mm (110 mils) ?lo%. Due to the excellent moisture and chemical
resistance of HMWPE insulation, it is used almost exclusively in all
cathodic protection applications except environments containing halogen
ions. For halogen ion environments, the primary insulation should be an
inert fluorocarbon or halogenated material such as polyvinylidene fluoride
(PVDF), radiation-crosslinked polyvinylidene fluoride (XLPVDF),
ethylene chlorotrifluoroethylene (ECTFE), or crosslinked ethylene
chlorotrifluoroethylene (XLECTFE). Usually, an outer abrasion-resistant
jacket of high-molecular-weight polyethylene or polyoflin is
2.4.5 OTHER COMPONENTS
There are additional components that may be necessary or useful
depending upon the specific deep anode design objectives. The use of all of
these ancillary components is neither necessary nor desirable for every
design. With specific design objectives clearly in mind, the design of the
34
MATERIALS SELECTION
35
slow rotation of the piping string from the surface. If a steel piping support
is used, it can serve as the conduit to pump the carbon backfill into the deep
anode system from the bottom of the hole upward.
2.4.5.3 Centralizers
To ensure that each anode is surrounded by carbon backfill, a device to
center the anode in the drilled hole may be employed. The centralizers may
be attached to the anode surface, the anode lead wire, or an anode support
structure. For anodes using passivating substrate materials, such as mixedmetal and platinum-coated anodes, attachment of the centralizer directly to
the anode surface should be avoided due to the possibility of crevice
corrosion beneath the centralizer. All centralizing devices should be
designed to avoid any possibility of anode lead wire damage or carbon
backfill bridging problems. Also, if the system is designed for
replaceability, removal of the anodes must be considered when designing
any centralizing device.
2.4.5.4 Vent Systems
Since most of the electrochemical reactions that occur in a deep anode
system involve the generation of gases, the effect of these gases on the
performance of the system must be considered during the design stage. The
accumulation of excessive gases can isolate sections of the anode surface
from contact with the carbon backfill (gas blockage) resulting in increases
in contact resistance and anode discharge current density.
These problems with gas blockage can be reduced by limiting the anode
discharge current density, selection of a high-conductivity carbon backfill,
and use of a properly designed venting system. The necessity for a venting
system increases as the anode diameter decreases and discharge current
density increases. Therefore, although venting systems may be beneficial
with all types of anodes, they are strongly advised with the small diameter
anodes, such as mixed-metal oxide and platinum-coated anodes.
In order for a venting system to perform properly, carbon backfill must
not be allowed to enter and fill the venting system during installation.
Therefore, the venting system should not be used as a conduit to pump the
carbon backfill into the groundbed. Also, the design of the venting system
must be such that the carbon particles cannot enter the vent holes. Designs
have been used that employ filter fabric to cover relatively large drilled
holes in the vent pipe. However, one of the best techniques involves the use
of very small diameter slits, which will allow gases to enter the venting
system but prevents the passage of carbon backfill particles.
36
Since a deep anode system can serve as a conduit for transfer of polluted
surface water runoff to underground aquifers, this water must not be
allowed to enter the system. One of the first decisions that can affect the
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
37
38
abandonment. Once the deep anode system has reached the end of its useful
life, proper abandonment procedures involving permanent sealing and
removal of surface equipment are necessary to prevent future safety or
ground water contamination problems.
39
REFERENCES
I. J. D. McNeil, Electrical Conductivity of Soils and Rocks, Technical Note TN05,
Geonics Limited, October 1980.
2. J. R. Hearst, P. H. Nelson, Well Logging for Physical Properties (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1985).
3. D. N. Lapedes, ed., McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of the Geological Sciences (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1978).
4. ANSVIEEE Standard 81 - 1983, IEEE Guide for Measuring Earth Resistivity, Ground
Impedance, and Earth Potentials of a Ground System (New York: Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers, 1983). Approved September I98 I , Revised 1983.
5. F. A. Wenner, A Method of Measuring Resistivity, National Bureau of Standards
(now NIST), Scientific Paper, 12, no. S-258 (Gaitherburg, MD: NIST, 1916), p. 469
6. ASTM G 57, Method for Field Measurement of Soil Resistivity Using the Wenner
Four-Electrode Method, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 03.02
(West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM).
7. H. M. Mooney, E. Orellana, Master Tables and Curves for Vertical Electrical Sounding
Over Layered Structure (Madrid: Interciencia, 1966).
8. P. Vingoe, Electrical Resistivity Surveying, Atlas Copco ABEM printed matter
no. 90019, Geophysical Memorandum 5/72, Atlas Copco.
9. H. E. Barnes, Soil Investigation Employing a New Method of Layer Value Determination
40
15. Earth Resistance Tests with Four Point Vibroground, Associated Research Manual
Chapter 3
Design
3.1 COLUMN LENGTH
The design of a deep anode system is a reiterative process since a
decision at one point in the design often necessitates changes to previous
decisions. However, the number of iterations is reduced by following a
specific order in the design process. First, determine the design column
length. Selection of the column length in a deep anode design is based on
several factors: geology available, system resistance desired, and discharge
current density limitations.
3.1.1 GEOLOGY
The geology, particularly stratigraphy, at a specific location is a major
design parameter, which cannot be altered. To reduce operating cost it is
desirable to locate the current discharge area in the lowest-resistivity
stratum available. Therefore, the thickness of the lowest-resistivity stratum
available at a particular location determines the maximum column length.
In order to avoid problems with excessive current unbalance between
anodes, it is generally not advisable to place anodes in zones with
significantly different resistivities.
When two or more strata with similar low resistivities are separated by a
higher-resistivity stratum, all of the low-resistivity strata can be used by
extending a continuous carbon column through these strata. However, the
anodes should be placed in the low-resistivity strata only. All of the design
calculations involving column length should use the total thicknesses of the
low-resistivity strata only since very little current discharge will occur
within the higher-resistivity strata.
If the total thickness of low-resistivity strata at a particular site is
insufficient to meet the design goals, two or more deep anode systems can
be installed and operated in parallel. When several deep anode systems are
interconnected, mutual interference effects between the systems should be
considered in the design.
Finding a low-resistivity stratum of sufficient thickness at a reasonable
depth may be a challenge in some areas. First, the term low resistivity is
42
DESIGN
3.1.2 RESISTANCE
With the objective of low power cost in mind, the resistance-to-earth
should be calculated for the desired column length given the geologic
limitations. The resistance-to-earth of a deep anode system consists of the
parallel combination of the individual anode-to-backfill contact resistances
plus the resistance-to-earth of the backfill column. For low-resistivity
carbon backfills, the contact resistance of an individual anode is small,
COLUMN LENGTH
43
usually less than a tenth of an ohm. With all of the anode contact
resistances in parallel, the total anode-to-backfill resistance is the contact
resistance of a single anode divided by the total number of anodes.
Therefore, for most practical cases the total anode-to-backfill contact
resistance is insignificant and may be ignored in the calculation of total
system resistance-to-earth. The system resistance can be estimated within
reasonable accuracy by determining the resistance-to-earth of a single
vertical anode with a diameter equal to the carbon backfill column diameter
and a length equal to the column length. In fact, the accuracy of the
resistance estimate is usually controlled by the accuracy of the environment
resistivity value, which must be used in the calculation.
A number of equations are available for calculating the resistance-toearth of single vertical electrodes. The most notable are the equations
developed by H. B. Dwight, Erling D. Sunde, and Walter von Baechmann
and W. Schwenck. The equations developed by Dwight and Sunde each
consider two cases: an electrode with one end at the surface of the earth and
an electrode infinitely submerged within the body of the earth. Baechmann
and Schwenck, however, developed an equation with a variable depth-ofburial term. The equations, along with a discussion of the application of
each equation, are found in Appendix 6.2.2-6
Using the equations or graphs in Appendix 6.2,the resistance-to-earth of
a design with a specific active column length and diameter can be estimated
based on the anticipated layer resistivity. If the estimated resistance is
unacceptable, either the active column length must be increased, the
diameter must be increased, a lower layer resistivity must be found, or
multiple parallel columns must be employed. Generally, increasing the
column diameter will have only a very small effect on the overall resistance
compared to the other variables. The active column length can only be
increased up to the maximum limit allowed by the thickness of the existing
low-resistivity stratum. If the resistance is still unacceptable, either the hole
must be drilled deeper in an attempt to locate another low-resistivity
stratum, or multiple holes must be installed.
The decision on what is an acceptable resistance-to-earth of a deep anode
system is an economic decision. The current output of the deep anode
system is determined by the current requirement of the structure. This
current level is fixed by the nature of the structure and environment and is
independent of the deep anode design. The power necessary to furnish a
specific level of output current is directly proportional to the system
resistance, as shown in Equation (3-1).
44
DESIGN
P = 12R
Equation (3-1)
Power Output of Deep Anode System
At a constant level of power output, the cost of the energy, which must be
purchased from the power company on a monthly basis, is calculated in
Equation (3-2).
COST=
720 P C
1000 E F f
Equation (3-2)
Monthly Power Cost
PVPC= COST
i(l+i)"
Equation (3-3)
Present Value of Power Cost
COLUMN LENGTH
45
46
DESIGN
3.2.2 SPACING
Generally, the anodes are uniformly spaced within the active discharge
area of the deep anode system as determined by either the limits of the lowresistivity stratum or the length of the carbon column. The minimum
spacing between anodes is limited only by the necessity of installing all of
the anodes within the active area. The anodes may be placed end-to-end
with no intervening space, if required. If the physical dimensions of the
anodes will not permit the anodes to be installed within the space available,
a modification of the design is necessary.
The maximum spacing between anodes is controlled by the attenuation of
current flow along the carbon column. The magnitude of the attenuation is
a function of a number of interrelated variables. The attenuation is reduced,
resulting in greater acceptable anode spacing as the resistivity of the earth
increases, the resistivity of the carbon decreases, or the diameter of the
carbon column increases. Section 6-3 develops a method of determining
maximum anode spacing. Table 6-1 provides suggested maximum anode
spacings for a 250 mm (10 in.) diameter column using various combinations
of earth and carbon resistivity.
3.2.3ANODE LIFE CALCULATION
In order to discuss the life of a deep anode system, it is necessary to
define failure. For purposes of this discussion, failure will be defined as a
system resistance increase sufficient to prevent adequate current discharge
with the available power supply.
The life of a deep anode system is determined by consumption of the
anodes, consumption of the carbon backfill, and failure of components due
to factors other than electrochemical oxidation. The anode life and carbon
backfill life due to electrochemical oxidation can be readily calculated.
However, the system life due to other possible failure modes cannot be
easily determined. These failure modes are best handled by proper design
ANODE SELECTION
47
Equation ( 3 4 )
Weight Loss Due to Consumption
where W = total anode weight (Kg)
I = average current discharge (amps)
t = design life (years)
C = consumption rate (Kg / amp-year)
f = utilization factor (decimal)
The anode utilization factor represents the percentage of the anode that
can be used before it fails due to loss of the electrical connection or the
contact resistance to the carbon increases significantly. Based upon
experience the suggested utilization factor for the anode in a deep anode
system should be about 75%.
In addition to estimating the anode life, it is necessary to consider the
consumption rate of the carbon backfill. This is discussed in Section 3.3.3.
48
DESIGN
3.3.1 RESISTIVITY
As discussed in Section 2.4.3, the in-situ bulk resistivity of the carbon
backfill is an important determinant of the percentage of ionic versus
electronic current discharged from the anode surface. Since the ground
water in the deep anode system discharge zone is generally relatively
conductive, small differences in carbon backfill resistivity can result in
significant changes in the percentage of ionic current transfer from the
anode surface. Also, as ,indicated in Section 3.2.2, the maximum acceptable
49
50 DESIGN
restoration effects. Moisture will be depleted due to consumption by the
electrochemical reactions plus electro-osmosis effects driving moisture
away from the anode. The primary balancing restoration effect is due to the
hydraulic forces in the earth. Both moisture depletion effects are a function
of current density. The hydraulic restoration effect is a function of the
rainfall in the area, the level of the water table, and the permeability of the
surrounding earth. For long-term operational stability, the equilibrium
moisture level must be sufficient to provide a continuous electrolytic
conduction bridge from the backfill interface into the bulk soil.
The buildup of gases at the backfill interface results in a reduced
discharge surface area together with an increase in earth contact resistance.
The overall result is an increasing resistance of the deep anode system
requiring continual increases in rectifier voltage in order to maintain the
required current output. This condition is known in the industry as gas
blockage. The rate of gas generation is directly related to the discharge
current density. The rate of gas dissipation is a function of the venting
system design and the ability of the surrounding earth to absorb the gases.
For successful long-term operation, the resulting equilibrium must be such
that the total gas accumulation within the deep anode system is minimal.
In order to avoid the operational problems associated with water
depletion or gas accumulation, the design current density must be limited.
The current density of interest is the average current density at the carbonearth interface. This is the primary reaction surface. Although the current
density limit for a specific deep anode location is dependent on the soil
hydrology and permeability at the location, a maximum current density of
160 yA/cm2 (150 mA/ft2) has been used successfully for many years,
especially in the Southeast USA.8
3.3.3 CARBON BACKFILL CONSUMPTION
As the electrochemical reactions occur within the deep anode system,
carbon backfill is consumed. Since the oxidation product of the carbon
backfill is a gas, a void is created. This void will be filled by carbon from
above, if the carbon exhibits good flow characteristics. If the carbon
backfill does not flow into the voids, water from the surrounding earth will
fill the voids with earth from caving of the surrounding formation
ultimately occupying the space. In order to maintain a carbon backfill
environment around the anodes, additional carbon backfill should be placed
above the top anode to provide a replenishment source for the consumed
backfill.
51
Selection of the anode lead wire for a deep anode installation requires
consideration of the mechanical, chemical, and electrical design demands.
Also, a decision is necessary on whether to use individual anode lead wires
or to place multiple anodes on a single lead wire.
In order to improve reliability of the system, individual anode lead wires
are generally recommended. However, as the number of anodes in a single
deep anode system increases or anode replaceability becomes a design
consideration, placement of several anodes on a single lead becomes a
more acceptable alternative. As the number of anodes increases, individual
anode failure has less of an overall impact on the continued operation of the
system. In addition, as the number of individual lead wires increases, the
volume of the discharge column occupied by lead wires rather than
conductive carbon backfill becomes a factor affecting the operation of the
system. Replaceability of the anodes is also jeopardized by the congestion
caused by excessive anode lead wires.
When installing multiple anodes on a single lead wire is considered,
system reliability is improved by limiting the number of anodes on a single
cable and by considering looped connection arrangements.
3.4.1 MECHANICAL REQUlREMENTS
The mechanical stress on the cable and insulation is an important design
factor that should be considered. Excessive cable stress due to tensile
loading or bending can cause insulation cracks resulting in catastrophic
cable failure if the copper conductor is exposed to moisture. Therefore, care
should be exercised in making any small radius bends, such as during the
installation process, or the design of anode cable suspension loops.
Also, tensile stress on the cable due to the anode weight during
52 DESIGN
installation should be evaluated. If the drilled hole contains water or
drilling fluids during the anode installation, the buoyancy force of the fluid
will reduce the cable loading. If the discharge column is backfilled with
carbon, the anodes will be supported by the carbon after settling, relieving
the cable stress. Therefore, the critical loading time is during the
installation of the anodes. Anodes of up to 32 kilograms (70 pounds) are
routinely installed on #8 AWG HMWPE cable without additional support.
53
ampacity for not more than three #8 AWG HMWPE copper cables with a
temperature rating of 75C directly buried in the earth at an ambient
temperature of 30C is 50 amps. If this ampacity is corrected for an ambient
temperature of 20C and for a total of 10 to 20 anode lead wires, the
ampacity is reduced to 26 amps for each lead." Using this very
conservative ampacity rating, it is apparent that #8 AWG HMWPE lead
wire would not approach overloading unless several anodes are connected
to the same cable.
Another consideration in appropriately sizing anode cables is the voltage
drop along the cable. Voltage drop along the anode lead wire is due to the
resistance of the wire and results in power loss, lowering the operating
efficiency of the system. The decision on the level of voltage drop to
tolerate before increasing the cable size is an economic decision. However,
a total voltage drop of 5% or less along the cable system will usually
provide a reasonable efficiency of operation.
Using the example of a #8 AWG HMWPE copper anode lead, the
resistance is 2.15 milliohms/m (0.654 milliohms/ft) at 25"C.'2Assuming a
design using 10 anodes discharging two amps each with the longest anode
lead wire measuring 100 meters (330 feet), the total voltage drop along the
longest lead is 0.43 volts. Assuming a one-ohm system resistance, the
rectifier output voltage would be 20 volts; therefore, the maximum anode
lead voltage drop would be 2.2%. Again, a #8 AWG HMWPE anode lead
would be adequately sized considering voltage drop.
54
DESIGN
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
55
SURFACE SEAL
Depth approximately
25 to 50 feet
NATIVE FILL
DeDendent on
a q u b location
as to length or
use of native fill
DISCHARGING ZONE
Matenal certified to be
clean and reduced
permeabilityif required
,VENT
To extend up
rectifier pole
above flood
levels
56 DESIGN
3.5.3 TESTING OF MATERIALS AND FLUIDS
Another possible route for pollution of underground aquifers is through
the introduction of contaminated materials or drilling fluids during the
installation of the deep anode system. During the design stage, materials
should be selected that have been tested and certified as noncontaminating.
The results of EPA-approved extraction test for heavy-metal leachates
should be obtained for the files for any materials proposed for the
installation. Any muds or other drilling compounds utilized to aid in the
production or stabilization of the hole should also be certified as
noncontaminating.
Water used for drilling should be potable water whenever possible. If a
potable water supply is not available near a proposed drilling site, fresh
water source may be used after being properly chlorinated. The amount of
chlorine required to disinfect a water source depends upon the quantity of
oxidizable material in the water (chlorine demand), the temperature and pH
of the water, and the exposure time. Although the chlorine for treatment
may be obtained in a number of different forms and concentrations,
common laundry bleach (5.25% sodium hypochlorite) is often used.
Depending on the particular water source, from one to two litters (gallons)
of laundry bleach per lo00 litters (gallons) of water is recommended. The
treated water should be allowed to stand for a minimum of 2 hours prior to
use.-15
3.6 OTHER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Depending upon the objectives for a specific project, other design
considerations may become important to accomplish specific goals. The
variations in design and the types of auxiliary components that might be
used are limited only by the imagination of design engineers. Some of the
more common secondary considerations are discussed below.
3.6.1 VENT SYSTEMS
Many of the electrochemical reactions occurring in a deep anode system
involve the evolution of a gas. If these gases accumulate, the electrical
contact resistance between the anode and the carbon backfill or the carbon
backfill and the earth increases. In the extreme, the contact resistances
increase to the point that current discharge from the system is prevented.
This problem is known in the industry as gas blockage.
The accumulation of gases is prevented through control of gas generation
and dissipation. The rate of gas generation is restricted by controlling
57
58 DESIGN
on its surface. Therefore, the anode must be positioned such that carbon
backfill will completely surround the anode.
The design of any centering device should be such that it does not
significantly reduce the total anode discharge surface area. Also, care
should be exercised in placing the centering device directly on the surface
of any anode susceptible to crevice corrosion, such as rare metals on
titanium or niobium substrates. Finally, if anode replacement is a design
objective, the centering device must not interfere with the removal process.
59
Groundbed Cover
Earth Seal
Native Fill
0
.-c
0
60 DESIGN
3.7 SPECIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
In addition to the details previously covered, which are involved with
almost every system design, there are a number of special design situations
that may occur. These situations occur due to unusual geology, system
requirements, or location and usually require a detailed investigation of the
particular problems involved together with the available options.
61
62
DESIGN
from Equation 6-12. As seen from this equation, the linear resistance may
be reduced by either selecting a lower-resistivity carbon backfill or
increasing the effective diameter of the carbon column. It should be
realized that any nonconducting materials, such as insulated anode lead
wires and vent systems, installed in the carbon column reduce the effective
cross-section of the conducting column.
3.7.4 SAFETY
Public safety should always be a consideration in any engineering design.
Although the safety issues with design of a deep anode system are minimal,
the design engineer should evaluate two possible areas of concern: surface
potential gradients and gas discharge. These two safety concerns usually
require no specific action for most deep anode systems. However, they
become more important with high discharge currents or installation in areas
with high levels of public exposure.*
3.7.4.1 Potential Gradients
Surface potential gradients generated by any functioning cathodic
protection groundbed are a safety concern as a result of the possible shock
hazards. A person walking across the earths surface in an area influenced
by these potential gradients is exposed to a potential difference between his
feet. This shock hazard is known as step potential. Also, if a person is
standing on the earths surface and touching a conductor energized by the
deep anode system, he is exposed to a potential difference between his
hand and feet. This is called touch potential. Finally, a transferred potential
hazard occurs when a person contacts a conductor at remote-earth potential
while standing within an area of earth potential gradients.
The safe potential and current exposure limits for humans are dependent
on the magnitude, duration, and frequency of the source. For exposure to
potentials from the operation cathodic protection systems, the duration of
exposure is continuous. Regarding frequency effects, most of the work in
determining safe exposure limits has been for frequencies in the 50 to 60
Hertz range since this is the common world power supply frequency range.
It is generally reported that the human body can tolerate higher levels of
DC current than currents in the 50/60 Hertz range. Therefore, using
recommended safe exposure limits determined for a 50/60 Hertz supply
will be conservative for DC exposure conditions. Any open circuit potential
in excess of 15 volts or current supply of 5 milliamps or more constitutes
an anticipated shock hazard.
Surface potential gradients are minimized with a deep anode system
63
design because the current discharge occurs deep within the body of the
earth. However, some surface potential gradient will be detectable. The
primary factors that determine the magnitude of surface potential gradients
for a deep anode system are level of current discharge, soil resistivity, and
depth of current discharge. For most operating deep anode systems, surface
potential gradients are well-below safe operating limits.
3.7.4.2 Gases
The primary gases that may be discharged by a deep anode system are
oxygen, chlorine, carbon monoxide, or carbon dioxide. These gases are all
possible anodic reaction products. Hydrogen gas is a cathodic reaction
product and should not normally be generated in a deep anode system.
However, it is possible with a poorly designed system to produce hydrogen
gas.
One example where the production of hydrogen gas is possible in a deep
anode system involves ionic current discharge from the anode surface that
is intercepted by a metallic casing. The ionic current discharge from the
anode may occur because the anode is suspended in a ground water
environment or because of a high resistivity carbon backfill saturated with
low resistivity water. In either case, the ionic flow must be converted back
into an electronic current in order to flow through the casing. This
conversion can only occur as a result of a cathodic electrochemical reaction
on the inside surface of the casing wall. Of course, the electronic current is
converted back into ionic current on the outside wall of the metallic casing
through another anodic reaction.
Carbon monoxide and hydrogen gases are potentially explosive. Also,
oxygen and chlorine gases combined with flammable gases or vapors can
form explosive mixtures. Chlorine gas is toxic to humans. Carbon
monoxide can cause asphyxiation by preventing the absorption of oxygen
into the blood. With the exception of oxygen itself, of course, all of the
above gases can cause asphyxiation by displacement of oxygen in closed
space^.'^-'^
In the quantities generated by most deep anode systems, the gases can be
safely vented to the atmosphere by observing a few precautions. Due to the
potential safety hazards involved, the gases should not be allowed to
concentrate in closed spaces. Therefore, deep anode venting should be
designed in such a way to ensure release to the atmosphere rather than to
confined spaces. Also, the vent should be placed well-above pedestrian
traffic with restricted access.y
64
DESIGN
65
clays. If the electrical conductivity of the soil is too high, very large
currents are required to maintain a voltage gradient adequate for effective
drying.'?
Electro-osmosis is the movement of a liquid (water) containing ions
through small pores of an electrically charged soil." Microscopically finegrained minerals develop a negative surface charge as a result of crystal
imperfections. During the formation of these very small grains through the
process of weathering, positive charges are adsorbed to the ~urface.'~
Under
the influence of an electric field, these positive charges move in the
direction of the field and parallel to it dragging the pore liquid along. The
velocity of the liquid movement is directly related to the potential
gradient.23
66 DESIGN
replenished at an anodic surface by the natural hydraulic gradients in the
earth.
In an operating deep anode system the moisture level at the discharge
surface will reach an equilibrium determined by the rate of water depletion
and the hydraulic restoration forces. The worst case involves fine-grained,
low-permeability soil, since water movement toward the discharge surface
is slow while electro-osmotic forces add to the normal water consumption
reactions depleting water levels. Of course, as the moisture level at the
discharge surface decreases, the result is an increasing resistance-to-earth
of the deep anode system. If the equilibrium level is such that insufficient
moisture is present, the resistance will increase to the point that an adequate
level of current cannot be discharged. If this is the case, an artificial water
supply must be used to supplement the natural hydraulic forces, or the
current discharge must be reduced to the point that the natural hydraulic
forces can maintain an adequate moisture level. If a supplemental water
supply is required, potable water should be introduced through the venting
system.
REFERENCES
1. J. F. Tatum, Sr., private correspondence to author, August 8, 1996.
67
8. J. Wagner, Cathodic Protection: Design I (Houston, TX: NACE, 1992).
9. NACE Standard RP0572, Design, Installation, Operation, and Maintenance of Impressed
Current Deep Groundbeds (Houston, TX: NACE, 1995). Approved June 1972,
Revised 1995.
10. J. H. Neher, M. H. McGrath, The Calculation of the Temperature Rise and Load
Capability of Cable Systems, AIEE Transactions, Part 111 (Power Apparatus and
Systems) 76 (October 1957):pp. 752-772.
11. The National Electrical Code Handbook 1996 (Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection
Association, 1996).
12. A. W. Peabody, Control of Pipeline Corrosion (Houston, TX: NACE, 1967).
13. A. G. Ostroff, Introduction to Oilfield Water Technology (Houston, TX: NACE, 1979).
14. Missouri Private Well Construction Standards, RSMo256.600, Missouri Department of
Natural Resources, Rolla, MO, September 1987.
15. Regulations of Water Supply, Sewage Disposal, and Solid Waste, Title 26, Subtitle 04,
68
DESIGN
Chapter 4
Installation
4.1 EQUIPMENT AND RIGGING
The major steps involved in the installation of a deep anode system
include drilling the hole, electrically logging the hole, placing the anodes in
the hole, pumping the backfill into place, and completing the installation to
the surface. To successfully accomplish each of these steps, the proper
equipment and installation techniques are necessary. Although a variety of
equipment types and installation methods may be used, there are some
basic considerations in selecting equipment and planning the installation.
The first step of the installation process involves drilling the hole. In
order to minimize installation problems, the hole needs to be straight,
stable, and free of obstructions or constrictions. Depending upon the
specific geology, the hole may be drilled with air or mud circulation.
Although air drilling may be preferred in areas involving significant hard
formation drilling, most deep anode holes are drilled using rotary mud rigs.
With a rotary mud rig, the quality of the completed hole is dependent on
the drilling equipment, drilling speed, mud characteristics, and driller expertise. All of these factors interact to determine the final result. However,
if the drilling equipment is undersized for the diameter and depth of hole to
be drilled, the probability of hole problems will increase significantly.
Therefore, an investigation of the drilling equipment to be used is
warranted.
As the hole diameter and depth increase, the volume and weight of fluid
column that must be moved by the drill rig circulation equipment increases.
Although centrifugal pumps may provide adequate pumping pressures for
relatively shallow holes with stable formations, positive displacement
pumps are recommended for deep anode installations. Most portable rotary
mud rigs employ duplex piston-type mud pumps rated by the cylinder liner
diameter and piston stroke length. The minimum mud pump rating
suggested is a duplex 127 mm X 152 mm (5 in. X 6 in.), which has a
displacement of approximately 560 liters per minute (1 50 gpm) at a
maximum pressure of 21.8 kg / cm2 (2.14 MPa, 310 psi).'
In addition to adequate pumping capacity, other components of the drill
70 INSTALLA TION
rig and drill string should be reviewed. The drill rig mast, swivel, and traveling blocks should have sufficient height and load capacity to handle the
anticipated drill string load and the length and weight of any casing strings
to be installed. The drill string consisting of the kelly, drill pipe, and bit together with any drill collars or stabilizers should be inspected to determine
proper sizing and wear. The mud circulation system should be inspected for
leaks including pump, drill stem swivel seals, and drill pipe couplings.
Before installation of the anodes, the drilled hole should be electrically
logged to determine optimum placement. Electrical logging techniques are
described in Section 2.2.4. Depending upon the specific technique
involved, the only equipment required is a down-hole electrode or sonde, a
resistance test instrument, and a surface ground or test electrodes. A
method of supporting, lowering, and retrieving the exploring electrode is
also required. This may be accomplished by using a sheave supported
above the drilled hole. To determine the exact position of the exploring
electrode in the hole, the interconnecting lead wire should be marked in
calibrated increments.
There are many different approaches to selecting the equipment and setup
for placement of the carbon backfill in a deep anode system. For most
installations it is strongly recommended that the carbon backfill be pumped
into the hole from the bottom upward, as discussed in Section 4.6, rather
than pouring into the top of the hole. If the backfill is to be pumped into the
bottom of the hole, a pump, mixing nozzle, mixing tank, routing valves,
pumping pipe, and pipe suspension and retrieval system will be required. A
schematic of one arrangement, which allows continuous mixing and
pumping of any quantity of backfill, is shown in Figure 4-1.
Often, the drill rig is employed to pump the carbon backfill by making
simple modifications to the circulation system employed for drilling the
hole. First, two fluid circulation flow paths must be established. One
closed-loop path must be created through a mixing tank to facilitate mixing
the carbon slurry. The second flow path is established from the mixing tank
through the down-hole piping to allow placement of the backfill. Flow
through each path is controlled and regulated by flow control valves. Since
the down-hole piping used to pump the backfill is usually 2.5 cm (1 in.)
standard black steel pipe, a transition fitting is necessary to allow coupling
the pumping pipe to the drill stem swivel. This arrangement allows the
pumping pipe to be supported and retrieved using the drill rig mast, and the
carbon slurry to be pumped by the rig mud pump.
If the drill rig is not used to pump the carbon backfill, an auxiliary pump
capable of flow rates of at least 190 liters per minute (50 gpm) at 8.8
71
FLUIDIZING
NOZZLE
PUMPING PIPE
PUMP
MIXING TANK
PUMP
SUCTION
ANODE
72 INSTALLA TION
fluidizing nozzle can be any outlet device with an exit constriction
sufficient to increase the fluid velocity to produce a jetting action for
mixing tank agitation. A very simple fluidizing nozzle can be fabricated by
slightly flattening one end of a 1 m (3 ft.) long piece of standard one inch
steel pipe. The fluidizing nozzle should be attached to the outlet of the
pump by a section of flexible high-pressure hose. The mixing tank should
be placed such that the top of the deep anode system is visible and
convenient access is provided to sufficient clean water for the procedure.
For larger mixing tanks, the tank may be slightly elevated on one end with
the end of the suction line placed at the lowest point, if desired. The pump
suction line should be equipped with a strainer with 10 mm (3/8 in.)
openings. The strainer should have enough openings to minimize flow
restriction.
To pump the backfill-water slurry into the hole, a 2.5 cm (1 in.) or larger
steel pipe should be connected to the pump discharge through a down-hole
control valve and suspended in the hole. The pumping pipe should be
lowered to within 1 meter (3 feet) of the bottom of the hole but not allowed
to rest on the hole floor. To prevent plugging of the pumping pipe during
the lowering or pumping process, six to ten - 12 mm (0.5 in.) holes should
be drilled or cut into the bottom 1.5-m (5-ft.) section of the pipe.
There are many other mixing and pumping setups possible. The specific
setup described here and the technique described in detail in Section 4.6
have been used successfully for many years under all types of construction
conditions. This particular setup is described because of the simplicity and
availability of the necessary components.
4.2 DRILLING
Although detailed drilling methods and equipment are beyond the scope
of this manual, some helpful information will be discussed. The cost of
producing the hole is directly related to the drilling speed. Therefore, the
driller is motivated to complete the hole as rapidly as possible. However, if
the hole is drilled too rapidly, problems may develop with hole stability,
obstructions, constrictions, and/or straightness. When drilling through
unconsolidated formations, adequate circulation time is necessary to
provide a stabilizing mud cake on the hole wall. For clay formations,
additional hole-cleaning time is necessary to remove mud boots and
constrictions. Also, depending upon the formation, increasing the pulldown pressure to increase drilling speed can result in significant hole
deviations.
DRILLING
73
The cost of producing the hole is also related to the quantity of drilling
muds or additives required during the drilling process. The addition of
drilling mud improves hole cleaning and bit lubrication in addition to
providing hole stabilization in unconsolidated formations. Bentonite
drilling mud is one of the least expensive muds for drilling in fresh water
formations. However, as the salt (sodium chloride) content of the water
increases, the hydration quality (yield) of bentonite is decreased. Of course,
if the bentonite particles fail to hydrate and thicken, the mud does not
perform its intended functions. The bentonite yield is not greatly affected at
sodium chloride concentrations of less than approximately 0.5 percent;
however, at concentrations of around 5% the bentonite yield is reduced to
about 50%. Other cations such as calcium, magnesium, and potassium can
also affect the yield of bentonite muds. Prehydration of bentonite with fresh
water may provide substantial benefits when formation salt waters are
encountered. Depending upon the specific conditions, salt water muds or
gels may be necessary. Care should be exercised when selecting alternate
drilling fluids, especially hydrocarbon-based muds or gels, to avoid
significantly affecting the formation resistivity.2
Although equipment, drilling speed, and muds have each been discussed
independently, they are all interrelated and formation dependent. Driller
expertise is the pivotal factor that often makes the difference between a
successful, cost-effective installation and a less-than-satisfactory job. A
"well-seasoned" driller listens to the sounds of the rig as it produces the
hole, watches the mud circulation, checks the cutting returns, and carefully
observes his gauges. He often anticipates hole problems before they occur.
He knows when additional hole-cleaning time will pay off in installation
time savings, and moves into action when hole stability becomes
questionable.
74
INSTALLA TION
DRILLING
75
sizing, and hardness of the cuttings from the formation are generally noted.
Often the decision to terminate pilot hole drilling is made primarily from
the observations obtained during the drilling operation. For example, if the
rig has been drilling through a clay stratum, as determined by the above
techniques, and a sand stratum is encountered, the decision to stop the pilot
hole may be made if thickness of the clay stratum is adequate.
4.3 TESTING
There are two primary types of tests performed during the drilling process
to provide decision making data. Both tests are used to estimate formation
resistivity. The first test involves measurement of the resistivity of the
cuttings screened from the fluid circulation stream. The cuttings are
accumulated and compacted tightly into a soil box. As seen in Figure 4-2,
this is a test fixture consisting of a small, nonconductive, rectangular
container with metallic end plates to provide contacts for current injection
into the test sample. Two metallic pins are also provided through the walls
of the test fixture to contact the sample for potential measurement.
Figure 4-2 : Soil Box
76
INSTALLA TION
A
p = R-
Equation (4-1)
Soil Box Resistivity Equation
TESTING
77
should be removed from the hole in preparation for electrically logging the
hole. Data from the electrical logging will be used to position the anodes,
adjust the carbon column length, and estimate the final deep anode
resistance-to-earth. Depending upon the accuracy needed, any one of
several techniques, as described in Section 2.2.4.1 through Section 2.2.4.3,
can be used for electrical logging.
If a pilot hole was drilled, time is now available, while the hole is reamed
to the final diameter, to analyze the logging data and adjust the design. Of
course, any design adjustments must be made within the limits of available
materials. The anode design locations can be adjusted to take advantage of
low-resistivity strata and optimize anode current loadings. If sufficient lowresistivity strata were not found to handle the design discharge current, the
decision to limit the current output or drill multiple holes can be made
based on the data. Also, the decision to split the active discharge column
between two or more low-resistivity strata within the same hole can be
analyzed.
4.4 CASING PLACEMENT
78 INSTALLATION
casing string as it is pushed into place. Once the casing string is locked into
place in the hole, the drilling fluids are cleaned from inside the casing by
washing with water.
In difficult drilling conditions, it is sometimes necessary to install a steel
casing to maintain a stable hole until the deep anode materials are in place.
The casing may even be pushed into place as the drilling progresses. This
hole stabilization casing may be left in place or may be pulled during or
after the carbon backfill placement. If the casing is to be removed from the
hole, care must be exercised to avoid anode or cable damage during the
pulling process. Depending upon the hole depth and the carbon backfill
column length, the casing may have to be pulled in sections as the carbon
backfill is installed to prevent locking the casing in place by the backfill.
If the casing is to be left in the hole, some type of fill is generally
required between the casing and the hole wall to lock the casing in place, to
seal sensitive formations, and/or to provide an electronically conductive
contact to the earth. If the same carbon backfill is to be placed inside and
outside of the casing, the backfill may be pumped during one operation
after anode placement. If, however, the backfill to be placed outside of the
casing is different, it is generally installed in a separate operation before
anode placement.
If sealed casing strings are installed and placement of the backfill on the
inside and outside of the casing is to take place in two different operations,
care must be exercised to avoid significant differential pressures across the
casing wall capable of bursting or collapsing the casing, especially plastic
materials. One method of reducing the differential pressures is to maintain
heavy drilling mud on the opposite side of the casing wall from the backfill
pumping operation. Another technique involves simultaneous placement of
the carbon backfills on the inside and outside of the casing.
4.5 ANODE PLACEMENT
Before carbon backfill is placed around the anodes, the anodes should be
properly located within the discharge zone. An exact placement location for
each anode should be determined by review of the electrical and drillers
logs. Once each anode depth has been determined, the anode lead wire
should be marked to ensure proper placement.
If the anodes are to be suspended from their individual lead wires, they
should be lowered into position after attachment of any center devices. If
additional anode support is planned, the anodes should be attached to the
support before installation. Any venting system specified should be
ANODE PLACEMENT
79
attached to the anodes and/or anode support assembly. The venting system
should be at a fixed distance from the anode discharge surfaces but not
contacting the anode surface directly. This can be accomplished by
inserting fixed spacers between the anodes and the vent.
80 INSTALLATION
circulation through the mixing tank begun.
The end of the fluidizing nozzle should be positioned in the mixing tank
just below water level and directed at an angle resulting in maximum
agitation within the tank. Carbon backfill can then be poured into the
mixing tank where the high-velocity fluid exits the mixing nozzle. The
backfill should be poured at a rate that allows the material to become
suspended in the fluid flow stream.
At regular intervals during the mixing process, the bottom of the mixing
tank should be checked using a shovel to ensure that the carbon backfill is
not settling out. By proper placement of the mixing nozzle, maintenance of
a good fluid flow rate, and addition of backfill at the proper rate, the
backfill should remain in suspension without supplemental agitation.
However, in the event that backfill does settle out in the tank, additional
stirring of the tank using a shovel may be necessary. The process of adding
carbon backfill to the flow stream should be continued u n t i l the
recommended carbon-water mix ratio has been achieved or the tank reaches
maximum capacity. At that point, the slurry mixture should be relatively
thick, but the pump should be having no problem circulating the slurry or
maintaining the carbon backfill in suspension.
Once the slurry in the mixing tank is ready, the down-hole flow control
valve can be opened to begin diverting part of the fluid flow stream into the
drilled hole. Fluid flow out of the top of the hole should begin as the carbon
backfill displaces the fluids within the hole. The pump speed should be
increased to maintain agitation within the mixing tank. The down-hole flow
rate may be adjusted with the flow control valve until a steady outflow of
approximately 75 to 95 liters per minute (20 to 25 gpm) is observed at the
top of the deep anode system. At this pumping rate and with an increase in
pump speed, the agitation within the mixing tank should not change
significantly.
As the slurry begins to flow down-hole, the fluid level in the mixing tank
should begin to slowly drop. When the fluid level in the tank approaches
the two-thirds full mark, the mixing of additional carbon and water can
begin. The rate of water and carbon backfill addition should be about equal
to the down-hole flow rate to maintain the fluid level within the tank within
the upper one-third of the tank capacity. Also, the water flow rate into the
mixing tank should be adjusted to maintain the proper carbon-water mix
ratio. By observing the viscosity and solids content of the mixture
consistency at regular intervals, the water and carbon addition rates can be
adjusted as necessary.
This process should be continued until the last bag of carbon backfill to
a1
be pumped has been added to the mixture. When the last bag of carbon has
been added, the water supply should be turned off allowing the mixing tank
to pump down. Immediately before the fluid level within the mixing tank
reaches the point where the suction begins to draw air into the pump, clean
water should be added to the tank and all agitation in the tank stopped. The
clean water is added to displace the carbon backfill slurry from the
circulation system. The volume of fresh water required should be
calculated based on the specific pump and down-hole piping volume. For a
90 m (300 ft.) deep anode system, the volume of clean water needed should
be about 110 to 150 litters (30 to 40 gallons).
When the clean water has been pumped through the circulation system,
the pump should be shut down, the pumping pipe disconnected from the
drill stem swivel, and additional water pumped through the pump and
associated piping until the outflow is clean. This final cleaning should only
require a few minutes. Removal of the down-hole pumping pipe should be
undertaken within a few minutes after flow has been stopped to avoid
entrapment of the pipe by settling backfill.
4.7 COMPLETION
02
INSTALLATION
REFERENCES
I . Duplex Mud Pumps, Bulletin 3-231,4th ed., Gardner-DenverCompany, Dallas, TX.
Chapter 5
Operation
5.1 MAINTENANCE
Deep anode systems generally do not require significant maintenance to
operate successfully for long periods. However, the power supply must be
routinely checked to ensure an uninterrupted supply of protective current.
Through a combination of good installation records, complete
commissioning tests, routine inspections, and corrective actions for
problems discovered, continued operation of a deep anode system can be
ensured.
5.1.1 INSTALLATION
The first step in the successful operation and maintenance of any deep
anode system begins during the installation process. The company
inspector should check all components delivered to the jobsite against the
design specifications to ensure compliance. He should also verify all of the
dimensions provided on the design drawings, such as hole diameter,
completion depth, anode locations, and casing dimensions. Any variations
from the drawings or specifications should be approved by the design
engineer and recorded for future reference.
A complete record of the installation should be maintained. This record
should include the original design drawings and specifications with any
approved field changes marked in red. The record should also contain the
drillers log with soil types identified and the depth recorded. A detailed
copy of the electrical log including test instruments and method should also
be maintained. The installation record should contain any materials tests
performed to ensure compliance with the design specifications. Finally,
information about the chemical composition and compliance with state and
federal pollution regulations for all materials should be maintained.
5.1.2 COMMISSIONING TESTS
To allow the carbon backfill to settle completely around the anodes, at
least 24 hours should be allowed after final pumping before the system is
energized. After stabilization, the system should be thoroughly tested.
a4
OPERATION
Complete test records for the system will prove very useful in diagnosing
problems i n the future. Some more important tests include the system
resistance, the resistance-to-earth of the deep anode system, the resistanceto-earth of the structure, the current output of each anode, and the
resistances between anodes.
The system resistance is an important troubleshooting and prediction
measurement because it is very easy to make and routinely check. This is
the resistance as measured at the terminals of the rectifier or power supply.
From ohms law, the resistance is the algebraic sum of the driving voltages
divided by the current flow. Since a voltage opposing the rectifier voltage
will exist due to the difference between the polarized potential of the anode
material and the polarized potential of the protected structure, this voltage
must be subtracted from the rectifier output voltage. The magnitude of this
opposing voltage can be determined by measuring the voltage across the
rectifier terminals instantaneously after interrupting the rectifier current
output.
Measurement of the original resistances of the individual components of
the total system resistance is helpful in future troubleshooting problems.
This allows determination of the specific component responsible for any
future changes in system resistance. The total system resistance is the series
combination of the resistance-to-earth of the deep anode system, the
resistance-to-earth of the structure at the rectifier location, the resistance of
the positive header cable, and the resistance of the negative structure cable.
If the sum of these individual resistances is more than the total system
resistance, the deep anode system is not remote from the structure.
The resistance-to-earth of the deep anode system should be determined
with respect to remote earth. This resistance is defined as the instantaneous
shift in potential of the deep anode system divided by the instantaneous
change in current output of the system. Using the rectifier as a power
supply for the test, the instantaneous change in current is simply the
rectifier current output. The instantaneous potential shift of the deep anode
system is the potential measured when the rectifier current is flowing less
the potential measured instantaneously after the rectifier current is
interrupted. These potential measurements should be made between the
anode buss in the shunt box and a copperkopper sulfate reference electrode
placed at remote earth. Remote earth is determined with the rectifier
operating. It is the location where no further increase in potential can be
detected as the reference electrode is moved further away from the deep
anode system i n a direction opposite to the direction to the protected
structure. The test set-up for this measurement is shown in Figure 5-1.
MAINTENANCE
a5
Connect to
positive output
terminal
Pipeline
,Reference Cell
1 DEEP
ACTIVE
COLUMN
86
OPERATION
MAINTENANCE
a7
Equation (5-1)
Column Resistivity Estimate
Once each month the rectifier supplying power to each deep anode
system should be inspected, and the current and voltage outputs recorded.
The inspection should consist of visually inspecting for signs of heating,
arcing, or burning; noticing unusual smells or sounds; and comparing
output levels with previous values. Any indications of problems or changes
should be investigated in detail to determine the source and corrective
action required. The voltage and current outputs indicated by the panel
aa
OPERATION
TROUBLESHOOTING
a9
90 OPERATION
to be the system component responsible for the change in system
resistance, a more detailed investigation of the deep anode system is
warranted to determine the cause and corrective action necessary.
There are several possible causes for an increase in the resistance of a
deep anode system including loss of soil moisture, gas blockage, lead wire
failure, anode connection failure, or anode consumption. Since corrective
action may be possible if the increase in resistance is associated with loss
of soil moisture or gas blockage, determination of the cause is important.
Also, if the increase in resistance can be controlled, replacement of the
deep anode system may be delayed resulting in a cost savings. If the
problem is associated with component failures, an estimate of the time
when replacement will be necessary will allow planning and budgeting for
the replacement.
To determine the most probable cause for the increased resistance, a
combination of analyzing available historical data, measuring appropriate
operating variables, and testing hypotheses is used to reach a conclusion. In
analyzing the historical data, the following questions should be considered.
How old is the installation? Has the installation been operated within the
design current output? How quickly has the increase in resistance occurred?
Considering the individual anode current outputs, is the increase associated
with one or more individual anodes or the deep anode system as a whole?
Is there any evidence of chlorine gas generation? What type of soil is in the
active discharge zone? What is the normal moisture level within this zone?
How permeable is the zone to water movement?
In addition to the resistance-to-earth of the deep anode system, the
resistances between anodes and the column resistivity should be measured
and compared to the original values. The individual anode current outputs
should also be measured and compared with previous values. Finally, the
polarization level of the deep anode system should be measured. For this
test, the potential between the positive terminal of the rectifier and a remote
copperkopper sulfate reference cell is measured immediately after the
rectifier is interrupted. With the rectifier off, the potential is monitored over
time until it stabilizes. The change in potential from the instant-off value
to the final stabilized value represents the polarization of the deep anode
system.
With the above information in mind, some considerations in evaluating
the most probable cause of the increase in operating resistance will be
discussed. Resistance increases due to lead wire failure or anode
connection failure tend to occur suddenly with total output loss from the
anode while increases due to moisture depletion, gas blockage, or anode
TROUBLESHOOTING
91
92
OPERATION
REFERENCES
1. J. Wagner, Cathodic Protection: Design I (Houston, TX: NACE, 1992).
2. Cathodic Protection Rectifier Manual, Goodall Electric, Inc. Fort Collins, CO, 1989.
Chapter 6
Appendix
6.1 ANODE INFORMATION
Detailed descriptions of the most commonly used anodes for deep anode
applications are provided in Section 2.4.2. A summary of the maximum
recommended current densities and anticipated consumption rates for these
anodes used i n deep anode systems is provided in Table 6-1. The
information provided in this table represents an integration of suggested
values from a number of different sources together with adjustments based
on personal experiences.'-'
94
APPENDIX
Equation (6-1)
Dwight-Single Surface Anode
RESISTANCE DETERMINATION
95
For the case with a single vertical anode installed infinitely deep within
the body of the earth, the equation becomes:
Equation (6-2)
Dwight-Single Deep Anode
Erling D. Sunde also developed equations for calculating the resistanceto-earth of single, vertical electrodes.'@"The equation based upon one end
of the anode located at the surface of the earth is as follows:
Equation (6-3)
Sunde-Single Surface Anode
The equation for a single anode located infinitely deep is:
Equation ( 6 4 )
Sunde-Single Deep Anode
If the length, L, is much greater than the diameter, D, i n Sunde's
Equation (6-3) for surface anodes, the equation reduces to Dwight's
Equation (6-1) for surface anodes. The same holds true for the two deep
anode equations. Therefore, Dwight's equations are a special case of
Sunde's equations. Dwight's equations are not valid unless the length is
much greater than the diameter.
Since the surface anode equations are based on one end of the anode
located at the surface and the deep anode equations are based on the anode
located infinitely deep within the earth, neither case is exactly correct for
real deep anode installations. However, the resistance-to-earth for real
installations would be expected to fall between the two calculated values.
The deeper the discharge zone is in the earth, the closer the resistance-to-
96
APPENDIX
Equation (6-5)
Baechmann and Schwenck-Single Anode T Depth
For multiple deep anode systems installed infinitely far apart and
operated in parallel, the resistance-to-earth of the parallel combination is
the resistance-to-earth of a single deep anode system divided by the total
number of systems. As the individual deep anode systems are placed closer
together, they begin to interact and interfere with each other. This
interference can be represented as a mutual resistance between the deep
anode systems. The mutual resistance between the individual deep anode
systems results in an increase in the total system resistance. Therefore, the
effective resistance-to-earth of the combination increases by the mutual
interference factor.
For multiple deep anode systems placed at equal spacing along a straight
line, the resistance-to-earth is calculated from the following formula
developed by Sunde.
97
Equation (6-6)
Sunde-Multiple Vertical Anodes
where N = number of vertical anodes
R(D) = resistance-to-earth of one anode of Diameter D (ohms)
S = spacing between anodes (m)
R(2iS) = mutual resistance between anodes using D = 2iS (ohms)
In Equation (6-6) above, the resistance-to-earth, R(D), is simply the
value calculated for a single, vertical anode with diameter, D, using the
appropriate Equation (6-1) through Equation (6-4). The mutual resistance
between anodes, R(2iS), is the value calculated for a single vertical anode
with a diameter of 2i times the spacing, S, using one of the previous
resistance equations. The summation term involving these mutual
resistances corrects the calculated resistance-to-earth for the mutual
interference between anodes.
When the spacing, S, is equal to or larger than the anode length, L, and
the number of anodes is large, Equation (6-6) can be simplified to the
following form.
O.O1
In ( 0.656 N ))
Equation (6-7)
Sunde-Multiple Vertical Anodes with S > L
6.2.2 RESISTANCE GRAPHS
The graphs provided in this section were generated using the equations in
Section 6.2.1. Since Dwight's equations are a special case of Sunde's
equations, graphs are provided for Sunde's equations only. The first two
graphs, Figure 6-1 and Figure 6-2, are plots of resistance versus column
length with the column diameter held constant. Three different curves are
plotted on each graph for three different values of column diameter: 150,
250, and 380 mm (6, 10, and 15 in.).
90
APPENDIX
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.3
0.2
0. I
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Length, rn
For all of the graphs, the soil resistivity, p, is held constant at loo0 ohmcm. Since resistance is directly proportional to resistivity, the resistance for
any value of resistivity is obtained by determining the value from the
curves at 1000 ohm-cm and using the resistivity ratio to correct for the
actual resistivity.
RESISTANCE DETERMINATION
99
0.9
0.8
0.7
.c
0.6
0.5
(D
c
In
.In
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90 100
Length, rn
The Baechmann and Schwenck equation was used to generate Figure 6-3
and Figure 6-4.Again, three curves are plotted on the same graphs for the
three different values of column diameter. Two different values of depth to
the top of the discharge column were used to illustrate the amount of
resistance variation with depth. The depth used in Figure 6-3is 15.2 meters
(50 feet).
100 APPENDIX
I
0.9
0.8
0.7
JZ
0
-s
0.6
0.5
In
.v)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Length, m
Figure 6-3: Baechmann-Schwenck Eq.(T=15.2 m 8, p=lOOO R-cm)
The depth for Figure 6-4 is 61 meters (200 feet).
I
0.9
0.8
0.7
!
m
0.5
u)
.u)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0. I
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90 100
Length, rn
102 APPENDIX
To use these graphs, read the mutual resistance value for a specific
spacing for a given column length. This is the mutual resistance with the
soil resistivity equal to loo0 ohm-cm. Next, use one of the previous graphs
to determine the resistance-to-earth of a single anode column of the correct
dimensions in 1000 ohm-cm soil. Then, add the two resistance terms
together and correct the total resistance for the actual soil resistivity by
multiplying by the resistivity ratio. Finally, divide the corrected resistance
by the number of deep anode systems in parallel.
Figure 6-5 provides mutual resistance plots for two (N=2) deep anodes
operated in parallel.
0.12
0.1
0.02
10
20
30
40
Spacing, m
Figure 6-5: Mutual resistance term for N = 2 (p=lOOO f2-cm)
50
Figure 6-6 provides the mutual resistance term for three (N=3) deep
anode systems.
0.25
E
r
0.2
0.15
a
c
.-UJUJ
;0.1
20
30
40
Spacing, m
Figure 6-6: Mutual resistance term for N = 3 (p=lOOO n-cm)
0
10
50
104 APPENDIX
Finally, Figure 6-7 provides the mutual resistance term for four (N=4)
deep anode systems.
0.3
0.25
9
t
ai
0.2
0
C
.!$
0.15
(u
0.05
10
20
30
40
50
Spacing, m
Figure 6-7: Mutual resistance term for N = 4 (p=lOOO n-cm)
Equation (6-8)
General DC Transmission Equation
where I = current flow (amps)
y = per unit distance from anode
Is = current from source (amps)
a = attenuation constant
E, = voltage at source (volts)
R, = characteristic resistance (ohms)
The current discharged from the column at any point is the rate of change
in the current flow along the column, which is simply the derivative of
Equation (6-8) with respect to position, y. The current density discharged
at any point is the current discharged divided by pi times the diameter, as
seen in Equation (6-9).14
106 APPENDIX
E, cosh( ay)
I, sinh ( ay) - i(y)=
RG
nd
Equation (6-9)
Deep Anode Discharge Current Density
a=Jrg
Equation (6-10)
Attenuation Constant
where a = attenuation constant
r = linear resistance (ohms per unit length)
g = leakage conductance (siemens per unit length)
Equation (6-11)
Characteristic Resistance
where R, = characteristic resistance (ohms)
n-d 2
4
Equation (6-12)
Linear Resistance of Carbon Column
where p, = carbon resistivity (ohm-m)
L = length of column (m)
d = diameter of column (m)
The leakage conductance of the carbon column, g, can be estimated by
calculating the resistance-to-earth of the column using Equation (6-2) and
taking the reciprocal. Since only the relative magnitude of current density is
of interest, the magnitude of anode current can be assumed to be one. The
anode voltage can then be calculated using ohm's law once the resistance
looking in the direction of the second anode is determined. This input
resistance is determined using Equation (6-13)."
R,,
R, coth (ax )
Equation (6-13)
DC Transmission System Input Resistance
where R
,, = input resistance (ohms)
x = unit distance from end of column
Finally, Equation (6-9) is used to calculate the current density at an
anode location due to the current discharged by the anode at the location
plus the current density due to current discharged by the next closest anode.
Then the total current density halfway between two adjacent anodes due to
the two nearest anodes is calculated. The ratio of these two current
densities can then be compared to determine the estimated variation in
current density discharged along the column at various anode spacings. In
order to make a determination regarding maximum anode spacing, a
maximum acceptable current density variation of 25% along the column
was adopted.
108 APPENDIX
The spacings provided in Table 6-2 below were based on the above
analysis. For purposes of this analysis, the column length was assumed to
be 30 m (100 ft) with a diameter of 250 mm (10 in). The analysis was
conducted about the center point in the column.
Maximum Anode Spacing
Meters
(fi)
Earth
Resistivity
ohm - cm
3-
Carbon Resistivity
ohm - cm
5
10
25
1.8
(6)
1.2
(4 1
6.4
4.0
(21)
(13)
2.7
(9)
1000
5.8
4000
12.0
9.1
(38)
(30)
13.0
(43)
10.0
(33)
7.0
(23)
4.6
(15)
16.0
12.0
4.0
(41)
8.8
(29)
55
(53)
(18)
(13)
5000
7500
4.6
(15)
50
3.0
(10)
3.0
(10)
,Carbon
Sample
the brass screws are one-quarter inch longer than the depth of the threaded
hole into the plug. This allows for attachment of two test leads to the plug.
The acrylic test cylinder is scored at a distance of exactly one inch and two
inches from the inside edge of the brass plug. Also, small sample tolerance
marks are placed at exactly 1/16 inch on either side of the one-inch sample
mark.
A 15 7/8-inch long solid cylindrical brass weight (360 FC) is machined to
an outside diameter of 1 31/32 k 1/64 inch. This solid brass cylinder is used
as a free weight applied to the carbon backfill sample. The pressure applied
to the test sample placed in the apparatus is approximately 5 psi. Two brass
screws are inserted into the top of the brass weight to provide measurement
test points. A lifting handle is also attached to the top end of the brass
weight to facilitate handling.
In order to measure the resistance of the test sample, a four-point
resistance measurement device capable of measuring resistances as low as
0.01 ohms, such as a Nilsson Model 400 Soil Resistance meter, is required.
Four 16 AWG stranded, insulated copper test leads are also required. The
test procedure should be conducted at a temperature near room temperature
110 APPENDIX
3. Slowly lower the solid brass weight carefully onto the top of the carbon
sample. Visually inspect the contact between the brass weight and the
carbon sample. If the carbon sample does not appear to be level or is not
within the sample tolerance marks, remove the weight and repeat steps 1 or
2, as required. No voids should be evident between the end of the brass
weight and the carbon sample.
4. The next step depends on the particle sizing. If the majority of particles
are 1/16 inch diameter (Tyler mesh 6) or larger, it is more difficult to obtain
a level sample that makes intimate contact with the end of the brass weight.
Therefore, the brass weight should be raised to the two-inch score on the
test cylinder and released allowing it to impact the sample. If the majority
of the carbon particles are less than 1/16 inch diameter, this step should be
skipped.
5 . Without disturbing the contact established between the brass weight and
the carbon sample, individually connect terminals PI and C1 on the
resistance test instrument to the two screws on the top of the weight. Also,
connect terminals P2 and C2 on the resistance test instrument to the two
screws in the brass plug in the end of the acrylic test cylinder. All of the
resistance meter terminals should be connected to individual brass screws
using separate test leads.
6. The resistance test meter should then be adjusted to null position, and the
indicated resistance recorded. Since the resistance test instrument provides
scale overlap, the reading should be taken on the lowest range switch
setting.
n
Equation (6-14)
Average Resistivity of Test Samples
where
2. The standard deviation for the test sample is next calculated using
Equation (6-15).
c (xi-.)'
n
s, =
i. I
n-1
Equation (6-15)
Standard Deviation of Test Samples
where s, = standard deviation of test samples
112 APPENDIX
Equation (6-16)
Average Resistivity of Carbon
PUMP CALCULATIONS 1 13
Equation (6-17)
Bernoulli Fluid Dynamics Equation
h,
h,
Equation (6-18)
Special Case of Bernoulli Equation
In other words, the pump head equals the total frictional head of the
system. The frictional head is the sum of the frictional head for the suction
piping, the discharge piping, and the drilled hole. The frictional head is
calculated using the Darcy equation.I5
114 APPENDIX
Equation (6-19)
Darcy Equation
Equation (6-20)
Friction Factor Laminar Flow
Equation (6-21)
Colebrook & White Friction Factor - Turbulent Flow
5.02
Equation (6-22)
Sacham Equation - Turbulent Flow
Reynolds number required to determine the friction factor is calculated as
f0110ws.'.'
N,=
DVP
c!
Equation (6-23)
Reynolds Number
Equation (6-24)
Slurry Viscosity
P
cm
10000 m2
hP
Equation (6-25)
Pump Pressure
116 APPENDIX
Pumping Pipe
Size
nominal
(in)
ID,mm
(in)
Flow, Ipm
(gpm)
76
1201
95
1251
114
1301
151
1401
189
(501
(1)
26.64
1.58
2.34
3.23
5.40
8.08
(1.049) (22.5) (33.3) (46.0) (76.9) (115)
(1 1/4)
35.05
0.430 0.633 0.869 1.44 2.14
(1.380) (6.12) (9.00) (12.4) (20.5) (30.4)
40.89
0.208 0.305 0.418 0.689 1.02
(1 1/2) (1.610) (2.96) (4.34) (5.94) (9.81) (14.5)
(2)
Table 6-3: Pump Pressure per 30.5 m (100 ft) of pipe, kg/cm2(Ib/inz)
In addition to the pressure drop in the pumping pipe, pressure drops will
also occur in each valve, coupling, ell, tee, or other fitting encountered by
the flow stream. These pressure drops can be calculated by determining an
equivalent length of straight pipe for each fitting and calculating the
pressure drop for a length of pipe equal to the actual length plus the total
equivalent length for all fittings. Table 6-4 provides a list of equivalent
pipe lengths for various fittings.I5The equivalent pipe lengths for the valves
PUMP CALCULATIONS 1 17
are based on the valve in the full-open position.
Under worst-case conditions, the pressure drop associated with the slurry
flow up the inside of the drilled hole or through a 6 m (20 ft) section of I 0 0
mm (4 inch) suction hose is less than 1% of the pumping pipe pressure
drop. Therefore, they can safely be ignored in the calculation.
Equivalent Length of Straight Pipe, m (ft)
Fittings
1
Regular 90"
ell
1.6
(5.2)
2.0
(6.6)
2.3
(7.4)
2.6
(8.5)
Long radius
90" ell
0.82
(2.7)
0.98
(3.2)
1.o
(3.4)
1.1
(3.6)
Regular 45"
ell
0.40
(1.3)
0.52
(1.7)
0.64
(2.1)
0.82
(2.7)
Tee
line flow
1.4
(4.61
1.7
(5.6)
2.3
(7.7)
Tee
branch flow
2.7
(8.7)
3.0
(9.9)
3.7
(12.0)
Globe valve
11
(37)
13
(421
16
(54)
Gate valve
0.26
(0.84)
0.34
(1.1)
0.37
(1.2)
0.46
(1.5)
Coupling
0.088
(0.29)
0.11
(0.36)
0.12
(0.39)
0.14
(0.45)
~~~
~~
Table 6-4: Equivalent Length of Straight Pipe for Various Fittings, m (ft)
118 APPENDIX
The derivation of his equation involves summing the resistance effects of
incremental shells of soil surrounding the anode. Burkhart assumed that
these soil shells could be described by increasing the anode diameter and
length by an arbitrary size factor, l3.
AT =
l2R
4 n K ( r +L)
Equation (6-26)
Burkhart Temperature Rise
AT=
l2R
2nKL
___
((
l + i ) l n ( I+!)
-1)
Equation (6-27)
GTE Corrected Temperature Rise
Kimbark used the analogies between a current field and a heat-flow field
to develop an equation relating the steady-state temperature rise of
electrode to the potential of the electrode to remote earth. Kimbark's
equation, Equation (6-28), is based on the electrode surface being
equipotential and is independent of electrode shape. The derivation of the
equation also assumes the surface of the earth to be a perfect thermal and
electrical insulator.I9
V2
AT= 2PK
Equation (6-28)
Kimbark Temperature Rise
120 APPENDIX
Values of 4 w/m-C for the Michigan facility and 16 w/m-C for the
Wisconsin facility were suggested by the data. GTE further indicated that
values as large a 20 w/m-C have been reported in the literature for watersaturated, porous sands.2From these sources it appears that the soil thermal
conductivity can vary from lows of 0.15 w/m-C for very dry soils to highs
~ . *a first estimate of temperature rise when the actual
near 20 W / ~ - ~ C . For
soil thermal conductivity is unknown, a relatively conservative value of 0.6
w/m-C is suggested.
REFERENCES
I . J. Wagner, Cathodic Protection: Design I (Houston,TX: NACE, 1992).
2. R. W. Stephens, Selection of Materials for Impressing Current Cathodic Protection
Groundbeds, CORROSION/90, paper no. 84 (Houston, TX: NACE, 1990).
Publications, 1968).
121
12. W. von Baechmann, W. Schwenk, Handbood of Cathodic Protection, (UK, Surrey:
Portcullis Press, Ltd., 1975).
13. J. Wagner, Cathodic Protection: Design I (Houston, TX: NACE, 1992).
14. R. Pope., Attenuation of Forced Drainage Effects on Long Uniform Structures,
Corrosion 2 (December 1946): pp. 307-319.
20. MTF Terminal Grounds Update Review, 27 February 1985, GTE Systems, Boston, MA.
INDEX
Index Terms
Links
A
ampacity
52
anodes
classification of
22
graphite
23
impregnation treatments
24
25
high-silicon chromium
cast iron
23
inert or insoluble
22
25
22
27
27
platinum
26
scrap steel
22
28
consumption rates
20
23
25
46
93
current densities
25
45
93
41
60
86
87
Index Terms
Links
anodes (Cont.)
electrical connection, exposure
to environment
23
end effect
23
placement
15
34
41
46
57
61
70
77
58
77
46
61
105
43
96
99
78
replacement
51
resistances between
87
support structure
34
23
attenuation
B
Baechmann and Schwenck equation
Bernoullis equation
112
Burkharts equation
117
C
carbon backfill
28
calcined
31
32
carbon content
31
32
consumption
22
28
delayed coke
29
fluid coke
29
46
50
30
Index Terms
Links
metallurgical coke
29
petroleum coke
29
pumping
35
70
78
33
48
79
112
resistivity
resistivity testing
31
108
61
105
casings
34
38
34
54
for replacability
34
58
35
57
centralizers
C.E. 5 test method
chloride ion
63
77
81
108
20
25
27
52
27
35
47
26
35
93
47
73
coatings, active
mixed-metal oxide
23
23
93
platinum
Colebrook and White equation
23
114
column resistivity
86
90
current, anode
27
31
46
77
86
90
45
49
23
26
93
105
25
41
current density
anode
carbon backfill
45
47
49
60
64
Index Terms
Links
28
35
45
water consumption
28
45
50
current-limiting resistors
50
86
D
Darcy equation
deep anode equations
113
95
commissioning tests
83
definition of
design of
41
column length
41
geology
41
anodic interference
42
41
mutual interference
41
42
42
stratigraphy
41
disadvantages of using
installation
69
operation of
83
Index Terms
Links
22
drilling
72
drillers log
74
equipment
69
expertise
73
fluids
21
45
60
83
37
53
55
78
79
43
94
97
28
31
49
56
72
hole stability
72
78
hole cleaning
72
73
observations during
74
pilot hole
12
speed
72
testing during
75
Dwights Equation
16
73
E
electrical logging tool (see sonde)
18
electrochemical reactions
21
24
48
65
evolution of gases
21
35
metal consumption
21
electro-osmosis
engineering judgement
environmental considerations
50
64
36
Index Terms
Links
environmental (Cont.)
in installation of deep anode system
53
aquifer interchange
37
54
37
56
34
36
54
equations
altenuation constant
106
average, statistical
111
112
96
99
113
Burkharts
118
characteristic resistance
106
I14
106
Darcy
113
DC transmission
105
Dwights
94
friction factor
114
118
Kimbarks
119
power cost
44
power output
44
115
115
107
87
106
Index Terms
Links
equations (Cont.)
resistivity, soil box
76
Reynolds number
115
Sacham
115
standard deviation
111
Sundes
95
viscosity
115
47
69
drilling equipment
69
pumps
69
112
fluidizing
58
71
17
112
friction factor
114
80
G
gas blockage
28
35
50
56
90
geology, determining
column length
41
conductive minerals
data bases
parallel holes
60
Index Terms
GTE temperature
Links
119
H
hydrology, determining
I
increasing system resistance
input resistance
in-situ resistivity
inspection of system
88
107
7
32
48
86
96
101
87
interference
anodic
42
mutual
41
60
104
K
Kimbarks equation
119
L
leakage conductance
linear resistance
105
61
105
M
materials selection
mixing ratio
21
116
Index Terms
mixing tank
moisture, soil
mutual interference
Links
70
79
25
49
65
90
41
60
96
101
27
58
28
104
mutual resistance
96
102
23
26
N
niobium
93
O
other components of deep anode system
casing
34
34
34
centralizers
35
vent systems
35
P
parallel holes
60
pilot hole
73
reaming
73
12
drilling of
12
77
Index Terms
Links
placement
anode
34
70
78
carbon backfill
34
58
70
78
79
top loading
79
pumping setup
79
casing
77
polarization level
90
pressure drop
116
pump calculations
112
115
R
reliability and safety factors
47
58
resistance
42
43
anode-to-backfill
43
43
layer resistivity
43
43
44
resistance graphs
column length
multiple deep anode systems
97
97
101
Index Terms
Links
resistance increases
46
88
90
anode consumption
90
91
gas blockage
90
91
90
moisture depletion
90
operational problems
91
90
resistance-to-earth
deep anode system
42
drill stem
13
10
fall-of-potential
10
Reynolds number
right-of-way, cost of obtaining
61
84
94
115
2
S
Saacham equation
safety as a consideration in design
115
38
gases
63
potential gradients
62
safety factors
slurry, carbon backfill
slurry density
62
47
70
79
112
116
soil box
use of to measure resistivity
soil resistivity
49
75
94
98
102
Index Terms
Links
sonde
18
spacing, anode
46
5
61
Sundes Equation
95
94
41
Barnes method
Wenner arrangement
system life
105
111
structure attenuation
surface testing
49
20
32
64
117
10
thermal conductivity
64
118
17
titanium
23
46
91
14
70
27
58
T
temperature rise
test electrode
26
93
troubleshooting
84
88
88
90
physical damage
88
power supply
88
Index Terms
two-point test procedure
Links
14
V
vent systems
35
56
viscosity
21
80
20
115
W
water chemistry
as factor in electrochemical reactions
20
chloride ion
21
21
halogens
21
65
33
failure
33
58
insulation
20
33
selection
51
ampacity
33
52
cable stress
34
51
chemical resistance
52
voltage drop
53
90