COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY

CHAPTER - 3
FABRICATION OF COMPOSITES
3.4

ABRASIVE JET MACHINING OF COMPOSITES

The principle of abrasive jet machining tool is that the high speed abrasive particles carried by
high pressure air or gas on to the work piece with the help of nozzle. The metal removal occurs
due to erosion caused by abrasive particles impactly on to the work piece at high speed.

The working set up of Abrasive jet machining is as shown in Fig.

In this process the filter air or gas is supplied under pressure to the mixing chamber containing
abrasive particles & the mixture is passed into the connecting hose than to the nozzle from
nozzle the mixture comes out with high velocity this high velocity mixture is then directed on the
work piece the metal removal occurs due to erosion of work piece. The abrasive powder feed rate
is controlled by vibration of mixing chamber.
This method is more suitable for cutting metallic based composites Boron\Al, Si\A, particles &
ceramics. The abrasive used is Aluminum oxide or silicon carbide.

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The metal removal rate depends on the following factors.

1) Abrasive parameters
a) Abrasive flow rate
b) Abrasive material used
c) Abrasive particle size.
2) Mixing chamber parameters
a) Length of chamber
b) Shape of chamber
c) Dia of chamber
3) Nozzle used.

Advantages of Abrasive Jet machining:

1)
2)
3)
4)

Ability to cut different hole shapes

Heat sensitive materials are cutted without damaging them
Low capital cost compare to other unconventional machines.
Easy to handle & operate.

Dis-advantages:
1) Metal removal rate is less
2) Machining accuracy is poor.
3) Additional cleaning is required due to sticky of material.

3.5

LASER BEAM MACHINING

The above fig. shows the set up of a Laser beam machining.

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Laser means Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
The laser circuit consists of a pair of mirrors (100% reflecting & partially reflecting mirrors),
source of energy & a laser tube (laser crystal). The laser crystal is made up of aluminum oxide
into which 0.05% of chromium added. This laser material requires sources of energy; this
source is obtained by flash lamp this flash lamp is placed nearer to laser rod enclosing in a
highly reflecting box. When energy is given to flash lamp it flashes light and this light is
absorbed by laser rod by this electrons of an atom jumps to higher energy level at this stage
they are highly in stable and they tried come back for original position. While coming back to
original position they gives out very high energy beam of light which is obtained through lens
this high energy beam of light is known as laser beam and is used for machining the metal
removal takes place due to melting and vaporization of metal.
EXAMPLE:Laser cutting parameters for fiber glass polyester composite
Gas used:- Helium
Pressure:- 0.56Mpa
Nozzle location:- Co-axial to beam
Beam mode:- TEM00kness is increased
Focal length:- 5
Co2 wavelength:- 10.6m
Pulse length of the order:- 10-40 sec
The performance of laser cutting depends upon
Depth of cut of composite
Cutting speed.

The below fig shows the thickness speed curve.

As the thickness is increased, more power is required. If the thickness to be cut is known, then
the laser power or size of laser for speed of cutting can be determined.

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Advantages:1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Eliminate rough edges.

No tool wear
Accuracy in machining.
Scrap reduction
Cut in any direction
Hard & abrasive materials can be cut.

DisAdvantages:1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

3.6

High capital cost

High maintenance cost
Produces smoke
Vaporization of metal occurs
Limitation on thickness due to taper.

ADHESIVE AND MECHANICAL JOINING OF COMPOSITES.

The main function of joining material is to transfer load from one structure to the other.
The design of joints has a special significant in fiber reinforced composite structure for two
reasons.
1) Joints are the weakest areas in composites
2) Composite material joints redistribute local high stresses by yielding.
There are two types of joints used for composites.
A) Adhesive bonding
B) Mechanical Joints.

ADHESIVE BONDED JOINT.

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Various types of bonded joints are shown in above Figs.

In adhesive bonding two separate materials are joined by some type of adhesives (ex: Epoxy,
polyurethane or methyl acrycate). The parts that are joined are called substrates or adherents.
The most common type of joint is a single lap joint where in the load is transferred from one
substrate to another by shear stresses in the adhesive.
The most common type of joint is a single lap joint where in the load is transferred from one
substrate to another by shear stress in the adhesive. However because then load applied are offcentered during a single lap joint, the bending action caused by the applied load creates the
normal stresses in the thickness direction of the adhesive. The combination of shear & normal
stress get lap ends of the adhesive reduce the joint strength in a single lap joint. To overcome the
bending effect a double lap joint is preferred. In a double lap joint the bending force & therefore
normal stresses are eliminated. The joint strength obtained by double lap joint is greater because
of absence of normal stress.

The stepped & scarf joint as shown in fig.

It provides more strength than single lap joint but machining of stepped or scarf end is difficult.
In adhesively bonded joints the load gets transferred from one member to another by shear &
therefore shear test are conducted on adhesives. For this reason the adhesive supplier is seldom
reports the tensile strength of the adhesive. The data reported by the adhesive supplier is usually
the shear strength obtained from a single lap joint test.

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An expectation of this is that the tensile test are conducted by sandwich panel manufactures to
calculate the bond strength between skin & honey comb core materials. This test is performed for
quality control purpose or for selecting the correct adhesive for the sandwich structure.
In an honey comb cored sandwich structure, the bonded surface area between the core & skin
material is much less than the surface area of the skin & therefore failure usually takes place at
interface.
When the bond strength test is performed for the two dissimilar material (ex. Glass\epoxy &
aluminum) the thickness of the substrates is maintained such that the stiffness value of the
adhered materials are same i.e. E1 T1 = E2 T2.
E1,E2 are stiffness & T1,T2 are thickness.

The following points are important in designing the bonded joint:-.

1) Tapering the substrate end at the ends of the over lap reduces the high normal stress at the
location.
2) Increasing the ratio of lap length (L) to substrate thickness (t) improves the joint strength.
3) To achieve maximum joint strength equal axial stiffness the thickness & stiffness shoul
be same, E1,t1 = E2,t2.
4) High shear strength & tensile strength are important characteristics of good adhesive.

Advantages of Bonded joints:1) Adhesive bonded joints are more resistant to flexural, fatigue & vibration stresses than
mechanical joints because of uniform stress distribution.
2) The weight penalty is negligible with adhesive bending compare to mechanical joints.
3) Can be more easily adapted to join irregular surfaces than mechanical joints.
4) Adhesive bonding is often less expensive & faster than mechanical joining.

Dis- Advantages of Bonded joints:UVCE Bangalore

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1)
2)
3)
4)

Adhesive bonding usually requires surface preparation before bonding.

Heat & pressure may be required during the bonding operation.
Health & safety is less.
Adhesive bonding crates a permanent bond & does not allow repeated assembly & disassembly

Fig. 7 Typical joint configurations for sandwich panels

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Fig. 9 Possible failure modes in bonded joints between FRP
composite adherents

MECHANICAL JOINING:
Mechanical joining is widely used in joining metal components. Ex of mechanical joints are
bolting riveting screw & pin joints. Similar to the mechanical joints of metal components,
composite components are also joined using metallic bolts, pins & screws. Composite fasteners
are used for most mechanical joints, an overlap is required in two mating members & a hole is
created at the overlap so that bolts are rivets can be inserted. When screws are used for fastening
purpose, mostly metal inserts are used in the composites, the reason being that the threads
created in the composites are not strong in shear & therefore metal inserts are used.

Fig shows the Example of bolting & riveting

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In bolted joints, nuts, bolts & washers are used to create the joint. In riveting metal rivets are
used. Bolted joints can be a single lap joints, double lap joint, or butt joints.

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Failure modes due to shear loading of riveted fasteners.

(a) Bending of member;
(b) shear of rivet;
(c) tensile failure of member;
(d) bearing of rivet on member or bearing of member on rivet.

Advantages of Mechanical Joints:1) They allow repeated assembly & disassembly for repairs & maintenance without
destroying the parent materials.
2) They require little or no surface preparation.
3) They offer easy inspection & quality control.

Dis-Advantages of Mechanical joints:1) Mechanical joints add weight to the structure & thus increase the total weight of
component.
2) Corrosion of components may occur when they are of two different materials.
3) They create fiber discontinuity at the location where a hole is drilled.
4) They also expose fibers to chemicals & other environments.

3.7

MACHINING OF COMPOSITES:-

The following are the some of the qualities that should meet during machining of the composites.
1) The spindle speed & feed rate depends upon the thickness of the laminar being machined
& type of cutting methods.
2) Standard machining equipment can be used with some small modifications.
3) No delamination or fraying cured composite edges.
4) The cutting tools required to perform the machining operations such as countersink, band
saw blades, HSS drills & reamers.
It is important to maintain the sharpness of the tool or the quality cuts & to minimize the
delamination & proper backup support should be provided o the work to prevent
delamination. The water & water soluble coolants are used to remove excess resin buildup.

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD):UVCE Bangalore

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Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer systems to assist in the creation,
modification, analysis, or optimization of a design.
Need for CAD
To increase productivity of the designer
To improve quality of the design
To improve communications
To create a manufacturing database
To create and test tool paths and optimize them
To help in production scheduling and MRP models
To have effective shop floor control.
How do CAD/CAM systems work?
Developing NC code requires an understanding of:
1. Part geometry
2. Tooling
3. Process plans
4. Tolerances
5. Fixturing
Most CAD/CAM systems provide access to:
1. Part geometry
2. Tooling
Instructions can be generated for a generic NC machine
A set of tool paths and positions can be automatically generated
These paths can be edited and modified
These paths and instructions can then be posted to a specific machine.

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