Electrical Power and Energy Systems 44 (2013) 179191

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Electrical Power and Energy Systems

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijepes

Advances and trends of energy storage technology in Microgrid

Xingguo Tan a, Qingmin Li b,, Hui Wang a
a
b

School of Electrical Engineering, Shandong University, 73 Jing Shi Road, Jinan, 250061 Shandong Province, China
School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, North China Electric Power University, 2 Bei Nong Road, Chang Ping District, Beijing 102206, China

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 13 September 2011
Received in revised form 14 June 2012
Accepted 5 July 2012
Available online 14 August 2012
Keywords:
Energy storage
Microgrid
Power electronics interface
Control strategy
Trends and challenges

a b s t r a c t
Microgrid (MG) is the indispensable infrastructure of nowadays smart grid, however, uctuation and
intermittence resulted from unstable micro-sources and nonlinear loads will execute considerable
impacts on normal operation of the MG. Energy storage technology presents a preferable solution to
the above issue. The paper gives a full scope review of the principal energy storage technologies being
developed so far, and the features and benets of energy storage systems (ESSs) within the MG are analyzed in details including ESS conguration and topologies, power electronics interfaces, ESS control
schemes for charging/discharging, control strategy of hybrid ESS as well as optimization of the renewable
sources and ESS. The future trends and challenges of ESS are also fully accounted, with a view to proposing smart ESS as the promising technology in the future for MG and smart grid.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The concept of Microgrid (MG) is proposed by the Consortium
for Electric Reliability Technology Solutions (CERTSs) so as to enhance the local reliability and exibility of electric power systems,
which may consist of multiple distributed energy resources (DERs),
customers, energy storage units, and can be further dened as a
small electric power system being able to operate physically
islanded or interconnected with the utility girds [1,2]. Due to
increasing shortage of the fossil fuel and the impelling pressures
from environmental protection, new generation sources of high
efciency such as fuel cell and microgas turbine, as well as renewable energy sources (RESs) such as wind and solar power, are
becoming the most important DERs nowadays. The distributed
and renewable energy sources will see a remarkably increasing
portion in the whole electric power generation. For example, RES
generation is compulsorily required to occupy 20% by 2017 in California, USA, while a 15% proportion of the RES generation will be
achieved by 2020 in China according to the government report, and
in Germany the wind power generation will amount to 60% by
2020 [3].
A MG combined with RES and distributed generation sources
(DGs) can be a preferable solution to the raised energy crises as
well as a complement to nowadays centralized modern power
grids [4]. However, due to relatively small capacity, the normal
operation of MGs may be vulnerable to random power exchange
between the supplier and the loads, and hence the operational
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lqmeee@ncepu.edu.cn (Q. Li).
0142-0615/$ - see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2012.07.015

capability and power quality are difcult to be guaranteed [5]. Just

for an example, when a MG works at the islanded mode, possible
malfunction of some micro-source or DG will cause immediate active and reactive power shortage, though it might eventually be
remedied by load shedding, the interim power shortfall must be instantly compensated from somewhere else, for which case energy
storage (ES) technology is critical and indispensible. More important, the intermittent behavior of many RES and DGs due to their
strong dependency on climatic and meteorological conditions,
the RES energy output will uctuate especially for a localized small
capacity MG with more than 10% of the RES occupation. ES is presently the indispensable equipment in a MG as the smart way to
suppress probable power uctuation and deal with arduous imbalance challenges between the demand side and the supply side.
This paper gives a thorough review of the advancement of MGoriented energy storage technologies. Key technologies and principles associated with energy storage, benets of MG-based applications, power electronic interfaces, and control strategies including
charging and discharging control as well as power ow control, are
fully elucidated with a view to proposing future trends and research challenges of ES technologies in MG elds.
2. Advances of energy storage technology
Energy storage unit functions as energy buffer or backup to
counteract power imbalance between the supply and the demand
sides. This scheme was initialized in the early stage of power systems, e.g. as the DC power transmission system was applied in the
late 19th century in New York City, lead-acid batteries were then
adopted to provide power for lighting lamps so as to deenergize

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the generators at night. Some key energy storage technologies

available so far for MG applications are summarized as follows.
2.1. Batteries
Batteries store energy in the electrochemical form, being available in different size and capacity ranging from less than 100 W to
several megawatts. The estimated overall efciency of battery storage is in the range from 60% to 80%, depending on the operational
cycle and the electrochemistry type within the batteries. Lead-acid,
Nickeliron, NickelCadmium (NiCd), NickelMetal Hydride
(NiMh) and Lithium Ion batteries are the four principal types of
battery storage suitable for MG implementations. Fig. 1 schematically shows a steady increase of the energy density of batteries
since the rst lead-acid battery was introduced in the mid-19th
century [6].
Lead-acid battery is the most mature and the cheapest energy
storage device of all the battery technologies available. However,
the limited cycling capability of lead acid normally results in unacceptable scenario in economy of the overall system. With a higher
energy density, longer cycle life and lower maintenance requirements, NiCd batteries render potential advantages over the Leadacid batteries. NiMH batteries are environmentally friendly and
can provide equivalent cycle life as that of the lead-acid batteries,
additionally with capacity increase by 2540%. Lithium Ion battery
has the highest energy density among the four, but the cost is also
the highest.
Based on models developed in Simulink and HOMER, analysis
was done in Ref. [7] with regard to different battery storage technologies from a techno-economic point of view, which indicates
NiMH battery is potentially the most competent ES technology in
terms of power output, voltage prole as well as the chargedischarge characteristics, while Lead-acid battery is the most affordable one for renewable energy applications compared to NiCd,
NiMH and Li-ion batteries. Generally speaking, due to long life
and relatively low costs but slow response, these kinds of batteries
are ideal for applications with low duty cycles.
2.2. Sodium-sulfur (NaS) batteries
In order to achieve much higher power and energy density,
some novel energy storage technologies are under research. NaS
battery is one of these types and it has already been employed in
power systems for more than 20 projects in Japan and many other
worldwide constructions since 1980s. Compared with the other

Fig. 1. Energy density increase of batteries [6] (source: EPRI 2008).

leading battery technologies, NaS battery shows much more attractive energy density (four times that of lead-acid battery) and much
lower cost. NaS battery also has a long cycle capability (2500 plus
cycles upon 90% depth of discharge, or several hundred thousand
cycles at 10% depth of discharge) and a millisecond response for
full charging and discharging operation, which presents good
potentials to be applied in MG for power regulations.
This technology is widely recognized for high cell efciency up
to 89% without self-discharge, minimal maintenance and long cell
life up to 15 years. NaS batteries are made of abundant low cost
materials that are suitable for high volume mass production. Modular fabrication potentially yields high power and energy capability, which also reduces the construction intervals [8]. However,
large capacity in a single cell and reliable operation at high temperature of 300 centigrade are still the main obstacles in manufacturing process.
NaS battery can be widely used in aggregated energy storage.
China has recently declared an installation of the rst industrial
NaS battery station (100 kW/800 kW h) in the world Expo 2010
Shanghai, as shown in Fig. 2, and hence becomes the second country who has mastered the large scale manufacturing technology for
industrial applications.
2.3. Flywheel energy storage (FES)
A FES unit stores electrical energy in the form of rotational kinetic energy. It makes use of electrical energy to rotate a rotor at
a very high speed preferably for providing short term energy boost
(1030 s), as shown in Fig. 3.
In addition to a much higher power density than the other technologies, a ywheel energy storage system (FESS) is also attractive
in other aspects: FES is environmentally friendly and can be used
with almost unlimited number of charging cycles. A high-speed
FESS rated 1000 kW (15 min) or even larger is being deployed in
the USA power grid for frequency regulation, and research on some
micro-scale FESS (MFESS) is also underway so as to be used as auxiliary power sources [9].
The disadvantages of a FESS lie in difculty in storage expansion, large dimension size, low energy density and high standby
loss.
2.4. Supercapacitor
Supercapacitor is also named ultracapacitor or electric double
layer capacitor (EDLC). It stores energy in the two series capacitors
of the electric double layer (EDL), which is formed between each of

Fig. 2. The rst NaS battery station in China.

X. Tan et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 44 (2013) 179191

the electrodes and the electrolyte ions. Without chemical process,

electrical energy can be stored directly and thus the response time
is very small. The capacitance and energy density of these devices
are thousands of times larger than that of the electrolytic capacitors. Compared with Lead-acid battery, a supercapacitor has lower
energy density but longer cycles for tens of thousands of times, and
is much more powerful than batteries for fast charge and discharge
capability. Now many companies can offer supercapacitors ranging
from 5 F to 2700 F, rated at 2.5 VDC per cell. A single cell storage
amounts to 3 or 4 W h/kg [11].
With a low cell voltage, multiple cells must be connected in series for a typical 48 V DC application, which may give rise to a problem of imbalanced cell current and voltage during charging. Also,
the cost is about ve times bigger than that of Lead-acid battery.
Supercapacitors of high voltage (100400 VDC) and energy density
over 20 kW h/m3 are still under development.
The power quality events and issues caused by nonlinear loads
and random behavior of the micro-sources within a MG, such as
instantaneous element failure, voltage swells and voltage sags,
may render unique features of short transients and high frequency,
which creates application potentials for the short-term ESS like
supercapacitors to quickly absorb or release large volume energy
in a very short time.
2.5. Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)
In a SMES unit, energy is stored in a magnetic eld created by
the DC ow in a superconducting coil. The system has very high
efciency, up to approximately 95%. The most important advantage of the SMES is very short time delay during either charge or
discharge process. The power output is available almost instantaneously and large capacity can be achieved. Due to self-requirement of power for refrigeration and high cost of superconducting
wires, SMES systems are currently used just for short duration energy storage [12].
Small-scale or micro-SMES becomes an important ESS in nowadays distributed power grid or MG. With exible ability to exchange active and reactive power, SMES can be specically used
to ameliorate local power quality, such as power factor improvement, frequency stabilization and UPS implementation.
Based on the above description, the key features of several typical ESSs are listed in Table 1 for reference and a concise
comparison.
There are still some other competent energy storage technologies presently drawing many researchers attention, such as compressed air energy storage (CAES), redox ow battery, fuel cell
and thermal energy storage, which can be ESS alternatives to be
utilized in a MG.

Fig. 3. Typical structure of a FESS unit [10].

181

3. Benets of ESS in mg-based applications

Despite much similarity in functions, there are still apparent
differences between the MG-scale energy storage and the gridscale energy storage applications.
In the utility grid, there are ve storage applications that have
good potentials to benet power system planning and operations:
area and frequency regulation, renewables grid integration, transmission and distribution upgrade deferral and substitution, load
following and electric energy time shift [18]. Area and frequency
regulation and certain aspects of renewables grid integration belong to short-duration power management applications, while
transmission and distribution upgrade deferral and substitution,
load following and electric energy time shift belong to long-duration energy management applications. For grid applications, large
energy capacity and power density energy storage technology is
indispensable. However, due to economic reasons and technology
limitation, only pumped hydro storage accounts for the majority
proportion of the storage in grid applications, approximately 3%
of the global generation capacity. According to the U.S. DOE Energy
Storage Database [19], Advanced Lead Acid Battery, Lithium Ion
Battery, Ice Thermal Storage, Zinc Bromine Redox Flow Battery
and Vanadium Redox Flow Battery are gradually used in energy
storage projects either recently operational or under construction.
The high cost of many nowadays storage technologies, such as
supercapacitors, high-speed ywheels and SMES, is the major
obstacle to production scale-up and integration of the storage devices at grid scale. Additionally, the limited storage duration and
energy capacity, such as high-speed ywheels, electrochemical
capacitors and lithiumion batteries, are too short to meet the current requirements from the electric power industry. Device efciency and lifetime are also signicant issues-technologies with
CAES and traditional lead-acid batteries, which are not efcient enough to convince the electric power industry and the regulators of
the potential value of energy storage technologies.
To some extent, energy storage has been added to the utility
grid, however, it is the fundamental component of a MG. The main
role of energy storage in MG is to maintain stability, facilitate integration of the renewable energy, improve power quality and so on.
Due to relatively small capacity and investment, various energy
storage technologies can be utilized in MG. Besides providing support for MG, energy storage application in MG sets up a test environment for ES topology, model and device study, which may be
further extended to the utility grids. Typical benets of ESS in
MG-based applications can be concluded as follows.

3.1. Short term power supply

Power unreliability may result in considerable impact on economy. A study has estimated the outage cost in the United States
amounts to some US$79 billions per year, among which the
momentary outages (<5 min) account for US$52 billions, while
the other outages account for only one third of the cost. Momentary outages are precisely where energy storage is most cost effective and other solutions are least applicable [20]. A MG may work
at either grid-connected mode or islanded mode. When a failure in
the utility grid is detected or the requirements for power quality
are not satised, the MG will be disconnected from the utility grid
and start to operate at islanded mode. Then, the instant power
shortfall as the MG transferring from the grid-connected mode to
the islanded mode can be compensated by the ESS boost. ESS can
implement a seamless transfer of the MG between different modes.
In addition, ESS may acts as emergency power buffer for critical
customers during fault situation, and also facilitates black start of
the entire power systems.

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Table 1
Comparison of several typical ESSs [1317].
Type

Efciency (%)

Energy density (W h/kg)

Power density (W/kg)

Response time (ms)

Cycle life (time)

Cost ($/kW h)

Battery
SMES
Flywheel
SuperCap
NaS

6080
9598
95
95
70

20200
30100
550
<50
120

251000
1e41e5
1e35e3
4000
120

30
5
5
5
<100

2002000
1e6
>20,000
>50,000
2000

1501300
High
3802500
250350
450

3.2. Facilitating integration of RES

Renewable generation will play more and more important role
in the future energy structure. In the Unite States, according to a
DOE report in 2008, wind energy penetration is expected to reach
20% by 2030 [21]. While based on the Renewable portfolio standards, the amount of renewable generation is required to be 15
30% in most states by 2020.
As major renewable sources, wind and solar power are normally
intermittent and unstable, resulting in a varying power supply to
the MG. Combination of the energy storages can buffer the renewable power output by storing surplus energy during high availability and re-dispatching it while there is a power shortage, which
helps to get high penetration of RES in MG [22]. Fig. 4 shows the
performance of a PV plant combined with the NaS battery storage
[23]. As can be seen from Fig. 4, without ESS, the PV power output
cannot be directly dispatched due to its intermittent manner. However, with energy storage compensation to the uctuation, any expected power will be provided upon requirement in a specied
time without considering how much power the DG units may generate. So the MG can work as a patchable load to exchange power
with the utility gird, while the ESS facilitates optimized operation
of the micro-sources within the MG.
To integrate increased penetration levels of variable RES, MG
will require more fast-start and fast-ramping ESSs to bridge the
generation shortfalls when the intermittent micro-sources are
not operating at their expected output levels. Further studies are
compulsory to determine the appropriate capacity of ESS for an
optimized operation.
3.3. Arbitrage
As time-of-use tariff is widely accepted in many nations, Fig. 5
shows the difference between the average peak and off-peak prices
in the day-ahead energy market in New York City in 2008 [3].
The spread between the peak and off-peak prices represents an
opportunity for resources that can economically store energy for
hours or days, by purchasing power from the grid over night and
then sell that power back into the grid during the peak demand

Fig. 4. Performance of a PV plant with ESS [23] (SOC: State Of Charge).

hours of the day. So with ES asset in MG, arbitrage can be easily

achieved.
Given the price level of ESS technologies and the overall system
cost, it is presently very challenging to establish an economic justication for the utilities to store energy with ESS during off-peak
times and re-dispatch this energy later at peak times. ESSs used for
this market normally operate in a diurnal cycle of charge and discharge, for which NaS batteries or CAES can be good options.
3.4. Optimization of microsource in MG
Energy storage with appropriate capacity can play a signicant
role for smooth power transition when some DG units are operating abnormally within a MG. For example, if some DGs are lost,
then a stand-by microsource, such as a microgas-turbine, may
function to boost the loss. As most microsources experience relatively long response time, then ESS is an ideal substitute to provide
a smooth transition.
Even though the energy generated in the MG is stable, some ES
devices are still indispensible because the demand from customers
is constantly changing. Some DERs such as fuel cells must be large
enough to meet the peak demand but which causes high cost. By
storing the surplus energy in the ESS at off-peak times, the required peak energy can be fullled in a short period, which also
helps most DERS to operate at the best efciency.
3.5. Power quality improvement
MG is expected to dispatch power supply of sound reliability
and high quality. Power quality is critical especially for the sensitive customers. According to a recently published smart gird report
by US DOE, sensitive equipments for industrial processing such as
chips manufacturing have increased sharply. Today, sensitive loads
from chip technologies and automated manufacturing have risen
to 40%, and the loads are expected to increase to more than 60%
by 2015 [24]. In the meantime, a MG must conrm to strict power
quality requirements when being integrated into the utility grid, so

Fig. 5. Peak price vs. off-peak in New York in 2008 [3].

X. Tan et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 44 (2013) 179191

as to maintain a high power factor and suppress the harmonics distortion, etc.
ESS plays more important role than even before in improving
power quality of the MG. Controlled by power electronics-based
interfaces, ESS works like a power quality regulator to output specied active or reactive power for customers. Some ESS of instantaneous response, such as supercapacitor or FESS, can quickly absorb
or release energy of high density, suitable to tackle transient issues
like instantaneous outage caused probably by system failures, sudden voltage swells or sags. Some large capacity ESS like Lead-acid
battery can be used to compensate instant power shortage to
soothe voltage uctuations [25].
3.6. Ancillary services
Ancillary services normally cover load following, operational reserve, frequency regulation and 15 min fast response. Most ancillary services are provided by power plants or large pumpedhydro energy storage. With rapid development of renewable generation, a MG composed of large DERs such as wind turbine and/
or PV, may implement ancillary services with the integration of
large ESS.
As is well known, the key contribution to grid stability is from
control power (CP) [26], which is mainly supplied from conventional power plants. With high penetration of renewable energy,
some large conventional power plants will be shut down, so there
needs something to take over this responsibility. To deliver positive CP, the ESS in a MG can discharge and supply energy to the
grid. If the ESS absorbs energy from the grid and charges itself, then
the MG is delivering negative CP. From market point of view, a
storage management system (SMS) is needed in the MG to monitor
the stream of energy storage.
4. ESS access technology to mg
4.1. Energy storage system conguration
There are two typical congurations of ESS in a MG, the aggregated and the distributed, as shown in Fig. 6. For the rst type, all
ESSs are aggregated as one ESS and connected to the MG terminal,
while the power ow from DERs to the PCC (point of common connection) bus can be kept at a specied value.
All the capacity of an aggregated ESS can be used to soothe
power ow uctuations [27,28]. The aggregated ESS is partly approved to have a superior performance to the distributed ESS at
the same capacity.
The aggregated ESS conguration is usually connected to the AC
bus of a MG, where a DC/AC converter becomes necessary to interface with the AC system. For a FES unit charging and discharging
power by an induction machine at a variable speed, an AC/DC/AC
converter interface is thereby compulsory, while for a SMES unit

Fig. 6. Typical ESS conguration.

183

or capacitor storage, a DC/DC chopper is required before the voltage source converter (VSC).
If the energy storage capacity increases, both manufacture and
control of the ESS become difcult and cost ineffective. It is then
possible to use small-scale and distributed energy storage to
achieve exible and efcient power regulation.
For the distributed ESS conguration, ESS units are directly coupled to individual DERs with various interfaces. For wind turbine
generators (WTGs) at variable speed, a full rated AC/DC/AC interface is necessary with regard to the permanent magnet synchronous machine (PMSM), while a DC/DC interface will work for the
variable speed doubly fed induction machine (DFIG). Generally, a
DC/DC chopper is simpler and cheaper than a DC/AC converter.
An advantage of separately connecting each pair of DER and ESS
to the grid lies in that, power electronics interface in each pair can
be optimized to reduce the cost and maximize the efciency. These
systems tend to be simple since they only have to deal with a single type of source. One disadvantage of the distributed conguration is that, the power produced by the DERs has to be carried by
the transmission lines before being stored by the ESS, which negates the reduced power ows on the line as well as the new line
construction deferral advantages. However, though the power
electronics interfaces for both DER and ESS can be individually
optimized, the storage process still suffers losses for both interfaces as well as for the line impedances between the two facilities.
In future MG, a mixture of the aggregated and distributed ESS
might be a preferable solution.
4.2. Power electronics interface for ESS
Unlike other converters that operate only when the primary
source is available, the interface for ESS will operate continuously
to support the MG for a long period. Therefore, reliability and efciency are the key issues to be considered in choosing topologies of
the converters.
There are usually three types of MG, namely line frequency MG,
high frequency MG and DC MG, which correspondingly needs different ways to ESS access. As most ESSs have a DC link or can be
transformed to DC, all ESSs below are assumed to be DC sources
for convenience.
4.2.1. Interface for line frequency MG
With regard to different transformer, two typical ESS interfaces
may be adopted [29]. The rst case is shown in Fig. 7, where a bidirectional DC/DC converter accomplishes the power ow between
the ESS and the DC bus with a high frequency transformer. Due
to complexity of the topology that incorporates both a DC/DC converter and an inverter, the cost of the whole system will increase
considerably. In addition to small size, low weight and high efciency of the topology, the prominent advantage is that, the instantaneous power that ows in the AC side as well as in the battery
side can be controlled separately and therefore a decoupled control
can be realized.
The direct connection of the inverter to the MG implies an inevitable DC current ow, which will increase the thermal stress of
some MG components and loads. Therefore, the inverter control
must include a current loop to reduce the DC component below a
certain level. Also, the inverters DC bus has a bulky capacitor (tens
of thousands of lF) to ensure a very low DC voltage ripple.
The second conguration is shown in Fig. 8, where the ESS is directly connected to the inverters DC bus while a low frequency
(50 Hz) transformer is used to boost up the required voltage level.
The main advantage lies in simplicity of the conguration, however, high cost and low efciency exist because of the transformer
though it is preferred to provide isolation and leakage inductance
for the output lter.

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X. Tan et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 44 (2013) 179191

ESS

DC<->AC

MG

AC<->DC

HF TRANSFORMER

INVERTER

FILTER

Fig. 7. ESS interface type 1.

MG

ESS
INVERTER

50Hz TRANSFORMER

Fig. 8. ESS interface type 2.

4.2.2. Interface for DC MG

The DERs and the ESS can simply be connected to the common
DC bus through separate DC/DC converters. The usage of combined
multiport converter presents advantages of low cost, high efciency and reliability over the original separate converter system.
One of the possible topologies of multiport converter is shown in
Fig. 9, where a buck-boost converter is used for high voltage ESS,
while for DER and low voltage ESS, a boost converter will be utilized. However, the system in Fig. 9 is difcult to expand [30],
which relies on combination of original common parts and leaves
no place to include additional sources without redesign.

Fig. 10. Typical modular design.

and (e) are used for multiple input. These topologies are targeted
at applications with different demands in inputs and outputs. In
actual applications, more modules and exible combinations may
be adopted for special conditions.

4.3. Composite energy storage system (CESS)

In MG stability control, to buffer low frequency oscillations and
compensate the intermittency of the RES, ES with high energy density is required. To provide high frequency component and to supply or absorb high power transients, ES with high power density is
required. However, both high energy density and high power density are seldom available in a single storage unit. Hence, a CESS
may be used. Several methods for CESS are summarized as follows.
4.3.1. Multi-module technique
Many DERs and ESSs must be connected in series and in parallel
in order to achieve high power and voltage requirements, where
modular design is the best approach. Bidirectional DC/DC converters, such as phase shift controlled dual active bridge (DAB) converter and dual half bridge (DHB) converter, are promising in
modular power converter synthesis. The isolation between the
ESS and the loads is realized by a high frequency transformer. With
a high switching frequency, the size of lter capacitors and the isolation transformer can be drastically reduced. Therefore, DAB
(DHB) can be chosen as basic module in the proposed scheme [31].
Several typical combination forms are shown in Fig. 10, in
which (a), (b), (c) and (f) are suitable for single input, while (d)

4.3.2. Expansion of multi-port technology

As mentioned above, the multi-port converter in Fig. 9 is difcult to expand, so some new topologies are proposed. The system
incorporates unidirectional boost converters for PV arrays and
bidirectional buck-boost converters for ESS, and connects them in
parallel at their outputs. DCDC converters can simply be connected at the terminals of the common DC bus, and the system will
thereby operate normally since all the DCDC converters can work
independently and do not interfere with the other converters in
the system [32]. As the conguration showed in Fig. 11, only boost
and buck-boost converter are incorporated. In fact, based on a generally combined topology of a DC-link and the magnetic coupling,
many other converters can also be combined to form new style of
multiport converters.
Fig. 12 shows another multi-port converter topology. Several
similar parts are coupled together by a multi-winding high frequency transformer, with one winding of the high frequency transformer connects the HF link in the MG. V1 may be a DER or a
voltage source energy storage, and V1.x (x = 1, 2. . .k) is an ESS,
while C1A and C1B are the capacitors needed in both the DC bus
and the converter. The structure combines four basic converters,
namely buck-boost, boost-half-bridge, half bridge and full bridge
converters [33]. The system is open to expand and many common
components can be incorporated, with reduced weight and low
cost.

5. Control methodology
5.1. Charge/discharge control

Fig. 9. Multi-port interface for DC MG.

ESS needs specic charge/discharge control strategies. Some

ESSs with unlimited energy capacities, such as batteries or supercapacitors, may cause overcharge and over discharge problems

X. Tan et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 44 (2013) 179191

185

5.1.2. FESS
The charging/discharging process of a FESS unit is quite different from that of batteries or supercapacitors. A FESS unit is composed of a ywheel, a motor/generator and a power electronics
system. The control of the FESS is just as that of the motors in ywheel, for which many advanced control technology such as vector
control and DTC can be used.
Some hybrid control methods have been studied for charging
control of the FESS. At early stage, maximum torque control is used
to start the motor quickly and the current is also constrained. At
the speed tuning stage, fuzzy and PID control give a good solution.
At the setting stage, minimum power is provided to compensate
the energy loss (such as those from air friction). As regards the discharging process, both voltage and current is regulated in the PI
loop. As power ows out of the ywheel, the voltage will be decreased to stabilize the DC bus voltage, and the converter will be
operated as a boost rectier.

Fig. 11. Multi-port converter for DC bus.

Fig. 12. A multi-port converter coupled by a high frequency transformer.

or even failure in power compensation. Hence, control of ESSs

state of charge (SoC) is necessary in a MG.
5.1.1. Batteries/supercapacitors
In order to achieve long lifetime, maximum output and optimal
efciency, batteries/supercapacitors must be charged or discharged according to the manufacturers recommendations. For
example, traditional lead-acid batteries require a long (several
hours), low-current nish charge to remove sulfation from the lead
plates. When compensating power uctuations of the MG, the battery ESS may often work at partial state of charge (PSOC). PSOC
operation of low efciency occurs when a battery is less than fully
discharged and then less than fully recharged before being discharged again. Depth of discharge (DoD) has much to do with battery life-cycle. So advanced battery/supercapacitor management
system should be developed to address the charge and discharge
issues.
Constant current charging and constant voltage charging are
two classic charge modes being widely utilized in batteries and
supercapacitors. Hysteresis current feedback control strategy begins to be used in constant current charging, while voltage and current double-loop control is used in constant voltage charging [34].
For discharge control of ESS, voltage and current double-loop
scheme is also needed.
Due to nonlinear behavior of the charging/discharging process,
many intelligent control methods such as fuzzy control, neural
network and self-adaptive control, will present good performance
for charging and discharging. Some problems should also be carefully considered, including cell parameter variation, imbalanced
charging, interaction between charging and discharging process,
ESS aging problem, etc.

5.1.3. Hybrid ESS

The control strategy for a hybrid ESS is much complicated. In
addition to individual charge/discharge, power ow distribution
and characteristics of the ESS should be considered. For example,
when batteries and supercapacitors are combined together to supply load demand, supercapacitors can provide peak power with a
faster response than the battery, but it lasts shorter than the battery. Hence, the batteries discharge or charge slowly, but meet
the steady demand, while the supercapacitors can supply excess
transient and peak power to limit the current of the batteries
[35]. In that case, two individual loops are needed for control of
both the batteries and the supercapacitors.
5.1.4. ESS with DG
ESS and DG are the key components to achieve high efciency
operation in the MG. Some advanced control strategies are brought
forward, one of which is called hybrid control system, including
cascaded SoC control and local control [36].
As mentioned above, SoC is fed back to the ESS unit via a controller such as PI controller, which is the conventional method
named autonomous SoC control. However, this method adds a bias
on the ESSs output and may result in deterioration of the tie lines
power quality.
In the cascaded control method [37], shown in Fig. 13, the ESSs
SoC info is given to the upper DG in the cascaded control system.
Since the ESSs output reference is dependent on the upper DGs
output, the ESS itself can compensate the bias. In other words,
the ESSs SoC control is achieved by compensation of the articial
biases made by the upper DG. Thus, the tie line power ow will
not be affected by SoC control.
To solve the delay problem in the cascaded control, the ESS that
has the fastest response (EDLC) will be controlled locally, only with
the data of the tie line power ow and its reference value.
When the load demand increases, the ESS will compensate the
demand immediately with a rapid response time, but the energy
capacity is limited in the ESS, then a DG with enough energy capacity but lower reaction speed will gradually take over the duty of
compensation. As shown in Fig. 14, the ESS and the DG can cooperate very well.
Some other advanced control technologies have also been proposed. In Ref. [38], fuzzy logic is used in deciding how to modify
the storage output power. The decisions are made based upon a list
of rules which take into account the response times and the energy
states of the storage levels. In the rules-based method [39], a shortterm storage device is used to compensate fast power uctuations
while a long-term storage device assists in the following long-term
operation. A knowledge-based control algorithm is used [40] for
the operation of a two-level (short-term ESS and medium-term

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ESS) energy storage system intended for wind energy applications.

Also, Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) is also introduced in [41] to
decompose the imbalanced power into multiple time-varying
components. Therefore, the imbalanced power to be compensated
by energy storage can be quantied. Low pass lters as well as the
moving average ltering method are also effective ways to separate the imbalanced power.
5.2. Power ow control in composite energy storage
Multi-port and modular topology is widely used in the composite energy storage. For examples, DAB or DHB converter may be selected as the basic cells, and the power transfer between different
ports is achieved by phase shifting the voltage across the primary
and secondary sides of the high-frequency transformer. As shown
in Fig. 15. In phase shift control strategy, different ports generate
symmetric square wave of the same frequency, but with different
phase positions. With this phase difference, inductor current will
be different so as to control the power and direction, which modulation also helps soft switching and further lowers the switching
loss [42]. In phase shift control, the voltages on different parts
should be compatible. Once the voltages are not equal, then the
current stress and loss will be increased, then in the phase shift
control system, PWM control scheme is brought in as to keep the
voltage amplitude on either port to be equal, just like an electronic
transformer [43].
The control scheme of one port is shown in Fig. 16. We assume
the DC bus voltage in the port linked to MG as the voltage reference
to be controlled. The DC voltage Vg (reference from the Microgrid
port) is regulated to adjust the duty cycle and keep the voltage
compatible. The power ow of the energy storage in one port is calculated by upper energy management and compared as to regulate
the phase angle. Also, SOC (state of charge) is necessary to keep energy storage working under a limited zone.

Fig. 14. The principle of hybrid control [37].

reactive power relationships are independent droop curves, so

the V/Q droop curve is utilized to control the reactive power. However the droop characteristics will bring a small voltage deviation
in the steady state. Also, the X/R in a MG is much smaller than that
in the utility grid, so this method is not widely accepted so far.
According to the PQ theory, a balanced three-phase power grid
can be transformed into a rotating dq coordinate system, hence,
usq = 0 and usd = Us are met, then id 1=usd P and iq 1=usd Q
are tenable, where id denotes the active current while iq denotes
the reactive current. So id and iq are decoupled to respectively control the active and reactive power, the principle for which is presented in Fig. 17.
6. Trends and challenges of energy storage technology
6.1. Optimal conguration of ESS

5.3. Power management

The control of active and reactive power is an important task in
ESS control scheme. According to grid stability theory, when the
grid is inductive, the frequency vs. active power and voltage vs.

The benets of ESS have been veried by both theory and practice, however, there still lacks effective way to optimize ESS conguration especially for MG-based applications. The key issues may
include: how to arrange ESS location and capacity, what kind of

Fig. 13. A hybrid control system [37].

X. Tan et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 44 (2013) 179191

187

Fig. 15. The principle of phase shift PWM control.

ESS is optimal, how to assess the impacts of ESS on the MG, etc.
Generally, to effectively congure an ESS, proper models, tools
and software should be developed.
6.1.1. Model
A report called electrical energy storage systems a mission to
the USA, published in December 2006 by the British Department
of Trade and Industry (DTI), declared many related facts [20].
One of the surprising results of this mission was that, the visited
utilities stated that very little were undertaken on detailed modeling of the integration and impact of energy storage devices on the
network, although several utility-scale demonstration systems are
currently being appraised. Instead, the utilities relied on the vendor (i.e. the ESS manufacturer or a third-party system integrator)
to undertake such studies and provide assurances that the ESS
would meet a performance specication produced by the utility.
It is critical to develop models that can be used to conduct a
strategic, wide-area analysis of storage systems to investigate the
effects and value of energy storage for use in grid applications.
These models should assess the impact of energy storage on generation, transmission, distribution, and end-use applications and
compare the cost (e.g. installation and maintenance), emissions,
materials availability, efciency, system lifetime, and cycle life of
energy storage to other conventional and advanced solutions. More
importantly, the models need to demonstrate the value of energy
storage under varying load conditions in comparison to other types
of transmission.
Until now, there are both non-commercial and commercial
model available, some typical non-commercial models include:
HOMER; ReEDS; NEMS; RETScreen, and EnergyPlus. Commercial
models include: GE MAPS; the Ventyx-ProMod and System Optimizer; Power World; Energy2020; IPM, and Dynastore [44]. By
comparison, none of models has all of the important characteristics
all in one software package that would allow assessment of energy
storage in the smart grid frame of reference. Additionally, none of

ies
Fig. 16. Control scheme of phase shift PWM in one port of the multi-port composite
ESS.

these models is specically focused on optimizing storage. Instead,

they are used for calculating system capacity, transmission modeling and/or generation source placement.
There are many available algorithms and models that attempt
to predict ESS performance and lifetime, but these models still
need to be further veried [45]. For example, to evaluate the reliability of ESS, a system risk model must be established before
the system can be quantitatively assessed with appropriate risk
indices. The risk indices, such as loss of load expectation (LOLE)
and loss of energy expectation (LOEE), must be carefully chosen
and quantized. So the modeling task is not just conned to ESS itself but a systematic methodology, involving accurate modeling
and software analysis.
6.1.2. Software and tools
A key challenge in understanding and selecting feasible energy
storage for MG applications lies in the uncertainty of the benets of
energy storage applications and the total cost/performance of the
available and emerging technologies. Software-based modeling
and simulation tools contribute much to a successful system analysis. Various ESS models are put forward by different companies or
organizations [46], for example, Maxwell Technologies and Ansoft
have jointly developed a model of the super-capacitor for the Ansoft product Simplorer, EPRI has funded Power Technologies International (PTI) to develop SMES and battery models for PSS/E, and
EPRI has also produced a bespoke model for evaluating the benet
of employing energy storage called DYNATRAN (Dynamic Analysis
of Interconnected Systems with Energy Storage), which employs
Monte Carlo simulation to study unit commitment/dispatch.
The state-of-the-art simulation tools being applied in feasibility
studies worldwide include ES-Select, PLATOS Hybrid2, Homer,
IPSYS and MATLAB/Simulink, etc. For example, ES-Select is a
sophisticated, highly interactive, decision-support model that handles uncertainties in cost, benets, cycle life, efciency, discharge
duration and other parameters [47], while PLATOS has been developed to optimize the application of storage systems in electrical
distribution networks with distributed energy resources [48].
However, many existing models and tools are quite limited in
functions, and consider energy storage in more limited environments. Yet some specic ESS model is still unavailable. Despite
the range and quality of these resources, no models or tools were
found that specically deal with sizing and locating energy storage
under any optimality criterion that would be useful for infrastructure development.
6.2. Novel energy storage technologies
Presently only 2.5% of the total electric power delivered in the
United States passes through energy storage, almost all of which

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X. Tan et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 44 (2013) 179191

udcref

udc

ESS

i dref +
Power
&voltag
e loop

PI

dq0

iqref
+

P ref

PI

ucd

+
+

ucq

PWM
inverter

abc

Q ref

+ usd
+ usq
- +

dq0
abc

uabc

L L

id
dq0

iabc

iq
abc

A
B
C
Fig. 17. The principle for decoupled power control.

is pumped hydro storage [49]. Energy storage is poised to grow

from $1.5 billion in 2010 to a $35 billion industry by 2020 [50].
The biggest challenge of large scale application just lies in ESS itself. Most of ESSs are far too expensive, and the ESS performance
is not ideal enough to realize good economy, long-life and clean
storage.
Research and development in advanced materials and devices
has the potential to overcome many of the economic, technical
performance, and design barriers that are currently preventing energy storage devices from meeting the needs of the electric power
industry. Strategic materials selection and innovative system designs will strongly prompt the development of energy storage.
6.2.1. Advanced lead-acid
Lead-acid batteries offer a tremendous opportunity for extensive use if their life could be signicantly extended in cycling applications. Advanced lead-acid batteries seem to be the potential
answer. By adding as much as 40% of activated carbon to the negative electrode composition will greatly increase the batteries lifetime [51]. Estimates of a cycling life improvement up to 2000
cycles represent a three to four times improvement over the current lead-acid designs. The extended life combined with lower cost
will lead storage developers to revisit lead-acid technology for MG
applications.
6.2.2. CNT supercapacitors
Researchers at MIT are using carbon nanotubes to increase the
surface area of the supercapacitors energy storage material by
more than an order of magnitude [52]. Nanotechnology is being
applied at laboratory level to implement, in the near future, a new
family of more powerful supercapacitors. A one square centimeter
conductive plate covered in the carbon used in conventional supercapacitors has a surface area of about 2000 square centimeters,
while the carbon nanotubes coating boasts about 50,000 square
centimeters. The extremely high surface area of the nanotubes,
the researchers discovered, greatly enhances the supercapacitors
life span and ability to store energy. The expected specic energy
should be as high as a NiCd or NiMH batteries (60 W h/kg), with
a specic power of more than 10 kW/kg. This value represents
more than twofold the typical value of a battery (100 W/kg). The

expected cycle-life of this supercapacitor could be more than

300,000 [11].
6.2.3. Cutting-edge technologies
In addition to the technologies discussed above, several novel
technologies are also being developed [51], such as Metalair batteries, Naion batteries, new types of Na/S cells, new Liion chemistries with improved performance and safety characteristics,
advanced leadcarbon batteries, ultra-batteries that combines a
VRLA battery with an electrochemical capacitor, new ow battery
couples, new type CAES including Above-ground CAES and MiniCAES, etc.
Apart from new materials research, advanced electrochemical
combinations, innovative membranes and seals, advanced control
systems and power electronics are also essential to provide efcient ES for MG.
The new generation ESS will pursue even higher energy density
and power density, extended lifetime and cycle-life, much smaller
chargedischarge cycle-time, more reliable operation and less cost,
which will be a great help in future MG.
6.3. Hybrid ESS and management
ESSs are different in power density, energy density, response
time and cost, however, a hybrid ESS will integrate most advantages. There are many hybrid structures, such as battery with EDLC,
FC with battery or EDLC, CAES with battery or EDLC, battery with
FESS and battery with SMES. A hybrid ESS coordinated together
with DGs in the MG will give even higher efciency than separate
operation.
The principal problem lies in how to congure and control these
ESSs, including charge/discharge control, power ow optimization,
etc. Now if-then-else strategy is widely used in engineering design,
while cascaded control, fuzzy control and knowledge-based advanced control are still under research.
6.4. Smart ESS
As an infrastructure of smart grid, ESS should be even smarter
in the future. So far very few people have given a denite meaning

X. Tan et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 44 (2013) 179191

189

Fig. 18. The conguration of smart ESS.

of smart storage, though some researchers think a smart storage

system is composed of Stochastic Source Module, Short Term Storage Module and Medium/Long Term Storage Module [53]. In fact,
this system is just a hybrid energy storage system, maybe one feature of a smart storage. Then, what a real smart ESS could be?
A smart ESS will be a unied platform, besides ESS, power electronics interfaces, high efcient energy management systems, control systems, HMIs (human machine interface) and communication
interfaces for interconnection with upper controllers, should all be
incorporated [54]. With well-established software and tools, the
smart ESS can be used exibly in future smart grid just like a plug
& play equipment linked to a computer. The conguration of a
smart ESS is drawn in Fig. 18.
The integrated power conditioning systems for PV generation,
proposed by the U.S. DOE Solar Energy Program [55], which include
inverters, energy management systems, control systems and provisions for energy storage, can be a rudiment of smart ESS in the
future.
A smart ESS may also lie in properly integrating ESSs with other
smart grid devices, such as FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems) and DERs. The integration of an ESS into FACTS devices can
provide independent active and reactive power absorption/injection into/from the grid, leading to a more economical and/or exible transmission controller [56]. The independent control of active
and reactive power with an ESS/FACTS system makes it an ideal
candidate for many types of power system applications, including
voltage control and oscillation damping. FACTS being integrated

with ESS actually becomes an enhanced ESS equipment to provide

advanced power regulation. There are many application areas, such
as DVR [57], DSTATCOM and Active Power Filter, as shown in
Fig. 19.
When an ESS is incorporated with DERs, such as wind turbines
or PV modules, it helps to compensate the power uctuation and
intermittence, and also helps prompt the ability of LVRT (Low Voltage Ride Through) and Storm ride through, as well as improve the
efciency of the PV modules. Smart ESS technology will play a very
signicant role in futures smart grid.

Fig. 19. Typical topology of ESS/FACTS integration.

Fig. 20. MG and its future applications [59].

6.5. Further applications

Compared with AC distribution system, DC supply shows many
advantages, such as lower insulation demand, less line cost, no
icker with lighting and simpler to use. DC bus in a MG with integration of the ESS can supply a steady and high quality DC supply.
According to United States Environmental Protection Agency
(US EPA), US buildings cost 39% of the total energy while consume
68% of the total electricity [58]. Buildings now cost too much energy; however, renewable sources are still hard to be integrated
into buildings. Also, a lot of modern electrical apparatus are prone
to use DC sources or inverters. So DC building may be an effective
way for energy saving and emission reduction in the future. ESS
can easily access to DC buildings by DC/DC converters.
Electric vehicles (EVs) is another important area of ESS applications in the future. A MG will be impacted by a growing penetration of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and EVs, which
represents a new dimension for MG management and vast
amounts of energy storage will be presented in the grid in the form
of millions of electric cars. Some scientists even propose V2G

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X. Tan et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 44 (2013) 179191

(Vehicle to Grid) technology, the main purpose of which is to use

massive ESS in EVs to provide buffering between the RES and the
grid. A schematic show of a future MG is given in Fig. 20. The interactions between ESS, DC buildings, EVs, MG and the utility grid, do
need further research.
7. Conclusion
Energy storage systems (ESSs) play an important role as power
buffers in MG. A thorough review is done in this paper to fully account for the state-of-the-art advancements of ESS and MG-based
applications, covering principles and topologies, power electronics
interfaces, control strategies and new emerging issues. Future
trends and challenges of ESS are also proposed, especially for hybrid ESS technologies and the promising smart ESS, which forms
the research emphasis in the near future.
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