CLASSROOM

Classroom

In this section of Resonance, we invite readers to pose questions likely to be raised in a

classroom situation. We may suggest strategies for dealing with them, or invite responses,
or both. Classroom is equally a forum for raising broader issues and sharing personal
experiences and viewpoints on matters related to teaching and learning science.
GramSchmidt Orthogonalization and
Legendre Polynomials

Chanchal Kumar
Indian Institute of Science
Education and Research
Mohali

One of my senior colleagues, who works in analysis,

asked me the following question:

Knowledge City, Sector 81

Sas Nagar 140 306, India
Email:

How do you get the sequence fPn (x)g1

n=0 of Legendre
polynomials by the process of Gram{Schmidt orthogonalization on the sequence f1; x; x2 ; : : : ; xn ; : : :g?

chanchal@iisermohali.ac.in

\It is simple," I replied. \We just have to use the property that if p(x) is a polynomial of degree n such that
R1 k
x p(x)dx = 0 (0 d k d n 1) and p(1) = 1, then
1
p(x) = Pn (x), the Legendre polynomial of degree n. In
other words, the Legendre polynomial of degree n is the
unique polynomial orthogonal to 1; x; x2 ; : : : ; xn1 with
value 1 at x = 1."
\Of course, this is how it is done," he said. \But you are
already using properties of Legendre polynomials learnt
in a Dierential Equations course." He further enquired,
\Is it possible to derive Legendre polynomials entirely
from the orthogonalization process?"
This question of my colleague turned out to be interesting. In this article, we obtain the sequence fPn (x)g1
n=0
of Legendre polynomials by Gram{Schmidt orthogonal-

RESONANCE February 2013

Keywords
Orthonormal subsets, moment
matrix, orthogonal polynomial
sequence, Legendre polynomials.

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CLASSROOM

ization process and derive their relevant properties from

the rst principle (i.e., without using any dierential
equations).
1. Gram{Schmidt Orthogonalization Process
We begin this section with a brief review of the concepts of orthogonal/orthonormal subsets and the Gram{
Schmidt orthogonalization process.
Let V be a vector space over the eld of real numbers
R and let h ; i be an inner product on V . We say that
two vectors v; w 2 V are orthogonal and write v ? w if
hv; wi = 0. A nite or innite subset fui : i 2 g V
consisting of non zero vectors is said to be an orthogonal subset if ui ? uj for i 6= j and call it an orthonormal subset if in addition, kui k = 1 8i 2 . An orthogonal subset is always linearly independent. On the
other hand, given a linearly independent countable subset fv1 ; v2 ; : : :g V , Gram{Schmidt orthogonalization
(or orthonormalization) process constructs an orthogonal (resp. orthonormal) subset fe1 ; e2 ; : : :g as follows.
Set e1 = c1 v1 for 0 6= c1 2 R and dene inductively

!
i1
X
hvi ; ej i
ej for i 2;
ei = ci vi
hej ; ej i
j=1

Take two non-parallel

vectors in R22 or
three non-planar
vectors in R23 and
construct an
orthonormal basis
using GramSchmidt
process. What does it
mean geometrically?

164

P
hvi ;ej i
where 0 6= ci 2 R. Observe that vi i1
j=1 hej ;ej i ej 6= 0
because of the linear independence of fv1 ; v2; : : :g. It is
a straightforward check that the subset fe1; e2 ; : : :g is an
orthogonal subset and it has the property that
Spanfv1 ; v2; : : : ; vi g = Spanfe1 ; e2 ; : : : ; ei g; for i 1
and ei ? vj for 1 d j < i. For orthogonalization process,
we usually take ci = 1 for all i and for orthonormalization process, we choose ci so that k ei k= 1, namely
!

i1
X
hvi ; ej i
ci = k vi
ej k1 ;
hej ; ej i
j=1

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p
where norm is given by kvk = + hv; vi for v 2 V . We
recall that the norm on the inner product space (V; h ; i)
denes a distance function (metric). If V is a complete
metric space, then we say that (V; h ; i) is a (real) Hilbert
space.
Denition 1.1. An orthogonal (orthonormal) subset
fvi : i 2 g of a Hilbert space V is said to be complete if
whenever v 2 V such that v ? vi 8i 2 , we have v = 0.
A complete orthonormal subset fvi : i 2 g of a Hilbert
space V gives rise to a series expansion (analogues to
Fourier expansion)
X
v=
hv; vi ivi
i2

If a Hilbert space
(V, ) has a
complete orthonormal
subset fv1 ; v2 ; : : :g,
then every element

v V has an
expansion

P
v = i2 hv; vi ivi
l
analogues
to the
Fourier series. The
Fourier expansion
illustrates the
importance of
complete orthonormal
subsets.

for every element v 2 V . Incidentally, the right-hand

side expression is a series, because only countably many
coecients hv; vi i are non-zero. The Fourier expansion
illustrates the importance of complete orthonormal subsets. Fortunately, most of the interesting Hilbert spaces
have countable complete orthonormal subsets.
2. Orthogonal Functions and Polynomials
In this section, we recall the denition and basic properties of orthogonal polynomials. For further reading, we
refer to the books of Chihara [1] and Parthasarathy [2].
Let w be a positive function (called weight) on an open
Rb
interval (a; b) such that a w(x)dx is nite. Consider the
Hilbert space L2w (a; b) of all real measurable functions f
Rb
on (a; b) such that a f (x)2 w(x)dx is nite. The inner
product on L2w (a; b) is given by
Z b
defn:
hf; giw :=
f (x)g(x)w(x)dx
8f; g 2 L2w (a; b):
a

If w 1, then we omit subscript w and write L2 (a; b)

(or hf; gi) for L2w (a; b) (resp.hf; giw ).

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If all the moments

of weight function
w are finite, then
the (n +1) u (n +1)
moment matrix
Mn = [Pi+j ] 0 d i,j d n
is positive definite.

Denition 2.1. An orthogonal subset ffn g1

n=0 of the
Hilbert space L2w (a; b) is called an orthogonal sequence
w.r.t. the weight function w on (a; b). If in addition, we
have hfn ; fn i = 1 8n, then orthogonal sequence is called
an orthonormal sequence. If each fn is a (real) polynomial function of degree n, then the orthogonal sequence
ffn g1
n=0 is called an orthogonal polynomial sequence (or
OPS) w.r.t. weight w on (a; b).
Consider the Hilbert space L2(; ). In a rst course
on Fourier series, one learns that the sequence f1; cos x;
sin x; cos 2x; sin 2x; : : : ; cos nx; sin nx; : : :g is a complete
orthogonal sequence of functions in L2 (; ). Thus
every function f 2 L2 (; ) has an expansion, the socalled Fourier series expansion,
a0 X
+
(an cos nx + bn sin nx)
2
n=1
1

f(x) =

valid in the Hilbert space L2 (; ). (What are coecients an and bn ?)

Now we proceed to study the existence of an OPS in
L2w (a; b). Suppose all the moments of w
Z b
n =
xn w(x)dx; n = 0; 1; 2; : : :
a

are nite (this condition holds if (a; b) is a nite interval). Consider the (n + 1) (n + 1) moment matrix
Mn = [i+j ]0 d i;j d n , whose (i + 1; j + 1)th entry is
i+j . Suppose the determinant det(Mn ) = mn . Let
p(x) = a0 + a1x + : : : + an xn (ai 2 R) be a polynomial.
Then
X
hp; piw =
ai aj i+j = at Mn a;
0 d i;j d n

where a is a column vector and its transpose at = (a0; a1;

: : : ; an ). Since hp; piw 0, the moment matrix Mn is

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positive denite. In particular, det(Mn ) = mn > 0. Let

qn be a polynomial given by the determinant
qn (x) =

0 1

1 2

2 3

..
..
.
.

n n+1

: : : n1 1
: : : n
x X
n
2
: : : n+1 x =
Cof i+1;n+1 (Mn ) xi ;

.
.
...
..
.. i=0

: : : 2n1 xn

Why is the
determinant of a
positive definite
matrix positive?

where Cof i+1;n+1 (Mn ) is the (i + 1; n + 1)th cofactor of

Mn . The polynomial qn has degree n and its leading
coecient is det(Mn1 ) = mn1 .
Proposition 2.2. The polynomial qn satises the following properties.
(i) hxk ; qn iw = 0; k = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1:
(ii) hxn ; qn iw = mn :
(iii) hqn ; qn iw = mn1 mn :
Proof. We have
k

hx ; qn i =

n
X

Cof i+1;n+1 (Mn ) i+k = det(L(k));

i=0

where L(k) is the matrix obtained from the moment

matrix Mn by replacing its (n + 1)th column by its (k +
1)th column. If k < n, then (k + 1)th and (n + 1)th
columns of L(k) are identical and hence det(L(k)) = 0.
Also, L(n) = Mn . This proves (i) and (ii). Since the
leading coecient of qn is mn1, (iii) follows from (i)
and (ii).
1
If we set q~n (x) = pmn1
q (x), then h~
qn ; q~n iw = 1.
mn n
Thus in view of Proposition 2.2, f~
qn g1
n=0 is an orthonor2
mal polynomial sequence in Lw (a; b). The orthonormal

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CLASSROOM

For a finite interval

(a,b), a complete
)

OPS in L2w (a,b) is

uniquely determined
(up to a sign)
by the moment
matrix.

sequence f~
qn g1
n=0 is uniquely determined by the moment
matrix Mn provided we demand that the leading coefcient of q~n is positive. If the interval (a; b) is nite,
then the orthonormal polynomial sequence f~
qn g1
n=0 determined by the moment matrix is also complete.
We now derive some properties of an orthogonal polynomial sequence.
2
Proposition 2.3. Let fpn g1
n=0 be an OPS in Lw (a; b)
with deg(pn ) = n. Then

(i) hxk ; pn iw =
: : : ; n 1.

Rb
a

xk pn (x)w(x)dx = 0 for k = 0; 1; 2;

(ii) The polynomial pn (x) of degree n has exactly n

simple zeros in the open interval (a; b).
(iii) There is a recurrence relation of the form
pn+1(x) = (n x + n )pn (x) + n pn1(x); 8n 1
where n ; n ; n are real constants depending on
n.
Proof. Let q be a polynomial of degree k. Since deg(pn ) =
n, itP
follows that q lies in the span of fp0 ; p1 ; : : : ; pk g, i.e.,
q = ki=0 ai pi ; ai 2 R. If k < n, then by orthogonality
hq; pn iw =

k
X

ai hpi ; pn iw = 0:

i=0

In particular, hxk ; pn iw = 0 for k < n. This proves (i).

Let x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xm be distinct real zeros of pn in (a; b).
Then we can factorize
pn (x) = (x x1 )1 (x x2)2 : : : (x xm )m r(x);
where i 1 and the polynomial r(x) has no zero on
(a; b). Thus r(x) > 0 (or else r(x) < 0), 8x 2 (a; b).

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Let (x) = (xx1 )1 (xx2)2 : : : (xxm )m , where i =

0 or 1 according as i is even or odd. Then deg() d m
and (x)pn (x) 0 (or else (x)pn (x) d 0) 8x 2 (a; b).
Rb
This shows that h; pn iw = a (x)pn (x)w(x)dx 6= 0.
Thus in view of part(i), deg() n. Since deg() d m d n,
we must have m = n. This proves (ii).
Let n be the ratio of leading coecients of pn+1 and pn .
Then pn+1 (x) n xpn (x) is a polynomial
of degree at
Pn
most n. Let pn+1 (x) n xpn (x) = i=0 bi pi (x). Then
bk

hpn+1 ; pk i
hpn+1 n xpn ; pk i
hxpn ; pk i
=
=
n
hpk ; pk i
hpk ; pk i
hpk ; pk i
hpn+1 ; pk i
hpn ; xpk i
=
n
hpk ; pk i
hpk ; pk i
= 0
if k < n 1 (in view of (i)):

A real polynomial of
degree n can have at
most n real zeros.
But, if fpn gf1
n=0gis
an OPS in L2w (a,b)

with deg(pn) = n,

then the (real)

polynomial pn(x) has
exactly n simple
zeros in (a,b).

Thus pn+1(x) n xpn (x) = bn pn (x) + bn1 pn1 (x). This

proves (iii).
3. Orthogonalization and Legendre Polynomials
Consider the Hilbert space L2 (1; 1) with the inner product given by
Z 1
f (x)g(x)dx
for f; g 2 L2 (1; 1):
hf; gi =
1

Clearly, xn 2 L2 (1; 1); n = 0; 1; : : :. Now we can easily

determine an OPS on L2 (1; 1) using moment matrix as
described in the last section. Instead, we prefer to carry
out Gram{Schmidt orthogonalization process explicitly.
However, both these methods of determining an OPS on
L2 (1; 1) are essentially the same.
A real polynomial is identically the zero function if and
only if all its coecients are zero. It follows that f1; x; x2 ;
: : : ; xn ; : : :g is a linearly independent subset of L2 (1; 1).
Applying Gram{Schmidt orthogonalization process to

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CLASSROOM

The polynomial Qn(x)

of degree n has
exactly n simple zeros
in (1,1). Since we
will prove that Qn(x)
is the Legendre
polynomial of degree
n, between any two
zeros of Qn(x) , there
exists a zero of
Qn+1(x). Is it easy to
prove this fact
directly?

the subset f1; x; x2 ; : : : ; xn ; : : :g, we get a complete OPS

fQn (x)g1
n=0 , where Q0 (x) = c0 (1) and
#
"
n1
n
X
hx
;
Q
i
i
Qn (x) = cn xn
Qi (x)
hQ
;
Q
i
i
i
i=0
for 0 6= cn 2 R; 8n 0. Since all the n distinct zeros
of the polynomial Qn (x) of degree n lie in (1; 1), we
have Qn (1) 6= 0 for all n 0. Thus we may choose
constants cn so that Qn (1) = 1. Clearly, Q0 (x) = 1 and
Q1(x) = x.
Lemma 3.1. The complete OPS fQn (x)g1
n=0 obtained
by Gram{Schmidt orthogonalization process has the following properties.
(i) hxm ; Qn i = 0 if m and n have dierent parity, i.e.,
m + n is odd.
(ii) The polynomial Qn (x) is of the form
2
3
[n
]
2
n
X
hx ; Qn2k i
Qn (x) = cn 4xn
Qn2k (x)5 :
hQ
n2k ; Qn2k i
k=1
(iii) The coecient of xm in the polynomial Qn (x) is
zero whenever m and n have dierent parity, i.e.,
n

Qn (x) =

[2]
X
k=0

ak xn2k = a0 xn + a1xn2 + a2 xn4 +

n

: : : + a[ n2 ] xn2[ 2 ] ;
where ak 2 R for k = 0; 1; 2; : : : ; [ n2 ]; and [ n2 ] is the
integral part of n2 .
Proof. We just need to prove part (i). The proof is
Rby1 induction on n. Since Q0(x) = 1; Q1 (x) = x and
f(x)dx = 0 for an odd continuous function f, the
1

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CLASSROOM

lemma holds for n = 0 or n = 1. By induction hypothesis, we assume that the lemma holds for Qi (x) for i < n
and we shall show that it also holds for Qn (x). We have
hxn ; Qi i = 0 for i = n 1; n 3; : : :, as n and i have
dierent parity. Thus
2
3
[n
]
2
n
X hx ; Qn2k i
Qn (x) = cn 4xn
Qn2k (x)5 ;
hQ
n2k ; Qn2k i
k=1
and it is an odd
even function according as n is odd or
R 1 or
m
even. Thus 1 x Qn (x)dx = 0 if m and n have dierent
parity. By part (i), we immediately get (ii) and (iii).

A function
f : R ! R is even
(or odd) if f (x) = f (x)
(or f (x) = f (x)),

8x 2 R. For
example, cos x is an
even function, while
sin x is an odd
function. What are
even or odd
polynomial functions?

P[ n2 ]
n2k
From the last lemma, Qn (x) =
and in
k=0 ak x
order to obtain them, we just have to compute all the
[ n2 ] + 1 coecients a0 ; a1 ; : : : ; a[ n2 ] . Since Qn (1) = 1 and
hxn2i ; Qn i = 0 for i = 1; 2; : : : ; [ n2 ], we obtain equations
a0 + a1 + : : : + a[ n2 ] = 1
and
n

[2]
X
k=0

2
ak = 0
2n 2(i + k) + 1

or

equivalently
n

[2]
X
k=0

1
ak = 0:
2(n i k) + 1

On solving this system of [ n2 ] + 1 linear equations by

Cramer's rule, we get
ak =

k+1
n
; k = 0; 1; 2; : : : ; [ ];

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CLASSROOM

What is the value of

the determinant '?

where

1
2n1

1
= 2n3
..

2n2[1n ]+1
2

1
1
2n3
1
2n5

..
.

1
2n2[ n
]1
2

..
.

1
1
2(nk)1
1
2(nk)3

..
.

1
2(nk)2[ n
]+1
2

..
.

..

1
n
n
2(n[ ])2[ ]1
1

1
2(n[ n
])1
2
1
2(n[ n
])3
2

and k+1 is the determinant obtained from by replacing the (k + 1)th column by the column vector
2 3
1
607
6 7
6 .. 7 :
4.5
0
Clearly, k+1 = Cof 1;k+1() is the (1; k + 1)th cofactor
of . Let Ci be the ith column of . On subtracting the
(k + 1)th column Ck+1 from other columns, the determinant remains unchanged. Thus column operations
Ci Ck+1 , i 6= k + 1 yield
= det(C1 Ck+1 ; C2 Ck+1 ; : : : ; Ck Ck+1 ; Ck+1 ; Ck+2
Ck+1 ; : : : ; C[ n2 ]+1 Ck+1);
where the column vector Ci Ck+1 ; i 6= k + 1 is
2
3
0
6
7
6
7
2(i(k+1))
6
7
6
7
(2(ni)+1))(2(nk)1)
6
7
6
7
7:
2(i(k+1))
Ci Ck+1 = 6
6
7
(2(ni)1))(2(nk)3)
6
7
..
7
6
.
6
7
7
6
5
4
2(i(k+1))
(2(ni)2[ n
]1)(2(nk)2[ n
]+1)
2
2

The common factor 2(i(k+1)) in the column Ci Ck+1

can be factored out. Factoring out also the common fac1
1
1
; 2(nk)3
; : : : ; 2(nk)2[
from the second
tors 2(nk)1
n
]+1
2

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CLASSROOM

and onwards rows of the determinant

= det(C1 Ck+1 ; C2 Ck+1 ; : : : ; Ck Ck+1 ; Ck+1 ; Ck+2

10

[n
]+1
2

[2]
C @Y
BY
(2(i (k + 1)))A
=@

1
A
2(n

k)

2j
+
1
j=1

i=1
i6=k+1

are not relevant as

we are interested only
in their ratio. Using the

Ck+1 ; : : : ; C[ n2 ]+1 Ck+1);

we get
0

Actual values of the

determinants 'and 'c

properties of
determinants, we can
simplify the
calculations.

0 ;
where the determinant

0
0

1
1

2n1
2n3

1
1
2n5
0 = 2n3
..
..

.
.

1
1
2n2[ n ]+1 2n2[ n ]1
2

: ::
: ::
: ::
...

1
1
1
..
.
: :: 1

2(n[ n
])1

1
2(n[ n
])3
2

..

1
: : : 2(n[ n ])2[ n ]1
:::
:::
:::
...

is obtained from the determinant by replacing its (k +

1)th column by the column vector
2 3
1
617
6 7
6 .. 7
4.5
1
and replacing the entries of the rst row of by 0,
except the (k + 1)th entry which is 1. Now expanding
the determinant 0 along the rst row, we see that 0 =
Cof 1;k+1 () = k+1 . Also
[n
]+1
2

i=1
i6=k+1

n
n
(2(i (k + 1))) = (1)k 2k k! 2[ 2 ]k ([ ] k)! :
2

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CLASSROOM

Assume that the

Legendre equation

These calculations show that for 0 d k d [ n2 ], we have

Q[ n2 ]
k+1
j=1 (2(n k) 2j + 1)
:
ak =
= (1)k k [ n ]k n

(2 k!) 2 2 ([ 2 ] k)!

with parameter n has

a solution of the form

P
i
y= 1
i=0 i x ;
i 2 R. What are
conditions on

the coefficients Di?

To further simplify the expression for ak , we multiply

and divide by (2n 2k)! and carry out calculations for
odd and even values of n separately. It can be shown
that in either case,
ak = (1)k

(2n 2k)!
2n k!(n k)!(n 2k)!

n
for k = 0; 1; : : : ; [ ]:
2

Thus
n

[2]
X
Qn (x) =
(1)k
k=0

(2n 2k)!
xn2k :
k)!(n 2k)!

2n k!(n

One recognize that this is an expression for a Legendre

polynomial of degree n (see [3]), but we will make this
claim only after showing that Qn (x) is a solution of the
Legendre dierential equation with parameter n.
Denition 3.2. Consider the Legendre equation
(1 x2 )

d2y
dy
+ n(n + 1)y = 0

2x
dx2
dx

with parameter n, where n is a non-negative integer.

The Legendre equation with parameter n has a unique
polynomial solution Pn (x) of degree n having the value
1 at x = 1. The polynomial Pn (x) is called the Legendre
polynomial of degree n.
Proposition 3.3 The complete OPS fQn (x)g1
n=0 has
the following properties.
(1) There is a recurrence relation of the form

2n + 1
n
Qn+1 (x) =
xQn (x)
Qn1 (x) 8n 1:
n+1
n+1

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CLASSROOM

Consider the

(2) Qn (x) is given by a Rodrigues' formula

n
1 dn 2
Qn (x) = n

1
8n:
x
2 n! dxn

polynomial

f (x) =

dn
(x2
dxn

1)n

of degree n, and

(3) Qn (x) is a solution of Legendre equation with parameter n. In particular,

directly show that

R1

Qn (x) = Pn (x) 8n:

xk f (x)dx = 0

for k = 0,1,..., n1.

What is f (1)?

fQn (x)g1
n=0

Proof. 1. Since
is a complete OPS, by Proposition 2.3, there is a recurrence relation of the form
Qn+1 (x) = (n x + n )Qn (x) + n Qn1 (x); 8n 1
where n ; n ; n are real constants depending on n. Now,
by Lemma 3.1, Qn (x) is an odd or even function of x
according as n is odd or even. Thus Qn (1) = 1 implies that Qn (1) = (1)n . On substituting x = 1 and
x = 1 in the recurrence relation, we get
n + n + n = 1 and n n + n = 1:
Thus n = 0 and n + n = 1. Also, n is the ratio
of the leading coecients of Qn+1 (x) and Qn (x). The
leading coecient of Qn (x) = 2n(2n)!
. Therefore,
(n!)2
n =

(2(n+1))!
2n+1 ((n+1)!)2
(2n)!
2n (n!)2

Thus n = 1 n =
formula.

n
.
n+1

2n + 1
:
n+1

This gives the recurrence

2. From the expression for Qn (x), Rodrigues' formula

can be easily derived (see [3]). We observe that
dn 2n2k (2n 2k)! n2k
x
=
x
dxn
(n 2k)!
0
n

d @
dxn

n
X

and
1

(1)k

k=[ n
]+1
2

RESONANCE February 2013

1
2n k!(n

k)!

x2n2k A = 0;

175

CLASSROOM

The n th derivative
( f.g)(n) of the product of
two functions f and g
is given by Leibniz
formula.
For example:

Pn
1
k
2n2k
because
is a polynomial
]+1 (1) 2n k!(nk)! x
k=[ n
2
of degree strictly less than n. Thus
n

[2]
X
Qn (x) =
(1)k

(2n 2k)!
xn2k

k)!(n

2k)!
k=0
0 n
1
[2]
n
X
1
d @
=
(1)k n
x2n2k A
n
dx
2
k!(n

k)!
k=0

( f.g )c = f c.g + f.g c.

( f.g)cc = f cc.g + 2 f c.gc+
f.gcc.

2n k!(n

[n]

2
d @X
1
=
(1)k n
x2n2k
n
dx
2
k!(n

k)!
k=0

0
@

n
X

1
1
x2n2k A
(1)k n
2 k!(n k)!

k=[ n
]+1
2

1 dn
= n
2 n! dxn

n
X
k=0

n!
(x2 )nk (1)k
k!(n k)!

n
1 d 2
x

1
:
2n n! dxn
n

3. Using Rodrigues' formula, it is a straightforward verication. Let w = (x2 1)n . On dierentiating it w.r.t.
x, we get (x2 1) dw
= 2nxw. Now dierentiating this
dx
expression n + 1 times using Leibniz formula, we can
n
see that ddxwn and hence Qn (x) is a solution of Legendre
equation with parameter n. Since Qn (1) = 1, we must
have Qn (x) = Pn (x).
Suggested Reading
[1]

T S Chihara, An Introduction to Orthogonal Polynomials} Gordon and

[2]

K R Parthasarathy, Introduction to Probability and Measure, TRIM 33,

[3]

G F Simmons, Differential Equations with Applications and Historical Notes,

Breach, New York, 1978.

Hindustan Book Agency, New Delhi, 2005.
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing, New Delhi, 1974.

176

RESONANCE February 2013