Plus Two Biology 5 Mark Question

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HIGHER SECONDARY - SECOND YEAR
+2
K.K.D
CENTUM MATERIAL
FOR
BIOLOGY
(ENGLISH MEDIUM)
GOVT QUESTION PAPERS INCLUDED

MARCH
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
JUNE
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
SEPTEMBER 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
by
K.K.DEVADOSS
M.Sc.,M.A.,M.Phil.,M.Ed.,M.B.A,
PGT in Zoology
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BIOLOGY - 5 MARK QUESTION & ANSWER
BIOLOGY- BOTANY
CHAPTERS
NO OF
QUESTIONS
1
TOTAL
MARKS
5
1.
TAXONOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS
2.
PLANT ANATOMY
3.
CELL BIOLOGY AND GENETICS
4.
BIOTECHNOLOGY
5.
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
10
6.
BIOLOGY IN HUMAN WELFARE
1
7
5
35
TOTAL
MARKS
5
TOTAL
NOTE : MARKS ALLOTTED 4x5=20
BIOLOGY- ZOOLOGY
1.
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
NO OF
QUESTIONS
1
2.
MICRO BIOLOGY
3.
IMMUNOLOGY
4.
MODERN GENETICS
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
CHAPTERS
7.
TOTAL
NOTE : MARKS ALLOTTED 3x5=15
35
--------35
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STANDARD XII
PUBLIC EXAM QUESTIONS & ANSWER
BIOLOGY - BOTANY - 5 MARK QUESTION & ANSWER
QUESTION NUMBER : 25
1. TAXONOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS
1. Write the importance of herbarium. | M-06,J-06, M-07, J-08,S-09,M-10,S-10,M-12,M-14,J-15 |
Source of knowledge about the flora of a region or a locality or a country.
Data store in which the information on plants are available.
Help in the correct identification of plants.
Provides materials for taxonomic and anatomical studies.
Typical pollen characters have been well emphasized in taxonomy.
Morphological characters of the pollen remain unaltered even after storage upto nearly 200 years.
Useful in the study of cytology, structure of DNA, numerical taxonomy, chaemotaxonomy, etc.
Acts as a reservoir of gene pool studies.
2. Give an account of phylogenetic system of classification. | S-06 |
Based on evolutionary sequence as well as genetic relationships among different groups of plants. In addition to
this, it employs as many taxonomic characters as possible.
Charles Darwins concept of Origin of Species had given enough stimulus for the creation of phylogenetic system
of classification.
Adolf Engler (1844-1930) and Karl Prantl (1849-1893) of Germany published a phylogenetic system in their
monograph on Die Naturlichen Pflanzen Familien.
In this system, floral characters such as single whorl of perianth or no perianth and unisexual flowers pollinated
by wind were considered as primitive characters whencompared to perianth with two whorls, bisexual flowers
pollinated by insects.
According to them, members of Asteraceae of dicotyledons and Orchidaceae of monocotyledons were highly
advanced.
3. Bring out the merits of Bentham and Hooker's classification. | J-07,J-12,J-14 |
Bentham and Hookers classification is the most natural system, based on actual examination of specimens.
The description of plants is quite accurate and reliable.
As it is easy to follow, it is used as a key for the identification of plants in Kew herbarium and several other
herbaria of the world.
Although this system is natural, most of the aspects of this system show affinity to modern concepts of
evolution. order Ranales, which is the first order in the arrangement of plants, has been given a primitive position
in this system.Recent taxonomic findings also indicate that the members of Ranales are the most primitive living
angiosperms.
The placement of monocotyledonae after the dicotyledonae also appers to be in accordance with the evolutionary
trends .
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4. Discuss the outline of Bentham and Hooker's classification of plants. | S-07,S-08 |
5. Write the economic importance of members of Malvaceae. | M-08,J-09 |
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
159
PLANT NAME
FIBRE PLANTS
Gossypium barbadense (Egyptian cotton),
Gossypium hirsutum (American cotton),
Gossypium herbaceum (Cotton)
Hibiscus cannabinus (Deccan hemp)
FOOD PLANTS
Abelmoschus esculentus (ladys finger)
Hibiscus sabdariffa (A kind of pulichai)
Hibiscus cannabinus (Pulichai keerai)
TIMBER PLANTS
Thespesia populnea (portia tree)
MEDICINAL PLANTS
Abutilon indicum (Thuthi)
Malva sylvestris
Althaea rosea
ORNAMENTAL PLANTS
Althaea rosea (Hollyhock)
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (Shoe flower)
Hibiscus schizopetalus
USEFUL PART
USES
Fibres from the

surface of seeds.
Cotton fibres of commercial

value
bast fibres
Making ropes.
The tender fruit

leaves and sepals
leaves and sepals
Vegetable
Making pickles,jam and jelly.
Chutney.
Timber
making boat, furniture and

agricultural implements.
Root and leaves

Roots
Roots
used against fever.

treating whooping cough
dysentery
Whole plant
Whole plant
Whole plant
grown in gardens.
grown in gardens.
grown in gardens.
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6. Write any five salient features of ICBN. | M-09,M-11,M-13,S-14,M-15 |

The generic name is a singular noun. The first letter of generic name is always written in capital. The specific
epithet is an adjective and is always written with small letters. It is derived from many sources and may consist of
one or two words. eg. Oryza sativa and Oldenlandia albonervia.
The name should be short, precise and easy to pronounce.
The binomials are printed in italics or underlined. The generic and specific epithets are underlined separately. eg.
Abutilon neilgherrense or Abutilon neilgherrense
When new names are given to any plant, then the herbarium preparation of the same specimen with its original
description is preserved in any recognized herbarium. This specimen is denoted as type specimen. It is to be
preserved on herbarium sheet.
The person who publishes the description of any plant for the first time or giving a new name to a plant is
considered as author. The name of plant should bear the authors abbreviated name at the end of specific
epithet. This is called author citation. Abbreviations were made for eminent taxonomists. The name Linnaeus was
abbreviated to L. or Linn., eg. Malva sylvestris Linn.
The original description of the plant should accompany the latin translation.
If naming the plant is from a source of error, it is regarded as ambiguous name. It is also called nomen ambiguum
and is completely ignored from use.
If the generic and specific epithets are the same, it is called tautonym. eg. Sassafras sassafras. Such names are
not accepted in the system of nomenclature.
7. Write the economic importance of family Euphorbiaceae. | J-10,S-11 |
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
160
PLANT NAME
FOOD PLANTS
Manihot esculenta (tapioca)
USEFUL PART
tuberous root
Phyllanthus emblica (Gooseberry)
fleshy fruits
OIL PLANTS
Ricinus communis (Castor)
seeds
Jatropha curcas (Kattamanakku)
seeds
MEDICINAL PLANTS
Phyllanthus amarus (Keezhanelli)
Jatropha gossypifolia
RUBBER PLANTS
Hevea brasiliensis (para rubber)
Manihot glaziovii (manicoba rubber)
ORNAMENTAL PLANTS
Euphorbia pulcherrima
Codiaeum variegatum (croton of gardens)
Euphorbia tirucalli (milk bush)
USES
rich in starch and forms valuable
food stuff.
rich in vitamin C. The fruit is
edible and pickled
lubricant, vegetable oil and
purgative.
purgative, to treat skin diseases
and to extract bio-diesel.
entire shoot system

leaves and roots
treat jaundice.
treat leprosy and snakebite.
latex
latex
natural rubber
natural rubber
entire shoot system

entire shoot system
entire shoot system
ornamental plants
ornamental plants
ornamental plants
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8. Give an account of the economic importance of the family Musacae. | J-11|
1.
2.
3.
PLANT NAME
FOOD PLANTS
Musa paradisiaca (Banana)
USEFUL PART
Musa chinensis (Dwarf banana)

FIBRE PLANT
Musa textilis (Manila hemp)
( extensively grown Manila in Philippines)
ORNAMENTAL PLANTS
Ravenala madagascariensis
(Travellers palm)
Strelitzia reginae
(the bird of paradise flower)
Heliconia sp.
USES
Green bananas, the

shaft and the flowers
Leaves
Sap
Fruits
cooked and eaten as

vegetable.
plates on festive occassions.
antidote for cobra bite.
sweet and edible.
fibres obtained from

sheathy leaf bases
woven into Abaca cloth and

used for cordage.
entire shoot system
ornamentals.
entire shoot system
ornamentals.
entire shoot system
ornamentals.
9. Give an account of the economic importance of the family Solanaceae. | S-12 |
1.
2.
PLANT NAME
FOOD PLANTS
Solanum tuberosum (potato)
Solanum melongena
Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato)
MEDICINAL PLANTS
Atropa belladona
Datura stramonium
Solanum trilobatum (thoodhuvalai)
Withania somnifera (Amukkara)
3.
4.
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TOBACCO
Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco)
ORNAMENTAL PLANTS
Cestrum diurnum (day jasmine)
Cestrum nocturnum (night jasmine)
Petunia hybrida (pink flower)
USEFUL PART
USES
Tubers
Tender fruits
ripened fruits
vegetable
delicious vegetables
delicious vegetables
Roots (atropine)
Leaves and flowers
(stramonium)
Leaves, flowers, berries
Roots and leaves
for relieving muscular pain.

To treat asthma and
whooping cough.
To treat cough.
to treat nervous disorder and
are diuretic apart from useful
tonic.
Leaves(nicotine, nornicotine
and anabasine)
commercial tobaccos such

as cigarette, bidi, pipes and
hukkah as well as chewing
and snuffing. It is also used
as sedative, antispasmodic
and insecticide.
entire shoot system

entire shoot system
entire shoot system
grown in gardens for their

beautiful flowers.
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10. Write the differences between Musa and Ravenala. | S-13 |

MUSA
Habit
Mostly perennial herbs
Stem
Stem is underground called rhizome.
The apparent, unbranched, errect
and areal pseudostem is formed by
the long, stiff and sheathy leaf bases
which are rolled around one another
to form an aerial pseudostem.
Leaf
The phyllotaxy is spiral
Inflorescence
Branced spadix.
Stamens
5 stamens are fertile
Fruit
An elongated fleshy berry without
seeds .
RAVENALA
rarely trees
stem is aerial and woody.
distichous
Compound cyme.
6 stamens are fertile.
a capsule
11. Define Bio systematics. Briefly write a note on it. | J-13 |

DEFINNITION :
Biosystematics may be defined as taxonomy of living populations.
BRIEF NOTE
In the present day classification of plants, species is taken as basic unit and it is the local breeding population.
Numerous disciplines of science thus provide innumerable number of datas of all the characters of the individual
or a species.
This helps to clear problems concerning those plants that differ in their interrelationship, classification and
evolution.
It provides sufficient genetic variations that warrants separation so as to recognise them as a separate taxon
based on their evolutionary progress.
Variations in a species may be due to several factors such as genetic, ecological, physiological, population
dynamic
study and many other factors.
All the evidences provided by the biosystematist are taken for analysis and considered by the classical
taxonomist in order to arrive at any controversial problems that may arise during their phylogenetic
classification based on their evolution of species under study.
AIMS OF BIOSYSTEMATICS
Camp and Gily 1943, coined the term biosystematics.
The aims of biosystematics are as follows.
i) To delimit the naturally occurring biotic community of plant species.
ii) To recognise the various groups as separate biosystematic categories such as ecotypes, ecospecies,
cenospecies and comparium.
METHODS IN THE STUDY OF BIOSYSTEMATICS
Three important methods are as follows.
i) It involves thorough sampling analysis of the taxonomic species under study.Its population, cultivation,
geographical range, cytology, anatomy, palynology, phytochemistry, chromosomal number and behavior are
keenly observed and studied for finding any genetic differences that may arise among different populations.
ii) It includes determination of ability of different populations to interbreed among one another to form a variant
species with its vigor and fertility. This will reveal the presence or absence of breeding barriers between taxa at
various levels.
iii) It involves the study of similarity of chromosomes in the hybrids during meiosis.
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2. PLANT ANATOMY
1. Draw a neat sketch of anatomy of sunflower leaf and label the parts. (or)
Draw and label the parts of the transverse section (T.S) of a dicot root. (or)
Draw the transverse section of a dicot root and label the parts. | M-06, J-06, S-07, J-12, S-13,J-15 |
2. Explain the structure of sieve elements. | S-06, M-07, M-11,J-13 |
Sieve elements are the conducting elements of the phloem.

They have thick primary walls.
Their end walls are transverse or oblique.
The end wall contains a number of pores and it looks like a sieve. So it is called a sieve plate.
The sieve elements are arranged one above the other and form vertical sieve tubes.
In matured sieve tube, nucleus is absent.
It contains a lining layer of cytoplasm.
This is an important feature of sieve elements.
A special protein called slime body is seen in it.
The conduction of food material takes place through cytoplasmic strands.
They are distinguished into sieve cells and sieve tubes.Sieve cells occur in pteridophytes and gymnosperms,
while
sieve tubes occur in angiosperms.
Sieve cells have sieve areas on their lateral walls only and are not arranged one above the other in linear rows.
They are not associated with companion cells.
Sieve tubes are arranged one above the other in linear rows and have sieve plates on their end walls.
They are associated with the companion cells.
In mature sieve elements, sometimes the pores in the sieve plate are blocked by a substance called callose.
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3. Explain the types of meristems based on their positions with diagram. | J-07,M-09,S-09,M-14 |
Based on its position, the meristem is divided into three types

1. Apical meristem,
2. Intercalary meristem
3. Lateral meristem.
APICAL MERISTEM
Apical meristem is found at the tips of roots, stem and branches.
It is responsible for increase in length of plant.
It is divided into three zones protoderm, procambium and ground meristem.
Protoderm gives rise to epidermal tissue; procambium gives rise to primary vascular tissues and
ground meristem gives rise to cortex and pith.
INTERCALARY MERISTEM
It is present in the nodal region and is prominently found in monocotyledons, eg. grasses.
As the name indicates, it is present in between the permanent tissues.
It is derived from the apical meristem and is responsible for the elongation of internodes.
LATERAL MERISTEM
The meristem that is present along the longitudinal axis of stem and root is called lateral meristem.
Vascular cambium and cork cambium (phellogen) are examples for lateral meristem.
It produces secondary permanent tissues, which result in the thickening of stem and root.
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4. With examples, explain any two types of collencyma with diagram. | J-08 |
Lamellar Collenchyma
In the hypodermis of Helianthus, only the tangential walls of collenchyma are thickened and the radial walls are
devoid of thickening.
This type of collenchyma is called lamellar collenchyma.
Angular Collenchyma.
In the hypodermis of Datura and Nicotiana, the cell walls of collenchyma are thickened at their angles.
This type is called angular collenchyma.
Lacunate Collenchyma.
In the hypodermis of Ipomoea, the cell wall thickening materials are deposited on the walls bordering the
intercellular spaces.
This type is called lacunate collenchyma.
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5. Write short notes on vessels. | M-10 |
Vessels are perforated at the end walls.

Its lumen is wider than that of tracheids.
The perforated plates at the end wall separate the vessels.
They occur parallel to the long axis of the plant body.
Due to dissolution of entire end wall, a single pore is formed at the perforation plate.
It is called simple perforation plate eg. Mangifera.
If the perforation plate has many pores, then it is called multiple perforation plate. eg. Liriodendron.
The secondary wall thickenings of vessels are annular, spiral, scalariform, reticulate, or pitted as in tracheids.
Vessels are chief water conducting elements in angiosperms and they are absent in pteridophytes and gymnosperms.
However, in Gnetum of gymnosperms, vessels occur.
The main function of vessel is conduction of water and minerals.
It also offers mechanical strength to the plant.
6. With examples explain the structure of concentric vascular bundles. | M-08 |
The bundle in which either phloem surrounds the xylem or xylem surrounds the phloem completely is known as
concentric vascular bundle.
This is of two types amphicribral and amphivasal.
In amphicribral concentric vascular bundles, the phloem completely surrounds the xylem. eg. Polypodium.
In amphivasal concentric vascular bundles, the xylem completely surrounds the phloem. eg. Acorus.
In roots, protoxylem vessels are present towards the periphery and the metaxylem vessels towards the centre.
This arrangement of xylem is called exarch.
In stem, protoxylem vessels are towards the centre, while metaxylem towards the periphery.
This condition is known as endarch.
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7. Describe the structure of vascular bundles in Monocot stem. | S-10 |
Vascular bundles are scattered in the parenchymatous ground tissue.

Each vascular bundle is surrounded by a sheath of sclerenchymatous fibres called bundle sheath.
The vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral, endarch and closed.
Vascular bundles are numerous, small and closely arranged in the peripheral portion.
Towards the centre, the bundles are comparatively large in size and loosely arranged.
Vascular bundles are skull shaped.
PHLOEM
The phloem in the monocot stem consists of sieve tubes and companion cells.
Phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres are absent.
It can be distinguished into an outer crushed protophloem and an inner metaphloem.
XYLEM
Xylem vessels are arranged in the form of the letter Y.
The two metaxylem vessels are located at the upper two arms and one or two protoxylem vessels at the base.
In a mature bundle, the lowest protoxylem disintegrates and forms a cavity known as protoxylem lacuna.
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8. Draw and label the parts of the transverse section of a Monocot root (A sector enlarged) | J-11 |
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9. Write short notes on the vascular bundles of the dicot stem. | S-11 |
The vascular bundles consist of xylem, phloem and cambium.

Xylem and phloem in the stem occur together and form the vascular bundles.
These vascular bundles are wedge shaped.
They are arranged in the form of a ring. Each vascular bundle is conjoint, collateral, open and endarch.
PHLOEM:
Primary phloem lies towards the periphery.
It consists of protophloem and metaphloem. Phloem consists of sieve tubes, companion cells and phloem
parenchyma.
Phloem fibres are absent in the primary phloem.
Phloem conducts organic food materials from the leaves to other parts of the plant body.
CAMBIUM:
Cambium consists of brick shaped and thin walled meristematic cells.
It is two to three layers in thickness. These cells are capable of forming new cells during secondary growth.
XYLEM:
Xylem consists of xylem fibres, xylem parenchyma, vessels and tracheids.
Vessels are thick walled and arranged in a few rows.
Xylem conducts water and minerals from the root to the other parts of the plant body.
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10. Explain the types of conjoint vascular bundle. | M-15 |
In stems and leaves, xylem and phloem are arranged at the same radius and form a vascular bundle together.
Such vascular bundle is called conjoint vascular bundle.
Depending upon the mutual relationship of xylem and phloem,Conjoint vascular bundles are divided into three
types.
They are collateral, bicollateral and concentric.
If xylem and phloem in a vascular bundle are arranged along the same radius with phloem towards the outside,
such vascular bundle is called collateral vascular bundle.
If phloem occurs on both the outer and inner sides of xylem, the bundle is called bicollateral.
Bicollateral vascular bundles are most typically seen in Cucurbitaceae.
The bundle in which either phloem surrounds the xylem or xylem surrounds the phloem completely is known as
concentric vascular bundle.
This is of two types Amphicribral and Amphivasal.
In Amphicribral concentric vascular bundles,the phloem completely surrounds the xylem.eg. Polypodium.
In Amphivasal concentric vascular bundles,the xylem completely surrounds the phloem. eg. Acorus.
11. Write short notes on Tracheids. | M-12 |
Tracheids are elongated with blunt ends.

Its lumen is broader than that of fibres.
Their secondary wall is lignified.
In cross section, the tracheids appear polygonal and thick walled.
The pits are simple or bordered.
There are different types of cell wall thickening due to deposition of secondary wall substances.
They are annular (ring like), spiral (spring like), scalariform (ladder like), reticulate (net like) and pitted
(uniformly thick except at pits).
Tracheids are imperforate cells with bordered pits on their end walls.
They are arranged one above the other.
Tracheids are chief water conducting elements in gymnosperms and pteridophytes.
Here, the conduction of water and mineral salts takes place through the bordered pits.
They also offer mechanical support to the plants.
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12. Distinguish the anatomy of dicot roots from monocot roots. | S-08, J-09, J-10, S-12 , J-14 |
1
2
3
4
5
MONOCOT ROOTS
Xylem is polyarch.
Pith is usually large at the centre.
Metaxylem vessels are generally circular in cross
section.
Conjunctive tissue is sclerenchymatous in Maize.
There is no secondary growth.
DICOT ROOTS
Xylem is usually tetrarch.
Pith is usually absent.
Metaxylem vessels are generallypolygonal in
cross section
Conjunctive tissue is usually parenchymatous.
Secondary growth is generally present.
13. Differentiate the vascular bundles of Dicot stem from that of Monocot stem.| M-13 |
1
2
3
4
5
VASCULAR BUNDLES IN DICOT STEM

Vascular bundles are open.
Vascular bundles are arranged in a ring.
Bundle cap is present.
Protoxylem lacuna is absent.
Phloem parenchyma is present.
VASCULAR BUNDLES IN MONOCOT STEM

Vascular bundles are closed.
Vascular bundles are scattered in ground tissue.
Bundle sheath is present.
Protoxylem lacuna is present.
Phloem parenchyma is absent.
14. Write any five anatomical differences between Dicot stem and Monocot stem. | S-14 |
3
4
5
6
7
8
VASCULAR BUNDLES IN DICOT STEM

Hypodermis is made up of collenchymatous
cells.
Ground tissue is differentiated
cortex,endodermis,pericycle and pith.
Starch sheath is present.
Pith is present.
Pericycle is present.
Medullary rays are present.
Vascular bundles are open.
Vascular bundles are arranged in a ring.
9
10
Bundle cap is present.

Protoxylem lacuna is absent.
1
2
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VASCULAR BUNDLES IN MONOCOT STEM

Hypodermis is made up of sclerenchymatous
cells.
Ground tissue is not differentiated,but it is a
continuous mass of parenchyma.
Starch sheath is absent.
Pith is absent.
Pericycle is absent.
Medullary rays are absent.
Vascular bundles are closed.
Vascular bundles are scattered in the ground
tissue.
Bundle sheath is present.
Protoxylem lacuna is present.
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3. CELL BIOLOGY AND GENETICS
1. Write any five significances of ploidy. | M-06, J-12, J-13 |
Polyploidy plays an important role in plant breeding and horticulture.
Polyploidy has more vigorous effect than the diploids and results in the production of large sized flowers and
fruits. Hence, it has economical significance.
It plays significant role in the evolution of new species.
Polyploidy results in the changes in the season of flowering and fruiting.
Polyploids are vigorous invaders of new habitats.
It leads to the formation of new varieties which show high resistance to disease and increase in yield.
Tetraploid cabbages and tomatoes contain more ascorbic acid whereas tetraploid corn contains more vitamin A.
Both euploidy and aneuploidy in man cause congenital diseases.
Polyploidy varieties like apple, pear, grape and watermelons are cultivated because of their large size.
2. Write short notes on gene mutation. | J-06, M-07, M-12 |
GENE MUTATION
Point mutation is sudden change in small segment of DNA either a single nucleotide or a nucleotide pair.
Gross mutation is a change involving more than one or a few nucleotides of a DNA.
DELETION MUTATION
The gene mutation may be caused by loss or deletion of a nucleotide pair.

This is called deletion mutation and reported in some bacteriophages.
ADDITION MUTATION
Addition of one or more nucleotides into a gene results in addition mutation.

SUBSTITUTION MUTATION
Replacement of certain nitrogen bases by another base in the structure of DNA results in substitution mutation.
The deletion and addition mutation alter the nucleotide sequence of genes and ultimately result in the production
of defective protein and this leads to the death of the organism.
The substitution mutations can alter the phenotype of the organism and have great genetic significance.
TWO TYPES OF SUBSTITUTION MUTATIONS
1. Transition
2. Transversion.
When a purine or a pyrimidine is replaced by another purine or pyrimidine respectively this kind of substitution
is called transition.
When a mutation involves the replacement of a purine for pyrimidine or viceversa this is called transversion.
3. Write about the significance of mutation. | S-06, J-09 |
Mutations play an important role in the origin of new species and serves as a tool for evolution.
Induced mutations are useful in agriculture, animal husbandry and biotechnology to produce new strains.
For example, mutant strains of Penicillium produces more penicillin.
It is one of the best approaches for improvement of crops.
Induced mutants are reported in paddy, wheat, soyabeans, tomatoes,oats, and barley.
Mutant varieties of wheat are early maturing, disease resistance and they are enriched with protein.
Mutant varieties of paddy produce many tillers with long grains.
The study of mutant strains of viruses helps us to know the fine structure of gene.The genes are made up of small
functional units such as cistron, recon and muton.
1. Cistron is an unit of function.
2. Recon is the unit of recombination.
3. Muton is the unit of mutation.
Many types of mutations cause heritable diseases and cancer in human beings.
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4. Explain the types of chromosomes on the basis of shape and position of centromere with diagram. |J-07|
The chromosomes are classified into different types based on shape and position of the centromere.
According to the position of centromere, the eukaryotic chromosomes may be
1. Rod shaped (telocentric and acrocentric),
2. L-shaped (sub-metacentric)
3. V-shaped (metacentric).
There are two types of chromosomes based on their function.
They are autosomes and sex chromosomes.
5. Write short notes on structure of chromosome. | M-10 |
Consists of similar structures called chromatids.They are identical and are called sister chromatids.
A typical chromosome has two types of constrictions namely primary constriction and secondary constriction.
The primary constriction is made up of Centromere and Kinetochore.
Both the chromatids are joined at centromere, which is essential for the movement of chromosomes at anaphase.
The number of centromeres varies from chromosome to chromosome.
The monocentric chromosome has one centromere and the polycentric chromosome has many centromeres.
The centromere contains a complex system of fibres called kinetochore.
Each centromere has two kinetochores lined with chromosomal arms.
The kinetochore is made up of protein fibres and microtubules which assist in the formation of spindles during
mitosis and meiosis.
All constrictions other than primary are called secondary constrictions.
In a given set of chromosomes only one or two chromosomes have secondary constrictions.
The nucleoli develop from secondary constrictions and such secondary constrictions are called nucleolar organisers.
A satellite is a short chromosomal segment .
A chromosome with a satellite is called SAT-chromosome.
Chromatin is a viscous gelatinous substance that contains DNA, RNA, histone and nonhistone proteins.
H1, H2A, H2B, H3 and H4 are the five types of histones found in the chromatin.
The chromatin is formed by a series of repeated units called nucleosomes.
Each nucleosome has a core of eight histone subunits.
Telomere is the terminal part of chromosome.It offers stability to the chromosome.
DNA of the telomere has specific sequence of nucleotides.
Eukaryotic chromosome has DNA, RNA, histones, non histone proteins and metallic ions like Ca+2, Mg+2, etc.,
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6. Give an account of mutagenic agents. | S-07,M-13 |

The chemical substances and environmental conditions which cause mutations in the organisms are called
mutagens or mutagenic agents.
There are two kinds of mutagenic agents physical and chemical mutagenic agents.
PHYSICAL MUTAGENIC AGENTS
Electromagnetic radiation, radiations like a, b and g, ultraviolet rays, temperature, etc. are some of the
examples for physical mutagens.
X-rays and gamma rays are ionizing radiations which induce mutation in seeds.
UV rays are nonionizing radiations.
Pollen can be treated with UV since pollen has germinal nucleus in which mutation can be caused.
CHEMICAL MUTAGENIC AGENTS
Chemicals can also be used for inducing mutations in the organisms.
Such chemicals are called chemical mutagenic agents.
eg. Nitrous acid, Methyl methane sulphonate (MMS) and ethyl methane sulphonate (EMS).
Ethyl methane sulphonate has been extensively used for inducing mutations in microorganisms,higher plants and
animals.
7. With the help of diagrams, describe the structure of polytene and lampbrush chromosomes. | M-08 |
(or) Explain the special types of chromosomes with diagram.| M-09,S-10 |
In Eukaryotic organisms certain chromosomes are found only in certain special tissues and are not seen in other
tissues.
These chromosomes are larger in size and are called giant chromosomes.
In certain plants, they are found in the suspensors of the embryo.
There are two types of giant chromosomes polytene chromosome and lamp brush chromosome.
Polytene chromosomes were observed by C.G. Balbiani in 1881 in the salivary glands of Drosophila.
The characteristic feature of polytene chromosome is that along the length of the chromosome there is a series
of dark bands alternate with clear zones called inter bands.
The polytene chromosome has extremely large puff called Balbiani ring.
It is also known as chromosomal puff.
As thisc hromosome occurs in the salivary gland it is known as salivary gland chromosomes.
Lamp brush chromosomes were first observed by Flemming in 1882.
It looked like brushes.
They occur at the diplotene stage of meiotic prophase in oocytes of an animal Salamandor and in giant nucleus of
the unicellular alga Acetabularia.
The highly condensed chromosome forms the chromosomal axis, from which lateral loops of DNA extend as a
result of intense RNA synthesis.
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8. Explain allo polyploidy with an example. | J-08 |

Increase in one or more haploid set of chromosomes from two different species result in allopolyploidy.
Triticale is the first man made cereal.
It is obtained by crossing a wheat Triticum durum (2n = 4x = 28) and a rye Secale cereale (2n = 2x = 14).
The F1 hybrid (2n = 3x = 21) is sterile.
Then the chromosome number is doubled using colchicine and it becomes an hexaploid.
9. Write a note on t-RNA with diagram. | | S-08, J-10, M-11,S-12 |
Structure
The tRNA has a cloverleaf like structure.
It is synthesized in the nucleus on a small part of DNA.
In 1965, R.W. Holley suggested the cloverleaf model of tRNA.
Though tRNA molecule consists of a single strand, it assumes clover leaf like structure through folding.
There are three folds in the clover leaf tRNA.
It has four arms namely anticodon arm, D arm, T C arm and aminoacid acceptor arm.
The tRNA molecules are made up of 73 to 93 ribonucleotides.
The acceptor arm carries an aminoacid.
The anticodon arm has three anticodon nucleotides, which will join with the complementary codon in mRNA during
protein synthesis i.e. three nucleotides in the tRNA pairs with three nucleotides of mRNA.
In certain tRNAs in addition to these four arms an extra arm called variable arm occurs as shown in the figure.
The aminoacid acceptor and the anticodon arms are oriented in opposite directions.
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10. Explain Frederick Griffith experiment in Diplococcus pneumoniae. | S-09 |
In 1928, the bacteriologist Frederick Griffith conducted an experiment using Diplococcus pneumoniae.
He studied two strains of virulent Diplococcus causing pneumonia.
The virulent strain synthesized a smooth polysaccharide coat and produces smooth colonies.
This strain was called strain-S.
Another strain which lacked the proper polysaccharide coat is harmless and produces rough colonies.
This strain was called strain-R.
When Griffith injected S-type of cells into the mouse, the mouse died. When R-type cells were injected into the
mouse, the mice did not die.
He injected heat killed S-type cells into the mouse.
The mouse did not die.
Griffith killed some smooth strain bacteria and mixed it with live rough strain bacteria.
When the mixture of heat killed S-type cells and R-type cells was injected into the mouse, the mouse was dead.
The living rough strain of Diplococcus had been transformed into S-type cells.
That is the hereditary material of heat killed S-type cells had transformed R-type cells into virulent smooth
strains.
Thus the phenomenon of changing the character of one strain by transferring the DNA of another strain into
the former is called transformation.
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11. Explain translocation chromosomal aberration with the help of diagrams. | S-11 |
Translocation is a kind of a chromosomal abnormality in which the interchange of the chromosomal segments
occurs.
When translocation occurs between two non-homologous chromosomes, then it is called reciprocal translocation
or illegitimate crossingover.
It is of two kinds
1. Heterozygous Translocation
2. Homozygous Translocation.
In heterozygous translocation, one member of each pair of chromosomes is normal and the other member is with
interchanged segment.
But in homozygous translocation, both the members of paired chromosomes have translocated segments.
They play an important role in species differentiation.
Translocations causes hereditary disorders.
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12. Explain the coupling aspect in Lathyrus odaratus. | J-14 |
In 1906, William Bateson and Reginald Punnett conducted experiments in sweet pea, Lathyrus odoratus to
confirm Mendels dihybrid testcross.
They observed an exception to the independent assortment of two genes in this plant.
Here, blue flower (B) is dominant over the red flower (b) and long pollen (L) dominant over round pollen (l).
They crossed true breeding plants having blue flower with long pollen (BBLL) and red flower with round pollen
(bbll).
All the F1 hybrids have blue flowers with long pollen (BbLl).
A testcross between heterozygous blue long (BbLl) of F1 hybrid and double recessive parental stock red round
(bbll) did not result in ratio 1:1:1:1 but gave unexpected phenotype frequency as shown below.
Here, blue long and red round are parental forms and show greater frequency 88 per cent.
Blue round and red long are recombinant forms and show lesser frequency 12 per cent.
The dihybrid test cross ratio obtained is 7:1:1:7 and not 1:1:1:1.
This indicates that the genes do not independently assort.
From the above test cross, it is clear that if dominant alleles or recessive alleles are present in the same plant,
they tend to remain together resulting in ncreased parental forms.
Thus, the two genes which inherit together are called linked genes. This aspect is called coupling.
13. Write the differences between DNA and RNA. | J-11, M-14, J-15 |
1
2
3
4
5
178
DNA
RNA
It contains a 5C deoxyribose.
It contains adenine, guanine cytosine and thymine.
It mostly occurs as a double stranded helix.
It is often much longer.
It is more stable.
It contains five carbon sugar ribose

It contains adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil.
It often occurs as a single stranded.
It is shorter.
It is less stable.
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14. Write the flow chart of ploidy. | S-14 |
4. BIOTECHNOLOGY
1. Describe with diagrams the action of restriction enzyme. | M-06 |
Fragments of DNA from different organisms or even from different species may be joined together at their
sticky ends, thereby producing recombinant DNA.
This is made possible by the use of an enzyme called ligase.
Hence, ligase is used to join the two DNA fragments.
Restriction enzyme and ligase do not care about the source of DNA.
Whenever the correct sequence of nucleotides are met with by the specific restriction endonuclease, it cuts it.
Similarly whenever the correct sequences of nucleotides at their sticky ends in the two strands are met
with, these are ligated (joined) by the enzyme ligase.
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2. Write any five outcomes of application of plant tissue culture. | J-06, S-11, J-12, J-14 |
Several commercial establishments now routinely use micropropagation for different foliage and ornamental
plants.
Through tissue culture methods using bud proliferation and multiple shoot formation, ornamental plants are
produced in large numbers.
Virus free germplasm are produced through apical meristem culture eg. banana.
Artificial synthetic seeds are produced through somatic embryogenesis.
Plant tissue culture is an important technique for the production of secondary metabolites in large quantities.
Tissue culture helps in induction of haploidy in anther culture ie.Useful for mutation breeding, triploidy through
endosperm culture for inducing parthenocarpic fruits and polyploidy for increase in biomass or yield.
Embryo culture technique is applied to overcome embryo abortion, seed dormancy and self-sterility in seeds.
In recent years, plant tissue culture methods are employed in plants for the introduction of foreign gene into
plant cells through DNA coated microparticles and delivering these particles into a host cell by using a gene gun.
Protoplasmic fusion encourages genomes of incompatible crops to come together to form somatic hybrids.
Plant tissue culture is applied in the area of plant physiological and biochemical research to study the cell
cycle, metabolism in cells, nutritional, morphogenetical and developmental studies in plants.
By plant tissue culture techniques, a plant cell of potato and tomato were brought together through protoplasmic
fusion and the hybrid cell was made to develop into a pomato plant.In pomato, the stem bears the tubers and the
branches produced tomatoes.
3. Explain the enzymatic method of isolation of protoplasts. | S-06, S08, J-11 |
Leaves from a 10 week old plant are sterilized with 70 per cent alcohol and then treating them with 2 per cent
solution of sodium hypochlorite for 20 to 30 minutes.
The leaves are then washed with sterile water and subsequent procedures are done under aseptic conditions
(using laminar air flow chamber).
The lower epidermis of the leaf is peeled off and the leaf is cut into small fragments.
From the peeled leaf segments, the protoplasts are isolated.
For isolation of protoplast, peeled leaf segments are placed with their lower surface downwards in a petri dishes
containing the enzyme mixture, which consists of 0.5 per cent macerozyme, 2 per cent cellulase in 13 per cent
sorbitol or mannitol at pH 5.4.
Finally the protoplasts are released and are kept in the isotonic solution.
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4. How are foreign genes introduces into plants? | M-07 |

(or)
Write about the electroporation and gene gun methods of introducing genes into plants. | J-09 |
Introduction of foreign gene:
In genetically engineered plant cells, a bacterium Agrobacterium is mainly involved in transfer of foreign gene.
Agrobacterium cannot infect all plants since it has a narrow range of host specificity.
Therefore other techniques have been developed to introduce foreign DNA into plant cells. Novel methods of
ensuring DNA uptake into cells include electroporation and mechanical delivery or biolistics.
Electroporation:
Electroporation is a process of creating temporary pores in the cell membrane by application of electric field.
Creation of such pores in a membrane allows introduction of foreign molecules such as DNA, RNA, antibodies,
drugs, etc. into cytoplasm.
The development of this technique is due to contribution of biophysics, bioengineering, cell and molecular
biology.
While the technique is now used widely to create transgenic microorganisms, plants and animals, it is used
increasingly for application of gene therapy.
Gene Gun Method:
The mechanical particle delivery or gene gun methods to deliver DNA on microscopic particles into target tissue
or cells.
The process is increasingly used to introduce new genes into a range of bacterial, fungal plant and mammalian
species.
It is the main method of choice for genetic engineering of many plant species including rice, corn, wheat, cotton
and soyabean.
5. Give an account of origin of tissue culture. | J-07 |
The beginning of plant tissue culture was made as early as 1898, when a German Botanist G. Haberlandt
successfully cultured individual plant cells, isolated from different tissues.
But only during 1934 to 1939, a foundation of plant tissue culture was laid down by three scientists (Gauthret,
White and Nobecourt) due to discovery of plant growth regulators such as auxins and vitamins.
During next twenty years (1940 to 1960) a variety of growth regulator such as cytokinins were identified for
their effect on cell division, growth and differentiation.
After 1960, in vitro culture of plant cells, tissues and organs was reasonably well developed. Research in this area
was initiated in early 1960s by Prof. P. Maheshwari and Prof. S. Narayanaswamy at the Department of Botany,
University of Delhi in India.
Consequently, media and culture techniques for a variety of plant materials became known, which are now
Extensively utilised in all areas of plant improvement programmes.
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6. How is DNA cut? | S-07, M-09, S-10 |
All bacteria produce atleast one type of restriction enzymes.

They are meant to help the recombinant researchers to enable them to cut the DNA but to help in the very
survival of the bacterial species against the invading bacterial viruses.
The restriction enzymes can chop up and render harmless invading viral DNA.
Restriction enzymes cleave DNA at very specific places along its length.
The restriction enzyme ECORI (E.coli Restriction Enzyme I) produced by the intestinal bacterium E. coli
recognizes the following sequence.
Two DNA molecules with sticky ends (ends that are staggered or uneven) tend to join with other molecules with a
complementary sequence of nucleotides in the ends.
With the same enzyme, DNA fragments are cut with the matching sequence of nucleotides which complements
with the sticky ends.
ACTION OF RESTRICTION ENZYME:

Fragments of DNA from different organisms or even from different species may be joined together at their
sticky ends, thereby producing recombinant DNA.
This is made possible by the use of an enzyme called ligase.
Hence, ligase is used to join the two DNA fragments.
Restriction enzyme and ligase do not care about the source of DNA.
Whenever the correct sequence of nucleotides are met with by the specific restriction endonuclease, it cuts it.
Similarly whenever the correct sequences of nucleotides at their sticky ends in the two strands are met
with, these are ligated (joined) by the enzyme ligase.
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7. What is SCP(single cell protein)? What are the uses of SCP? | M-08,M-11,M-12,S-14,M-15,J-15 |
SCP :
The term single cell protein was coined in 1996.
The dried cells of microorganisms viz.,bacteria, yeasts, filamentous fungi and algae used as food or feed for
animals and they are collectively known as Microbial proteins.
This term was replaced by a new term single cell protein.
The isolated protein or the total cell material is called the SCP.
Eg : Spirulina
USES OF SCP :
1. It is a rich source of protein (60 to 72 per cent), vitamins, amino acids, minerals and crude fibres.
2. It is a popular health food. Nowadays, Spirulina tablets are prescribed as enriched vitamin for most people.
3. It provides valuable protein-rich supplement in human diet.
4. It lowers blood sugar level of diabetics due to the presence of gammalinolenic acid and prevents the
accumulation of cholesterol in human body.
9. Give an account of SCP. | S-09 |
SCP
The term single cell protein was coined in 1996.
The dried cells of microorganisms viz.,bacteria, yeasts, filamentous fungi and algae used as food or feed for
animals and they are collectively known as Microbial proteins.
This term was replaced by a new term Single Cell Protein.
The isolated protein or the total cell material is called the SCP.
Eg : Spirulina
IN MANY COUNTRIES, PEOPLE HESITATE TO USE SCP AS A MAJOR FOOD SOURCE BECAUSE OF
The high nucleic acid content (4 to 6 per cent in algae, 6 to10 per cent in yeast of SCP) can cause health
problems like uric acid formation, kidney stones and rheumatism in human beings.
Toxic or carcinogenic (cancer causing) substances absorbed from the microbial growth substrate may be present.
Slow digestion of microbial cell in the digestive tract may cause vomiting, indigestion and allergic reaction.
High cost of production will also be a deciding factor in determining the ultimate place of SCP in the human or
animal diet.
The following substrates are being studied for SCP production: alkanes, methane, methanol, cellulose,
carbohydrates and waste materials.
Natural sources like wood chips, rice husk, cane and beet molasses, peas and coffee industrial waste from
which cellulose is obtained and are used for the production of SCP.
Large scale cultivation of yeast on molasses is widely used in the manufacture of Bakers yeast containing
mycoproteins which is used in the SCP production.
Domestic sewage is not suitable for large scale SCP production.But it is more important for methane production.
The industrial wastewater from cellulose processing, coffee and starch production, and food processing have
been used for SCP production.
ORGANISMS USED FOR SCP PRODUCTION
Algae
- Chlorella, Spirulina and Chlamydomonas.
Fungi
- Saccharomyces,Cereviseae,Volvoriella and Agaricus campestris
Bacteria
- Pseudomonas and Alkaligenes
USES OF SCP
1. It is a rich source of protein (60 to 72 per cent), vitamins, amino acids, minerals and crude fibres.
2. It is a popular health food. Nowadays, Spirulina tablets are prescribed as enriched vitamin for most people.
3. It provides valuable protein-rich supplement in human diet.
4. It lowers blood sugar level of diabetics due to the presence of gammalinolenic acid and prevents the
accumulation of cholesterol in human body.
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8. Explain the steps involved in the production of human insulin by a bacterial cell with diagram. | J-08 |
(or)
Write the basic techniques involved in Genetic Engineering. | J-10 |
The DNA of donor organism or gene of interest is isolated and cut into fragments using restriction
endonucleases.
They are attached to a suitable replicon. Such replicon is known as vector or cloning vehicle, which is nothing but
the extra chromosomal circular DNA found in the cytoplasm of Eschrichia coli is called plasmid. The plasmids
are the most suitable vectors.
The DNA of the vector is cut into fragments using the same restriction endonucleases. Using the enzyme DNA
ligase, the NA fragments of donor and vector are joined together. This process is called splicing. As a result of
splicing hybrid DNA or recombinant DNA (rDNA) is obtained.
The rDNA is introduced into the host cells such as E.coli, Bacillus subtilis, Streptomyces sp. etc.,
For this the host cells are treated with the enzyme cellulase.So that the cell wall of host becomes permeable to
the
entry of rDNA.
The host organism follows the instructions of foreign rDNA.
It continues to multiply with the foreign DNA or gene of interest.
After a short time, this results in a colony of bacteria having Rdna fragments.
Each colony is grown separately to obtain multiplication of rDNA fragments.
At the end we get a number of colonies having identical copies of rDNA fragments.
This is called molecular coloning or gene coloning.
Once the gene for the production of human insulin from pancreatic cells is introduced into E.coli, the recipient
cell produces human insulin.
This is the way by which the human insulin is made to be produced by bacterial cell such as E.coli.
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10. Briefly mention the basic concept involved in plant tissue culture. |M-10|
Explain the basic concepts of plant tissue culture. |S-13|
The basic concept of plant tissue culture is
1. Totipotency,
2. Differentiation,
3. Dedifferentiation
4. Redifferentiation.
TOTIPOTENCY
The inherent potential of any living plant cell to develop into entire organism is called totipotency.
This is unique to plant cells.
DIFFERENTIATION
The meristematic tissue is differentiated into simple or complex tissues.

DEDIFFERENTIATION
Reversion of mature tissue into meristematic state leading to the formation of callus is called dedifferentiation.
REDIFFERENTIATION
The ability of the callus to develop into shoot or root or embryoid.

11. Write any five practical application of genetic transformation. | S-12, J-13 |
By genetic manipulation, it is possible to obtain plants with insecticidal property.Thus, application of chemical
pesticides to the crop plants is reduced.
Genetic manipulation is also carried out in crops for making desirable storage proteins, vitamins, amino acids
and for the suppression of antinutritional protein synthesis.
Plants are made to produce large amount of secondary metabolites having high commercial value.
Losses during storage and transport of some crops can be as high as 80 per cent. This is mainly due to biological
activities - bruising, heat and cold damage in soft fruits and vegetables.In tomato the enzyme polygalactronase
breaks down cell wall constituents, thus leading to softening of the fruit during ripening.By inhibiting the
polygalactronase by antisense genes the tomato can remain dormant fresh until mature and be transported in a
firm solid state. Antisense RNA is a RNA molecule capable of controlling and expression of particular enzymes
which are involved in ripening processes.
Genetic manipulation of flower and leaf colour, abundance of flowers, perfume and shape are now the major
targets for decorative plant industries.
12. Write the benefits from the release of genetically modified micro-organisms into the Environment. | M-13
|
Protection of environment - Bioremediation of polluted environment.
Microorganisms producing enzymes for food industry.
Microorganisms with improved efficiency of fermentation.
Improved microorganisms for milk industry.
Microorganisms as live attenuated vaccines for health care.
Increasing efficiency of plant nutrition, pest control (safe biopesticides), protection of plants from climatic
stress and protection of plants from tumour formation and disease.
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13. What is the role of Agrobacterium for gene transfer in plants? | M-14 |
Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a soil inhabiting bacterium and has Ti (tumor inducing) plasmid.
This bacterium invades crops such as tomato, sunflower, brinjal and cotton and causes crown gall disease which
is
in the form of tumerous growth.
The Ti plasmid carried by the pathogenic bacterium causes tumours.
For effective cloning of foreign genes by the plant cells, and for introduction of genes into plant system,
Agrobacterium strains are modified by the removal of tumour inducing genes from the bacterium.
TDNA is the part of Ti plasmid transferred into plant cell DNA.
The TDNA which holds the desired foreign gene after splicing is introduced into the plant cell.
The bacterial plasmid do not produce tumerous growth since the gene had been deleted.
Once the TDNA along with the spliced gene is introduced, it combines with the chromosome of the donor cell
where it produces copies of itself, by migrating from one chromosomal position to another.
Through tissue culture methods, such plant cells are cultured, induced to multiply and differentiate to form into
plantlets.
The plantlets are transplanted to soil, where they are allowed to express the foreign gene introduced into them
when they multiply and grow in larger population.
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5.PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
1. Explain cyclic photophosphorylation. | M-06, S-11 |
Under the conditions of

i) PSI only remains active
ii) photolysis of water does not take place
iii) requirement of ATP is more and
iv) non availability of NADP+ the cyclic photophosphorylation takes place.
When the molecule in the PS I is excited, the electrons are released.
The electrons are captured by ferredoxin through ferredoxin reducing substrate (FRS).
Due to non-availability of NADP+, electrons from ferredoxin fall back to the molecules of PS I through the
electron carriers - cytochrome b6, cytochrome f and plastocyanin.
These electron carriers facilitate the down hill transport of electrons from FRS to PS I.
During this transport of electrons, two phosphorylations take place - one between ferredoxin and cytochrome b6
and the other between cytochrome b6 and cytochrome f.
Thus, two ATP molecules are produced in this cycle.
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2. Write a short note on vernalization. | J-06, J-11,S-13 |

Vernalization
The term vernalization was first introduced by a Russian scientist T.D. Lysenko in 1920. Many species, especially
o
biennials and perennials are induced to flower at low temperature range of 1 C to 100C.
This is known as vernalization.
The response to the cold temperature stimulus is not uniform in all plants.
Plants, which are vernalized, are called inductive types.
Those nonvernalized are called non inductive types.
Techniques of vernalization
The following are the steps to be taken to induce vernalization.
Seeds are allowed to germinate and subjected to cold treatment for varying period of time depending on the
species.
Germinated seeds after this treatment are allowed to dry for sometime and then sown.
Devernalization
Reversal of the effect of vernalization is called Devernalization.
Subjecting the plants to higher temperature after a cold treatment brings about devernalization.
Practical application of vernalization Russian scientists have used vernalization to shorten the time of crop
maturity by h
astening the flowering processes which are brought about by cold treatment.
Advantages
Crops can be produced earlier by vernalization.
Crops can be cultivated in places where they naturally do not grow.
Vernalization helps to accelerate the plant breeding.
3. What are the differences between C3 and C4 pathways? | S-06, J-11, J-12, M-15 |
C3 Pathway
Photosynthesis occurs in mesophyll cells.
The CO2 molecule acceptor is RuBP.
The first stable product is a 3C compound called 3

PGA.
Photorespiration rate is high and leads to loss of
fixed CO2. It decreases CO2 fixation rate.
4
5
6
Optimum temperature is 20 to 25C.

Examples of C3 plants are rice, wheat and potato.
C4 Pathway
Photosynthesis occurs in mesophyll and bundle
sheath cells.
The CO2 acceptor molecule is phosphoenol
pyruvate.
The first stable product is a 4C compound called
OAA.
Photorespiration is negligible and it is almost
absent. Hence, it increases CO2 fixation rate.
Optimum temperature is 30 to 45C.
Examples of C4 plants are maize,
sugarcane,Tribulus and Amaranthus
4. List down the differences between cyclic and noncyclic photophosphorylation.

| M-07,J-07,S-09,S-10,J-10,S-12,J-13 |
1
2
3
4
5
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Cyclic Photophosphorylation
It is associated with PS I
The electron expelled from chlorophyll
molecule is cycled back
Photolysis of water and evolution of oxygen do
not take place.
Photophosphorylation takes place at two
places.
+
NADP is not reduced.
Noncyclic Photophosphorylation
It is associated with both PS I and PS II.
The electrons are not cycled back but compensated
by the electrons from photolysis of water.
Photolysis of water and evolution of oxygen take
place.
Photophosphorylation takes place only at one
place.
NADP+ is reduced to NADPH2.
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5. Describe the structure of chloroplast. | J-09,S-07 |
Typical chloroplast of higher plants is discoid shaped.

It is a double membrane bound organelle containing chlorophyll, carotenoid, xanthophyll, cytochrome, DNA, RNA,
manganese, etc. Chloroplasts are generally considerably larger than mitochondria.
The space enclosed by the envelope is filled with matrix called stroma.
In the stroma, many grana are embedded.
In each granum, several disc shaped lamellae are found.
These disc shaped structures are called thylakoids.
They resemble a stack of coins.
This structure is known granum.
Generally a chloroplast contains 40 to 60 grana.
The photosynthetic pigments are found in grana.
The stroma contains circular DNA, RNA and enzymes for starch synthesis.
6. Bring out five significances of photosynthesis. | M-08, M-12 |
Photosynthesis is a source of all our food and fuel.It is the only biological process that acts as the driving vital
force for the whole animal kingdom and for the non- photosynthetic organism.
It drives all other processes of biological and abiological world.It is responsible for the growth and sustenance of
our biosphere.
It provides organic substances, which are used in the production of fats, proteins, nucleoproteins, pigments,
enzymes, vitamins, cellulose, organic acids, etc.Some of them become structural parts of the organisms.
It makes use of simple raw materials such as CO2, H2O and inexhaustible light energy for the synthesis of
energetic organic compounds.
It is significant because it provides energy in terms of fossil fuels like coal and petrol obtained from plants,
which lived millions and millions of years ago.
Plants, from great trees to microscopic algae, are engaged in converting light energy into chemical energy, while
man with all his knowledge in chemistry and physics cannot imitate them.
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7. State any five physiological effects of auxin. | J08, S-08,M-10, M-13, M-15 |
Auxins are well known to promote elongation of stem and coleoptile.It promotes the growth by cell enlargement in
stems, particularly by elongation of cells behind the apical meristem.
Growth in lateral bud is inhibited when the apical bud of a tall plant remains intact. However, the lateral bud grows
rapidly on removal of apical bud.
Suppression of growth in lateral bud by apical bud due to auxin produced by apical bud is termed as apical
dominance. The reason for this is due to auxin produced in growing tip and it stimulates growth but as it moves
downward, suppresses growth in the stems below.
Auxin is responsible for initiation and promotion of cell division in cambium, which is responsible for the secondary
growth. This property of induction of cell division has been exploited for tissue culture techniques and for the
formation of callus.
Auxin promotes growth of root only at extremely low concentrations.At higher concentrations, it always inhibits
growth of root.
When leaves and fruits mature, they shed from the stem. This is called abscission. Auxin prevents abscission.
Seedless fruits are produced in tomato and apple, by external application of auxin on flowers. Such seedless fruits
are called parthenocarpic fruits.
2,4 Dichlorophenoxy aceticacid, a synthetic auxin is used to eradicate weeds in the field.
8. Bring about the physiological effects of cytokinin. | M-09, M-14 |
The most important function of cytokinin is the promotion of cell division.
In association with IAA, cytokinin initiates bud and root formation in callus tissue.
External application of cytokinin promotes the growth of lateral buds even if the apical bud is intact.
Cytokinin breaks the dormancy of many seeds and also promotes germination.
Application of cytokinin delays the process of ageing in plants.This is also known as Richmond Lang effect.
9. Explain the significances of pentose phosphate pathway. | M-11,S-12 |
It provides alternative route for carbohydrate breakdown.
It generates NADPH2 molecules which are used as reductants in biosynthetic processes.
Production of NADPH2 is not linked to ATP generation in pentose phosphate pathway.
It provides ribose sugar for the synthesis of nucleic acids.
It provides erythrose phosphate required for the synthesis of aromatic compounds.
It plays an important role in fixation of CO2 in photosynthesis through Ru5P.
10. Write any five physiological effects of gibberellin. | S-14 |
Gibberellins produce extraordinary elongation of stem. The elongation of stem is caused by the cell division and
cell elongation induced by gibberellic acid.
One of the most striking effects of the gibberellins is the reversal of dwarfism in many genetically dwarf plants. For
e.g. Rosette plant of sugar beet, when treated with GA undergoes marked longitudinal growth of axis attaining
the normal size.
Rosette plants usually show reduced internodal growth. These plants exhibit excessive internodal growth when
they are treated with gibberellin. This sudden elongation of stem followed by flowering is called bolting.
Many biennials usually flower during the second year of their growth. For flowering to take place, these plants
should be exposed to cold season. Such plants could be made to flower without exposure to
cold season in the first year itself, when they are treated with gibberellins.
Formation of seedless fruits without fertilization can also be induced by gibberellin treatment in many plants. eg.
Tomatoes, apples, cucumbers, etc.,
Some of the light sensitive seeds can germinate by the treatment of gibberellic acid even in complete darkness.
eg.barley.
Gibberellin breaks dormancy in potato tubers.
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11. Give short notes on Phytochromes and flowering. | J-14 |
In 1959, Butler et al. were able to discover a photoreceptor flower inducing pigment in plants which they name
phytochromes.
It is believed to be widely present in all green plants.
Chemically, phytochrome is a biliprotein and exists in two forms.
One form absorbs red with the wave length of 660 nm called Pr and the other form absorbs far red with the
wave length of 730 nm called Pfr.
The two forms of phytochrome are interconvertible as shown below:
Based on the absorption spectra, Pr is also called P 660 and Pfr is P 730.
In short day plants, Pr promotes flowering while Pfr suppresses it , while it is viceversa in long day plants.
12. What are the physiological effects of abscisic acid. | J-15 |
Abscisic acid acts as growth inhibitor and induces bud dormancy in a variety of plants.
ABA is a powerful growth inhibitor. It causes 50 per cent inhibition of growth of oat seedlings.
As the name suggests abscisic acid is an hormone that stimulates abscission.
ABA controls geotropic responses of roots.
It stimulates positive geotropism in roots.
Abscisic acid causes closure of stomata.
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5.PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
1. Explain respiratory quotient. | M-06 |
Respiratory quotient may be defined as the ratio between the volume of carbondioxide given out and oxygen
consumed during respiration.
This value depends upon the nature of the respiratory substrate and its rate of oxidation.
(i) Respiratory quotient of a carbohydrate
(ii) Respiratory quotient of an organic acid
(iii) Respiratory quotient of fatty acid.
Respiratory quotient for anaerobic respiration

In anaerobic respiration, carbondioxide is evolved but oxygen is not consumed.
Therefore, the respiratory quotient in such case is infinity.For example,
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2. Explain Ganong's respiroscope experiment. | J-06, J-07, M-09, M-12, M-13, J-13, S-13, S-14 |
Ganongs light screen experiment demonstrates that light is essential for photosynthesis.
When a pot plant is kept for 48 hours in dark room, the leaves become free from starch.
Thus dark treated plant is called destarched plant.
Ganongs light screen is a clip like instrument with a tin foil disc having a star shaped opening through which light
can enter.
This closes the lower hollow cylindrical box like structure.
The advantage of light screen is to allow free ventilation and at the same time it cuts off light.
The light screen is fixed to a leaf of the destarched potted plant as shown in the figure.
The entire experimental setup is placed in sunlight for 4 to 6 hours.
The leaf subjected for experiment is tested for starch.
Only the star shaped part of the leaf exposed to the sunlight turns blue.
The Ganongs light screen experiment demonstrates that light is essential for photosynthesis.
3. Bring out any five physiological effects of Ethylene. | S-06, M-11 |
Ethylene prevents elongation of stem and root in longitudinal direction.Simultaneously, the tissue enlarges radially
resulting in thickening of plant parts.
Ethylene promotes positive geotropic growth of roots.
Ethylene inhibits the growth of lateral buds in pea seedlings.
Ethylene is involved in the ripening of fruits.
Ethylene stimulates the formation of abscission zone in leaves, flowers and fruits. This causes leaves, flowers
and fruits to shed prematurely.
Flowering can be induced by application of ethylene in plants like pineapple and mango.
Ethylene stimulates rooting of cuttings, initiation of lateral roots and growth of root hair.
Ethylene is responsible for breaking the dormancy of buds and seeds.
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4. Explain the experiment to measure the actual longitudinal growth of plant by lever auxanometer. (or)
Explain the experiment measure growth in length of a plant.
| M-07, M-08 |
In any plant the growth in length can be measured in ordinary measuring scale at an interval of time.
For precise measurement, an instrument called Lever Auxanometer is used. It measures the rate of growth of
plant in terms of short length.
The auxanometer consists of a movable pointer attached to a pulley and a graduated arc fixed to a stand.
A thread passes around the pulley.
One end of the thread is tied to the growing tip of the potted plant.
The other end is tied to a small weight.
As the plant grows in length the pulley rotates and needle attached to the pulley moves down the scale.
From this, growth in length of the plant can be measured at a given interval of time.
The actual growth in the length of a plant is measured as follows
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5. Draw C4 cycle without explanation. | S-07 |
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6. Describe Kuhne's fermentation experiment with a diagram. | J-08,S-09 |
Kuhnes fermentation tube consists of an upright glass tube and a side tube with a bulb.
10 per cent glucose solution mixed with bakers yeast is taken in the Kuhnes tube and the tube is completely
filled.
After some time, the glucose solution is fermented and gives out an alcoholic smell.
The level in the upright tube will fall due to the accumulation of CO 2 gas.
It is because yeast contains the enzyme zymase which converts glucose solution into alcohol and CO 2.
When a crystal of KOH is introduced into the tube, the KOH will absorb CO 2 and the level of the solution will
rise in the upright tube.
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7. Write a short note on Ganong's light screen experiment. | S-08,J-10,M-14 |
Ganongs light screen experiment demonstrates that light is essential for photosynthesis.
When a pot plant is kept for 48 hours in dark room, the leaves become free from starch.
Thus dark treated plant is called destarched plant.
Ganongs light screen is a clip like instrument with a tin foil disc having a star shaped opening through which light
can enter.
This closes the lower hollow cylindrical box like structure.
The advantage of light screen is to allow free ventilation and at the same time it cuts off light.
The light screen is fixed to a leaf of the destarched potted plant as shown in the figure.
The entire experimental setup is placed in sunlight for 4 to 6 hours.
The leaf subjected for experiment is tested for starch.
Only the star shaped part of the leaf exposed to the sunlight turns blue.
The Ganongs light screen experiment demonstrates that light is essential for photosynthesis.
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8. Explain the test tube funnel experiment to demonstrate that oxygen is evolved during photosynthesis.
| J-09,J-12,J-15 |
The test tube funnel experiment demonstrates that oxygen is evolved during photosynthesis.
A few branches of Hydrilla are kept in a beaker containing pond water in which a small amount of sodium bicarbonate is
dissolved.
The branches are covered with a glass funnel and a test tube full of water is kept inverted over the stem of the funnel as
shown in the figure.
Now the apparatus is kept in sunlight for 4 to 6 hours.
The gas bubbles may be observed from the ends of hydrilla branches kept within the glass funnel.
These gas bubbles are collected in the test tube by the downward displacement of water.
The gas is tested for oxygen.
When a burnt splinter is taken near the mouth of the tube, it glows brightly and proves that the gas is oxygen.
The test tube and funnel experiment demonstrates that oxygen evolves during photosynthesis.
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9. Explain the differnet phases of growth with sigmoid curve. | M-10 |
The growth in length of the plant is due to the meristematic activity of the apical meristems that takes place in the
root and shoot apices.

Whereas increase in thickness of stem and root is due to the activity of lateral meristem.
You have already learnt in chapter 2 about different types of meristems.
The period of growth is generally divided into three phases viz., formation,elongation and maturation.
In the first phase, new cells are continuously formed by the apical meristem.
In the second phase known as phase of elongation, the newly formed cells enlarge in size.
In the third phase, phase of maturation, cells start maturing to attain permanent size and form.
The rate of plant growth is slow in the initial stages and this phase is called lag phase.
It is followed by a rapid growth phase called log phase.
In the third and final phases, the growth slows down and the organism maintains the size it has already attained.
This phase is known as stationary phase or steady state phase.
The growth in size or increase in number of cells if plotted against time the graph shows S shaped curve
known as sigmoid growth curve as shown in the figure.
In the annual plants the last phase i.e. steady state phase is followed by senescence i.e. arrest of growth
and death.
However, in the case of large trees each growing season exhibits a sigmoidal pattern of growth.
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10. Write short notes on Insectivorous plant. | J-14 |
Though insectivorous plants are capable of manufacturing carbohydrates by photosynthesis, they are not able to
synthesize enough proteins due to the deficiency of nitrogen.
They overcome this deficiency by catching small insects and digesting them.
Their leaves are modified in various ways for this purpose.
Such plants are called insectivorous plants. Eg. Drosera.
Drosera
Drosera is a small plant growing in marshy places.
This plant is also known as sundew plant.
The leaves of this plant have numerous hair-like structures called tentacles.
Each tentacle has got a gland at the tip.
The gland secretes a sticky fluid.
This fluid shines in sunlight and appears as dew; hence the plant is called sundew plant.
When an insect is attracted by the shining sticky fluid and tries to sit on the leaf, it is entangled in the sticky fluid.
At once, the sensitive tentacles surround the insect and curve inward on it.
Then the glands secrete digestive juices which contain proteolytic enzymes.
The enzymes digest the proteins of the insect body.
The digested food is finally absorbed by the leaves and the tentacles again come in their original straight position.
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6.BIOLOGY IN HUMAN WELFARE
1. What is antibiotic? Write any two names of antibiotics. State their uses. (or)
Write short notes on microbes in medicine.| M-06,S-08,M-12,S-14 |
ANTIBIOTIC
Microbes like bacteria and fungi produce antibiotics.
The substance produced by a living organism, which inhibits the growth and metabolic activities of pathogenic
organisms (mostly bacteria) without affecting the metabolism of host is called an antibiotic.
Penicillin, streptomycin, aureomycin and chloromycetin are some of the examples for antibiotics.
STATING THEIR USES :
1
2
MICROBES
Penicillium notatum
Streptomyces aureofaciens
ANTIBIOTICS
Penicillin
Streptomycin
Streptomyces aureofaciens
Aureomycin
4
5
6
Streptomyces venezuelae
Aspergillus fumigatus
Bacillus licheniformis
Chloromycetin
An antibiotic
Bacitracin
E. coli
Humulin
USES
Effective against Pneumonia
Urinary infections, tuberculosis, meningitis and
pneumonia
Osteomyelitis, whooping cough and eye
infections.
Cures typhoid fever
Used against typhoid and dysentery
Used to treat syphilis, Control of sugar for
persons suffering from diabetes.
Human insulin for Diabetes
2. Write any five aims of plant breeding. | J-06,S-06,S-07,S-09,J-11,J-13|

Bringing wild food crops to cultivation. (wheat, oats and many cereal crops were once wild plants which had now
been domesticated).
Obtaining genes from desirable plants or related species (eg. as seeds from various parts of the world).
Introduction of plants from nearby regions or even from other countries for improvement of the crop. (eg.
cauliflower, tomato, potato and soyabeans).
By employing certain plant breeding techniques, new varieties are developed. eg. maize, sorghum, cotton and
sunflower.
Auto and Allopolyploid breeding.
By inducing mutations using physical and chemical mutagens.
Production of haploids by the application of plant tissue culture of anther and ovary.
Improvement of nutritional quality by genetic engineering (eg. Fortified rice - iron rich rice and carotene rich rice).
Development of disease, drought and environmental stress resistant varieties.
3. Write a note on plant introduction. | M-07 |
India has several varieties of crops such as maize, tobacco, tomato, potato and brinjal which were introduced
from countries such as America, China and Australia.
Introduced varieties sometimes do not get adjusted easily with our local environment.
It takes some time for these introduced crops to settle.
Sometimes, it is essential to select suitable and desirable variety from the introduced plants.
For example, a mung Phaseolus mungo variety was introduced from China but was not giving good yield and
produced dull coloured seeds.
From amongst the introduced mung crop, a plant suddenly produced large and bright coloured seeds.
This aspect may be due to sudden mutation.
This variant plant was selected and further subjected to inter or intra specific crosses with our native crop.
In this way, new varieties were produced and released as newly developed mung variety.
Such a mung No.1 variety is now being cultivated in Punjab.
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4. Give an account of Tikka disease of groundnut.| J-07,M-08 |
Pathogen
Disease incited by a fungus, Pyricularia oryzae.
Name of the disease Blast disease of rice.
Systematic position
The fungus belongs to class: Deuteromycetes.
Symptoms
Lesions appear on the leaves, when the plants are atleast two months old.
The symptoms appear in July and continue upto maturity of the plant.
The lesions on the leaves are rounded and 1 to 6 mm in diameter.
These spots are dark brown or black and found on both surfaces of the leaf.
Yellow border develops around each such leaf spot.
Pathogen
The mycelium of Cercospora personata is brown, septate branched and slender.
Branched haustoria are produced to absorb food materials from the host tissue.
The conidia are long and septate. Each conidiophores produces single conidium at its tip.
The spread of the disease takes place by means of conidia which are dispersed by wind.
Control
The disease can be controlled by sanitation and crop rotation.
The use of phosphatic and potassic manures reduce the disease.
Sulphur dusting is quite effective.
Resistant variety should be sown.
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5. Write short note on Bio-Patent. | J-08 |

The emergence of modern biotechnology has brought forth many legal characterizations and treatment of trade
related biotechnological processes and produces, popularly described as Intellectual Property.
Intellectual Property Protection (IPP) and Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) are the two unique facets of any
Bio-patency.
Intellectual property includes patents, trade secrets, copy rights and trade marks obtained for
processes and products created through ones own knowledge and research.
The right to protect this property prohibits others from making copying using or selling these processes and
products.
In this era of biotechnology, one of the most important examples of intellectual property is the creation
of organisms containing new recombinant DNA.
Another example of Intellectual property is the new crop varieties, which are protected through Plant Breeders
Rights or PBRs.
The plant breeder who developed this new variety enjoys the exclusive right for marketing the variety.
Patenting of important crops and animal breeds may bring down a shortfall in genetic resources.
One of the major negative aspects of bio200 patency is that it may lead to scarcity of genetic resources.
In addition, majority of the people may not have access to certain rare genetic resources protected by Biopatency laws.
People argue that giving patent rights to transgenic plants and transgenic animals is a wrongful idea as these
patents will work as impediments in free exchange of genetic materials for improvement of crops and livestock.
Intellectual Property Rights may also adversely affect the following:
Food security, use of evolved agricultural practices, biological diversity and ecological balance and livelihood of
the poor in developing countries.
Patents
The Indian Patent Act of 1970 allows process patents, but no product patents for foods, chemicals drugs and
pharmaceuticals.
Duration of patent in India is 5 years. Under USA law, a patent means grant of right to exclude others from
making, using or selling an invention for a 17 year period.
To day, many favour the patenting of inventions arising from basic research.
Patents are granted as per the law of the State and are also disputed in the court of Law whenever complaints
of infringement of the patents are violated by the people.
In 1980, the discovery of an oil eating bacterium (Pseudomonas) by a non-resident Indian Scientist (Dr.
Chakrabarty) was patented in USA by a multinational Corporation.
Similarly, an oncomouse was also patented. All this means that life forms could be patented.
6. Write any five economic importances of cotton. | M-09, S-12, J-15 |
It is a cash crop.
It gives three important products: fibre, food and cattle feed.
Lint fibre is for clothing which is very much useful in the textile industries.
Seed is used for extracting oil. This is also used as vanaspathi.
Cotton flour prepared from the seed is used for bread and biscuit making.
Cotton seed cake is used as a good organic manure.
Fatty acids obtained from oil is used in the preparation of insecticide, fungicidies and plastics, etc.
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7. Write any five benefits of biofertilizers. | J-09, J-10, S-10 |

Biofertilizers are easy to produce in abundance and are available at low cost to the marginal farmers.
It increases soil fertility without causing any damage to the soil.
Application of biofertilizers increases yield upto 45 per cent and the left over biofertilizers in the soil increases
yield as long as the biofertilizer remains in the soil up to 3 to 4 years.
Azolla, which is a biofertilizer amends the soil with organic matter.Cyanobacteria in particular secrete growth
promoting hormones like indole 3-acetic acid, indole butyric acid, naphthalene acetic acid, aminoacids, protein
and vitamins to soil.
Cyanobacteria grow well both in acidic as well as in alkaline soils. Since, cyanobacteria are potent neutralizers,
they help in the neutralization of soil. The process of converting untenable, fallow land to cultivable soil is termed
as soil reclamation.Blue green algae play a vital role in this conversion.
Symbiotic nitrogen fixing Rhizobium is a biofertilizer. It adds 50 to 150 Kg of nitrogen to soil per hectare.
Azatobacter and Azospirillum secrete antibiotics which act as biopesticides.
Ectotrophic mycorrhiza, which acts as a biofertilizer, increases the surface area of the roots of host plants, so that
more absorption of nutrients by the roots is made possible.
8. Bring out the economic importance of groundnut. | M-10,M-14 |
Groundnut oil is one of the important edible oils.It is extensively used in cookery as a salad oil.It is used for the
manufacture of vanaspathi.
Groundnut kernel is rich and cheap source of vegetable protein.Kernels are eaten, fried and salted and added
to a number of dishes.
Peanut butter is prepared by grinding roasted and blanched kernels. It is nutritious.
Groundnut oil is used to a limited extent in soap making.
Oil is used as illuminant, lubricant.
Oil cake is used as animal feed and organic manure.
Groundnut shell is used in the manufacture of activated carbon.
The groundnut cake is a good cattle feed. The plant after removing the pod, both dried and fresh is a good cattle
feed.
9. Write any five economic importances of rice. | S-10,M-13,M-15 |
Parched rice (pori) is crisp to eat. It is sold either salted or unsalted.
The flattened parboiled rice is known as flaked rice. Like corn flakes,it is a very good break fast food. Flaked rice
is
also used for preparing different kinds of food items.
Sake is an important alcoholic beverage in Japan. Sake is prepared by the fermentation of rice.
Bran is an important by-product of rice milling industry. It is used as a cattle feed.
Bran oil is extracted either by expression in a hydraulic press or extra-ction with solvents. Bran oil is used as
edible
oil and for preparation of vanaspathi, making soaps. It is also used in the textile industry, leather industry.
Bran wax is a by-product in bran-oil extraction. It is used in chocolate industry and in the manufacture of lip-sticks.
Paddy husk is used as fuel, in brick kilns. It is also used in brick making.
Straw is used as cattle feed, in the manufacture of straw-boards and for making hats, ropes, mats, etc.
10. Bring out the economic importance of Teak. | M-11,S-13 |
Teak wood is durable and it is an important timber in the tropics.
As the seasoned teak, timber does not shrink, crack or alter its shape, it is extensively used in
making household furnitures.
It is also used in ship building, boats, etc.
It is used for interior decoration.
It is used for the manufacture of boards.
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11. Write short note on citrus canker. | J-12 |
Pathogen
Disease due to a bacterium Xanthomonas citri.
This bacterium is of bacillus and gram negative type.
In India, this is the most commonly prevalent disease during the rains.
Symptoms
The disease affects the leaves, twigs, thorns and fruits.
All green parts and maturing fruits become more or less covered with brown scabby spots surrounded by dark
brown glossy margins.
The lesions may enlarge to a diameter of 3 or 4 mm become raised and rough and turn brown.
The bacteria enter through the stomata and wounds and multiply in the cortex to which they are confined.
Control
The infection can be largely prevented by removing the infected branches and spraying the plants with Bordeaux
mixture or spraying 3 or 4 times in a season with antibiotic the streptocycline at the rate of 1 gm in
45 liters of water.
12. Give an account on Mycorrhiza. | J-14 |
Mycorrhiza is a root inhabiting fungus found around or inside the roots of many plants.
It increases growth and yield and also provides protection to the roots against edaphic (soil) stresses, pathogen
and pests.
It helps in the increased uptake of soil and mineral water solution by the plant root system.
It provides many uses for the host plants eg. VAM (Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza) fungi. Mycorrhiza is of
TWO TYPES.
a. Ectotrophic mycorrhiza, which are found only outside the surface of roots of plants. eg. Basidiomycetous fungi.
b. Endotrophic mycorrhiza, which are found inside the roots, in the intercellular spaces and even inside the cell
(intra and intercellular) eg. VAM fungi.
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STANDARD XII
PUBLIC EXAM QUESTIONS & ANSWER
BIOLOGY - ZOOLOGY - 5 MARKS
1. HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
1.Enumerate the steps involved in root canal treatment of tooth.| M-07, J-08, S-08, M-11 |
It is a modern dental procedure
To save a tooth in which the pulp (the living tissue within a tooth) has died or become untreatably diseased,
usually as a result of extensive dental caries.
Steps involved in Root Canal Treatment
A hole is drilled into the crown to remove all material from the pulp chamber.
The root canals are then cleaned with fine-tipped instruments.
The procedure is usually monitored by X-rays.
The cavity is washed out, and antibiotic paste and a temporary filling are packed into it.
Some days later, the filling is removed and the canals are checked for sterlity.
When no infection can be detected, the cavity is filled with a sealing paste and/or tapering solid point made of
gutta - percha resin mixed with zinc and bismuth oxides. The mouth of cavity is then sealed with cement.
2.Explain the origin and conduction of heartbeat. | J-06, J-07, J-11,S-11 |
During pumping action of heart, the heart muscles cause rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the heart
chambers in a specific sequence.
The rhythmic, sequential functioning of the cardiac chamber is maintained by
1. sino-atrial node (SA node),
2. atrio-ventricular node (AV node),
3. bundle of His
4. Purkinje fibres.
The SA node situated in the upper, lateral wall of the right atrium is a small, flattened strip of muscle fibre that is
1.5cm x 3mm in size.
The fibres of the SA node are closely associated with the muscles of auricles.
SA node is capable of generating action potential that can travel throughout the auricles. The velocity of
conduction is 0.3m/sec.
The excitation from the SA node stimulates the AV node.
The AV node in turn conducts the stimulus to bundle of His and Purkinje fibres.
These myocardial fibres are found all over the wall of the ventricles.
In the conduction of stimulus through the AV node and the fibrous system there is a delay in transmission.
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3.Explain the different types of bone fracture.| S-07,J-08, M-13 |

1.Green stick fracture : This fracture occurs in the young bones of children.
This fracture break is incomplete leaving one side of the cortex intact.
2. Closed fracture :A closed fracture is the one where the haematoma (blood clot) does not communicate with the outside.
3. Open fracture :In this type, the fracture haematoma communicates with the outside through an open wound.
It is a serious injury through which infectious germs may enter into the body.
4. Pathological fracture :This type of fracture occurs, due to pathological lesions after a trivial violence in a weak bone.
It may be due to hyperparathyroidism.
5. Stress fracture :It is a fracture occurring at a site in the bone, due to repeated minor stresses over a long period of
time.
6. Birth fracture :It is a fracture occuring in the newborn babies
due to injury during delivery.
4.Write down the various types of memory. | M-06, J-11, J-15 |
The term memory denotes a specific brain function of storing and retrieving of informations related to
experiences.
The duration of memory varies from few seconds or hours, to several years.
Types of memory :1. Sensory memory :It means the ability to retain sensory signals in the sensory areas of the brain for a short interval of time following
the actual sensory experience.
This is the initial stage of memory process.
2. Primary memory :It is the memory of facts, words, numbers, letters or other information.
The information in this memory is instantaneously made available so that a person need not search through his or
her mind for it.
3.Secondary memory :It is the storage in the brain of information that can be recalled at some later time (hours, days, months or
years later).
This is also called long-term memory, fixed memory or permanent memory.
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5.Explain briefly right and left brain concept. | S-06 |

In the cerebral cortex, the left hemisphere is connected to the skin receptors in the right half of the body.
It also controls the muscles on the right side of the body.
The right hemisphere is connected to the sensory receptors on the left half of the body.
Further, it controls muscles on the left side. Both the hemispheres are also connected to the eyes.
The sensory nerve tracts of the left eye is connected to the right hemisphere and the right eye to the left
hemisphere through the optic chiasma.
Thus the left half sees the right half of the world while the right half sees only the left half of the world.
Lateralization
The left and right hemispheres exchange information through a set of axons called the corpus callosum, and also
through anterior commissure and hippocampal commissure.
The two hemispheres have their own specific functions and the above division of functions or labour between the
two hemisphere is called lateralization.
The corpus callosum enables the right and left half of the brain to operate cooperatively, instead of independently.
The anterior commissure plays an important role in unifying the emotional responses of two sides of brain.
Damage to the corpus callosum blocks the exchange of information between the two hemispheres.
The left brain is concerned with
1. Language,
2. Number Skills,
3. Reasoning,
4. Spoken Language,
5. Scientific Skills
6. Right Hand Control.
7. Analytical Tasks
The right brain is concerned with
1. Art Awareness,
2. Imagination,
3. Visual Functions,
4. Emotions,
5. Music Awareness,
6. 3D Forms
7. Left Hand Controls.
8. Creative Tasks.
6. Draw the V.S of Human eye and label th parts. | M-08,J-14 |
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7. Enumerate the functions of skin.| M-09 |

1. Skin forms an effective barrier against infection by microbes.
2. It prevents dehydration and provides defense against chemical, osmotic, thermal and photic damage.
3. It limits and regulates heat loss.
4. It provides a major sensory surface with a range of receptors.
5. It has limited excretory and absorptive functions.
6. Skin also helps in the formation of vitamin D.
7. Its keratinization and high friction coefficient gives the skin a characteristic texture and helps in movement and
handling of various substances.
8. Describe the mechanism of blood clotting. | M-09 |
When a blood vessel is damaged, it results in coagulation or clotting of blood.
A blood clot is a network of thread like protein fibers, called fibrin, that traps blood cells, platelets and fluid.
The clotting depends on several proteins in the plasma.
They are called coagulation factors.
Normally these factors are in an inactive state.
After injury they are activated to produce a clot.
The activation can happen in three stages.
Stage 1 - Formation of thrombokinase
Damaged tissues release a mixture of lipoproteins and phospholipids called tissue factor (TF) or thromboplastin.
This factor in the presence of certain factors in the blood form a complex called prothrombinase or thrombokinase.
Stage 2 - Formation of thrombin
During this stage soluble plasma protein prothrombin is converted into the enzyme thrombin by prothrombinase.
Prothrombin synthesis in liver requires vitamin K.
Prothrombin
Thrombin
Stage 3 - Formation of fibrin

The Soluble plasma protein fibrinogen is converted to insoluble protein, fibrin by thrombin
Fibrinogen thrombin Fibrin
The Fibrin forms the fibrous network of the clot.
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9. Explain the eye defects-short sight and long sight.| J-09,S-09 |

(a) Myopia (Short Sightedness)
Myopia results if the lens curvature is too great or the entire eyeball becomes elongated.
Light rays entering the eye are refracted more than is necessary.
Consequently light is focused in front of the retina.
The image perceived is thus blurred.
The condition is called short-sightedness as objects near the eye are clearer than those further away.
Myopia can be corrected by placing a concave lens in front of the eye.
The surface of the concave lens refracts light rays in such a way that the rays diverge slightly from their
original path.
The lens of the myopic eye now refracts the diverged light rays in to focus on the retina.
(b). Hypermetropia (Long Sightedness)
Hypermetropia results when the curvature of the eye lens is not great enough.
Light rays are not refracted enough and would thus be focused behind the retina.
The condition is called long-sightedness because distant objects are clearer than near ones.
This happens because light rays from distant objects require less refraction than rays from near objects.
Correction of hypermetropia requires placing a convex lens in front of the eye.
The lens converges light rays before they enter the eye so that the eyes focuses the light correctly on the retina.
10. Describe the process of absorption and assimilation of digested food. | M-10 |
As a result of digestion, all macromolecules of food are converted into their corresponding monomeric units.
Carbohydrates are broken into monosaccharides such as glucose and fructose.
Proteins are hydrolysed into amino acids. Lipids get broken into glycerol and fatty acids.
The simpler organic molecules along with minerals, vitamins and water enter into body fluids through the villi.
The villi are small microscopic finger-like projections.
Each villus is an absorbing unit consisting of a lacteal duct in the middle surrounded by fine network of
blood capillaries.
While the fatty acids are absorbed by the lymph duct, other materials are absorbed either actively or passively by
the capillaries of the villi.
From the lumen of the alimentary canal absorbed food materials are carried to the liver through
hepatic portal vein.
From the liver, materials are transported to all other regions of the body for utilisation.
This conversion of food into energy and cellular organisation is called as assimilation.
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11. Give an account of cerebrospinal fluid and its functions.| J-10 |

The ventricle of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord contain, a clear fluid similar to plasma
called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
CSF is formed by a group of cells called the choroid plexus located inside the four ventricles.
In human the volume of CSF is 150 ml and the rate of its secretion is 550 ml/day.
Functions:
CSF cushions the brain against mechanical shock when the head moves.
It acts as a protective covering for the CNS and confers buoyancy to brain.
The CSF also provides a reservoir of hormones and nutrition for the brain and spinal cord.
It acts as a mechanical buffer.
Remaining inside and outside the CNS, it equalizes the mechanical pressure.
If the intracranial pressure tends to rise the CSF is pressured out.
If the pressure tends to fall, more CSF is retained.
12. Explain the mechanism of healing of fractured bone.| S-10 |
It involves three phases, viz.,

1. Inflammatory phase
2. Reparative phase
3. Remodelling phase.
1. Inflammatory Phase : When a fracture occurs, at the site of fracture the blood vessels get broken and the blood fills up the gap
of the bone.
This blood clots to form a haematoma.
This process takes place in one to two days.
The soft tissue of this region undergoes inflammation.
2. Repairative Phase : A stage of callus is formed.
It bridges the gap and establishes contact between the ends of fractured bone.
The callus is nothing but granulation of tissues around the site of fracture.
This phase takes place about eight to twelve weeks.
3. Remodelling phase : Once the fracture is bridged by the callus tissue,
The site of fracture undergoes remodelling by muscular and weight bearing stresses and slight deformity
gets corrected by moulding.
This remodeling takes up to one year.
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13. Sleep is a state of unconsciousness. Substantiate the statement. | M-12 |

Sleep is defined as a state of unconsciousness from which a person can be aroused by appropriate sensory
or other stimuli.
Types of sleep : During each night a person goes thorugh two stages of sleep that alternate with each other.
They are
(1) Slow wave sleep
(2) REM sleep.
Slow wave sleep : In this type of sleep the brain waves are very slow.
Though this sleep is frequently called dreamless sleep, dreams
actually occur very often and even nightmares occur during this sleep.
During this sleep the process of consolidation of the dreams in memory does not occur.
This sleep is highly useful in decreasing blood pressure, respiratory rate and basal metabolic rate.
REM sleep or Rapid eye movement sleep : In a normal night sleep,REM sleep lasting 5-30 minutes usually appear on an average every 90 minutes.
It is usually associated with active dreaming.
The muscle tone throughout the body is exceedingly depressed during this sleep indicating strong inhibition of the
spinal projections from the reticular formation of the brain stem.
The heart rate and respiration usually become irregular, which is characteristic of the dream state.
During REM sleep, the brain is quite active.
But, the brain activity is not channeled in the proper direction for persons to be aware of their surroundings
and therefore to be awake.
14. Enumerate neurohypophysial hormones.| J-12 |
The neurohypophysis or the posterior pituitary secretes
1. Oxytocin
2. Vasopressin.
Oxytocin
Oxytocin contains a sequence of amino acid residues.
The term oxytocin refers to rapid birth. This hormone directly stimulates the smooth muscles of uterus and causes
the contraction, and helps in the delivery of foetus.
Another major physiological role of oxytocin is the secretion of milk from the lactating breast. Oxytocin
stimulates the myoepithelial cells, whichsurround the alveoli and ducts of mammary gland.
The contraction of myoepithelial elements in turn expels the milk from the alveoli of the breast into the larger ducts
or sinuses.
From the sinuses, the milk is ejected out.
The vasopressin:
It is otherwise called as the antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
Its main function is the retention of water inside the body by acting on the renal tubules.
ADH increases the permeability of the distal tubules and collecting ducts and promotes the reabsorption of water
from the renal filtrate.
It causes the constriction of all blood vessels and increases the blood pressure.
It also helps in the retention of urea.
ADH deficiency leads to Diabetes insipidus.
The symptoms of Diabetes insipidus are
polyurea excretion of large volumes of dilute urine
polydipsia -an intense thirst leading to the consumption of large quantities of liquids.
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15. Functions of Thyroxine.| S-12 |

Thyroxine is very essential for the development of nervous system particularly at the time of birth and during
the first year,
Thyroxine increases the metabolism of all tissues except brain, gonads and accessory sex organs,
lymph nodes, spleen and lungs,
The most important function is to increase the absorption of glucose from the small intestine.
Thyroxine reduces serum cholesterol level,
Thyroxine promotes protein anabolism, and helps in growth,
Thyroxine increases heart beat rate, force of contraction and pulse pressure,
Presence of optimum level of thyroxine in the blood maintains efficient muscle functions
The optimum level of thyroxine in the blood is also necessary for normal gonadal function
16. Enumerate the risk factors of Myocardial infarction. | J-13 |
Habitual cigarette smokers have a substantially increased risk of dying from myocardial infarction.
High blood pressure is a major risk factor and the risk increases with higher pressure.
The risk of atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease increases dramatically in those who are more than 30
percent overweight.
A raised blood cholesterol level increases the risk. A high fat diet is also a factor.
Physical inactivity is also a major factor.
17. Briefly explain the importance of minerals? | S-13 |
Along with complex organic substances, such as carbohydrates proteins and lipids, our body needs substances
such as minerals, vitamins and water as accessory food factors.
Greater Concentration.
sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, sulphur and chlorine.
Lower Concentration
iron, copper, zinc, cobalt, manganese, iodine and fluorine(trace elements).
1.Calcium, Magnesium and Phosphorus - body building activities such as formation of bones and teeth
2.Iron - oxygen transport
3.Iodine - hormone synthesis
4.Manganese, Copper, Zinc
intermediary metabolism.
5.Chlorine, Sodium and Potassium
constituents of the body fluids.
6.Magnesium, Sodium and Potassium
neuro-muscular irritability .
7.Calcium - blood clotting .
8.Potassium and Calcium - cardiac functions.
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18. Name the parts of Rhombencephalon and mention their functions. | M-14 |
The hindbrain or Rhombencephalon :This part of the brain comprises Cerebellum, Pons and Medulla oblongata.
Cerebellum :This region communicates with other region of the CNS through three large nerve tracts called the cerebellar
peduncles.
The cerebellum consists of following three parts
Parts Control
1. flocculonodular balance and maintenance of muscle tone.
2. vermis anterior part motor coordination and muscle tone.
3. vermis posterior part and fine motor coordination and lateral hemispheres muscle tone.
Cerebellar disfunction may cause decreased muscle tone, imbalance and lack of co-ordination.
Pons :This region relays information from the cerebrum to the cerebellum.
It also contains sleep center and respiratory centers.
These centers along with medulla help to control respiratory movements.
Medulla oblongata :It is the most inferior part of the brain stem.
It acts as a conduction pathway for both ascending and descending nerve tracts.
The nuclei inside medulla oblongata function as centers of several reflexes involved in the regulation of
heart rate, blood vessel contractions, breathing, swallowing, vomiting, coughing and sneezing.
19. Describe the structure of a mature ovum with the aid if diagram. | S-14 |
Human ovum is small and contains no yolk (Alecithal egg)

It is more than 100 m in diameter
At the time of ovulation, the ovum is surrounded by a striated membrane called zona radiata and later it is
replaced by an unstriated membrane Zona pellucida (Primary egg membrane).
The growing oocytes are surrounded by follicle cells.
Some of the follicular cells of the ovary are found outside the zona pellucida and are termed as Corona
radiata (Secondary egg membrane) which is peeled off when the oocyte passes down the oviduct.
The follicles and the developing oocyte together constitute Graafian follicle.
The whole surface of the graafian follicle is supported by theca interna and theca externa.
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20. What is Arthritis? Write about its types. | M-15 |

Arthiritis is the inflammation of all the components and structures of the joints.
It involves synovium, articular surfaces and capsule.
Several etiological factors are attributed to the origin of arthirits (arthritogenesis).
They are diet, psycho-somatic illness, infections, diseases and metabolic abnormalities, etc., Types of
arthritis include.
1. Infective arthiritis : Infections such as Staphylococcal, Streptococcal, Gonococcal, Rheumatic, Small Pox, Tuberculosis,
Syphilitic, Guinea worms, etc., can cause damages at the joints.
It produces pain in joints.
2. Rheumatic arthiritis : It is a generalized disease affecting the connective tissues, of the whole body.
It focalizes the involvement of musculoskeletal system.
It is an inflammation of synovial membrane.
Rheumatic disease is considered to be of auto immune origin.
It is due to immunological disorder against an unknown antigen..
3.Osteoarthiritis (Osteoarthrosis) : It is a degenerative condition of the joints, without any inflammatory process.
Osteoarthiritis is a progressive process affecting the articular cartilage of aging joints.
It is characterized by focal degeneration of the articular cartilage.
In the later stage, the cartilage gets eroded and exposing the sclerosed bone.
4.Metabolic arthiritis : Metabolic arthiritis is due to metabolic disorders.
This is a disease due to an inborn error of Purine metabolism.
It is commonly called gout.
This condition is characterized by the deposition of Sodium Urate crystals (uric acid) on the articular
cartilage, synovial membrane and in the periarticular tissues.
Gout is characterized by onset of pain swelling and reddening of joints.
2. MICRO BIOLOGY
1.What are the pathogenic adaptations of microbes? | M-06, J-07,S-07,J-11,S-11 |
1. Pathogens are able to selectively attach to the external surfaces such as the skin and conjunctiva or the internal
surfaces such as the mucus membranes of the respiratory, gastrointestinal or urinogenital tracts.
2. They also penetrate the above body surfaces and gain access to the internal tissues.
3. In some infections, the pathogen may remain localized, growing near its point of entry into the body.
4. Some pathogens become widely distributed in different tissues or organs. This is called generalized infections.
5. Some other pathogens can grow within the cells of host, causing severe disturbances to normal physiological
processes.
6. Yet another group, may grow extracellularly and bring damage to the body tissues by elaborating substances
called toxins.
2.Control and management of AIDS. |J-06, S-08, M-12, S-12|
Screening of blood and blood products.
Education to people for bringing more awareness among the public.
Education about protected sexual behaviour and practices
Participation of AIDS awareness programmes
Making the antiretroviral drugs such as AZTs (Azidothymidine/Zidovudin) and saquinovir etc., available
to patients.
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3.Symptoms of AIDS, defined by WHO. |S-06, M-08, J-12, M-13

|
Weight loss at least 10% body weight.
Chronic diarrhoea for more than a month.
Prolonged fever for more than one month.
Night sweats and persistent coughs.
Loss of memory and intelligence.
Opportunistic infections such as tuberculosis, oropharyngeal candidiasis (fungal infection in mouth and throat)
Recurrent herpes zoster (viral) infection.
Meningitis and nerve damage.
An unusual cancer, kaposis sarcoma which produces scattered purplish lesions over the chest and abdomen.
4.What are the steps involved in the preparation of bacterial media? |S-09, J-10,S-13, J-14|
Each ingredient is dissolved in the appropriate volume of distilled water.
The pH of medium is determined.
Agar is added and the medium (solid medium) is boiled to dissolve agar.
The medium is dispersed in flasks or tubes.
The medium is sterilized by autoclaving.
5.Write notes on sexually transmitted bacterial diseases in man. |J-08,M-11|
A) Syphilis :
dreadful STD.
It is caused by Treponema pallidium.
Syphilis occurs only in humans
It is transmitted by
1. Direct sexual contact (Venereal syphilis)
2. Through placenta from an infected mother to the foetus (Congenital syphilis).
Venereal syphilis progresses in three stages viz., primary, secondary and tertiary stage.
The symptoms are very prominent in the tertiary stage.
Symptoms
blindness,
loss of hearing,
brain damage,
insomnia,
headache delusions and spinal cord damage.
B) Gonorrhoea :
Gonorrhoea caused by Neisseria gonorrhoea.
MALE
The primary site of infection in the male is the urethra.
It causes pain during urination and a yellowish discharge from the urethra of male.
FEMALE
The primary site of infection in the female is the cervix.
In female also it causes painful urination and vaginal discharge.
Other Symptoms
Fever,
Abdominal Pain,
Arthritis,
Meningitis
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6.Write notes on viral diseases in man. |M-07, J-09|

A. Cancer and Oncogenic Viruses:
Viruses have been identified as one of the causative agents for cancer or tumour.
Such tumour inducing viruses are called oncogenic viruses.
DNA viruses
Adenoviruses, polioma virus, simian virus 40 (SV 40), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) ( a herpes virus) are oncogenic.
RNA viruses
The RNA sarcoma viruses are oncogenic RNA viruses (eg., Rous sarcoma).
B. Rabies and Rabies Virus:
Rabies virus belongs to the rhabdovirus family.
It is a parasite of domestic and wild mammals.
The transmission to humans occurs through the bite of an infected animal.
Dogs, cats, bats, are the mammalian animal sources for the rabies virus.
The incubation time in humans is usually about 3 to 8 weeks but it may also vary.
If untreated the mortality rate from rabies is 100 percent.
The new rabies vaccine was discovered in 1980.
It is an inactivated vaccine prepared from the virus propagated in cultures of diploid human cells.
This vaccine is both safe and highly immunogenic.
Symptoms
Severe headache,
High fever,
Alternating excitement and depression,
Muscular spasms in throat and chest,
Hydrophobia
C. Pox and Pox virus
Pox viruses are the largest of all viruses and are brick shaped.
They contain double stranded DNA, protein and lipid.
They have a dum bell shaped nucleoid surrounded by two membrane layers.
Variola virus is called the small pox virus.
It is transmitted by droplet infection either directly from the infected person or by handling articles infected
by the patient.
Small pox is completely eradicated.
The small pox vaccine consists of vaccinia, closely related to variola.
It gives protection both by humoral and cell mediated immunity.
Other pox viruses are chicken pox and measles viruses.
D. Hepatitis and Hepatitis B virus
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is an enveloped virus with a double stranded DNA.
This causes jaundice and hepatic carcinoma.
This disease is deadly and more infective than AIDS.
HBV vaccine consists of purified HBV Ag (Australian antigen) obtained from the blood serum of apparently
healthy carriers.
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7.Describe the structure of HIV virus with diagram. |M-09,M-15|
Shape - spherical
Size - 100-140 nm.
It is made up of a central icosahedral capsid core
The protein envelope is attached several spicules of glycoprotein.
The outer position of glycoprotein called gp120
The outer position of glycoprotein called gp 41
gp 41 is long protein with over 100 amino acids.
gp 120 appears like a knob.
The distribution of proteins of the viral surface is very much like a soccer ball made of 12 pentagons and 20
hexagons, stitched together to make a sphere.
The envelope of HIV contains HLA antigens
The genome of HIV contains two helix of RNA molecules in folded form.
The enzyme reverse transcriptase is attached to RNA.
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8.Write the pathogen,symptoms and mode of transmission of Rabies and cholera. |M-10|
A. Rabies and Rabies Virus:
Rabies virus belongs to the rhabdovirus family.
It is a parasite of domestic and wild mammals.
The transmission to humans occurs through the bite of an infected animal.
Dogs, cats, bats, are the mammalian animal
Sources For The Rabies Virus.
The incubation time in humans is usually about 3 to 8 weeks but it may also vary.
If untreated the mortality rate from rabies is 100 percent.
The new rabies vaccine was discovered in 1980.
It is an inactivated vaccine prepared from the
virus propagated in cultures of diploid human cells.
This vaccine is both safe and highly immunogenic.
Symptoms
Severe Headache,
High Fever,
Alternating Excitement and Depression,
Muscular Spasms In Throat and Chest,
Hydrophobia
B. Cholera :
Cholera is caused by Vibrio cholere.
It is a disease of antiquity and has been the cause of untold sufferings and death.
Cholera is transmitted in water and food contaminated with this bacteria.
In the small intestine, the bacteria adhere to epithelium, multiply and produce the enterotoxin.
The symptoms of cholera
1. Vomiting,
2. Profuse Diarrhoeal Stool (Rice Water Stool)
3. Severe Dehydration,
4. Loss Of Minerals,
5. Increased Blood Acidity
6. Haemoconcentration.
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9.Write notes on Bacterial Genetics.|S-10|
In bacteria the cells have a single circular strand of DNA.

It is not associated with proteins as are eukaryotic chromosomes.
The bacterial genes,like the eukaryotic genes possess the features of replication, phenotype expression,
mutation and genetic recombination etc.
In bacteria the genetic recombination resultsfrom three types of gene transfer viz.,
conjugation,transduction
and transformation.
Conjugation involves the transfer of some DNA from one bacterial cell to another followed by
the separation
of the mating pair of cells.
In this,large segments of the chromosomes and in special cases the entire chromosome may be
transferred.
Bacterial transformation is a process in which cell free or naked DNA containing the genetic
information is
transferred from one bacterial cell
to another.
It was discovered by an English health officer, Griffith in 1928.
The transforming principle was identified as DNAby Avery Macleod and Mc Carthy in 1944.
In transduction, a bacteriophages acts as a vector, transfering a portion of DNA from one bacterium (donor) to
another (recepient).
If all fragments of bacterial DNA have a chance to enter a transducing phage, the process is
called
Generalized transduction.
On the contrary if a few restricted genes of the bacterial chromosomes are transduced by bacteriophage, it is
called specialized transduction
10.What is Chemotherapy? What are the good characteristics of Chemotherapeutic agent? |J-13, J-15|
The control and treatment of infectious diseases with a chemical compound or drug is called chemotherapy.
The chemical compounds and drugs are called chemotherapeutic agents.
A good chemotherapeutic agent posses the following characteristics:
It destroys or prevents the activity of a disease causing pathogen, without injuring the host tissues
It is able to penetrate the cells and tissues of the host and can encounter the pathogens in effective but safe
concentrations or dosage.
It leaves the hosts natural defense or immune mechanisms such as phagocytosis or antibody production,
unaffected.
It exhibits selective toxicity, that is it kills or inhibits the pathogenic microbes without having harmful effect or
having least harm to the host.
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11.Explain the method of animal virus culture by using Chicken Embryo Technique. |M-14|
Viral cultures are of three types viz.,
1. Primary Cell Cultures,
2. Diploid Cell Strains
3. Continuous Cell Lines.
1. Primary culture:
Primary cell culture are derived from normal tissue of an animal such as mouse, hamster, chicken and monkey or
a human being.
When cells from these tissues are processed and cultured the first monolayer is referred to as the primary culture.
A monolayer is a confluent layer of cells covering the surface of a culture vessel.
2. Diploid cell strain:
Diploid cell strains are derived by primary cell cultures from a specific tissues like lung or kidney
which is of embryonic origin.
These diploid cells are the most employed host of choice for the production of human vaccine virus.
3. Continuous cell lines:
Continuous cell lines are capable of an infinite number of doublings.
Such cell lines may arise with the mutation of a cell strain or more commonly from the established cell cultures
from malignant tissue.
Many viruses, which are difficult or impossible to grow have been cultured in continuous cell lines.
12.Give an account on contribution of Pasteur to Micro biology. |S-14|
The contribution of Louis pasteur (1822 - 1895) in France in the field of microbiology lead to a greater
understanding of human ailments and animal diseases.
Much of Pasteurs work involved the growth of bacteria and yeasts in liquid cultures.
He developed methods of sterilization and of pasteurization.
Pasteur (1857) observed different kind of microbes associated with different kinds of fermentation.
e.g. Spheres of variable size (yeast cells) within alcohol fermentation and smaller rods (Lactobacilli)
with lactic fermentation.
This finding led Pasteur to state that specific microbe may cause specific disease in man.
His crowning achievements were Pasteurisation of milk, the development of techniques to reduce the virulence of
infectious organism, without eliminating their capacity to produce immunity.
In this way he developed vaccines, for the control of cholera anthrax and rabies in man.
QUESTION NUMBER :31
3.IMMUNOLOGY
1.What are the Symptoms of graft rejection.|S-06,M-07,S-07,J-11,S-11,M-12 |
Skin rashes
Fluid accumulation in spleen and enlargement
Emaciation (becoming thin),
Diarrhoea,
Hepatomegaly,
Anaemia and general immune suppression,
Damage in bile ducts,
Increased bilirubin synthesis
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2.Explain the structure of immunoglobulin with a diagram.|J-06,J-09,J-10,S-12|
Immunoglobulins (Igs) are glycoproteins.

Each molecule of Ig consists of two pairs of polypeptide chains.
L CHAINS:
L chains-Smaller chains (light chains)
L chains-molecular weight - 25,000
The L chain is attached to the H chain by a disulphide bond.
H CHAINS:
H chains-Larger chains(heavy chains)
H chains-molecular weight of is of 50,000.
The two H chains are also joined together by S-S bonds,
TYPES:
IgG , IgA , IgM, IgE and IgD
3.What is organ transplantation? Classify the types of graft.|J-08,M-09|

ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION
The replacement of a diseased organ by a transplant (healthy tissue or organ) is called transplantation.
AUTOGRAFT :
The tissue of the original donor is grafted back into the same donor.
e.g plastic surgery.
ISOGRAFT :
Graft between syngeneic individuals
e.g clones or identical twins.
ALLOGRAFT :
Graft between allogenic individuals
e.g kidney transplantation.
XENOGRAFT :
Graft between xenogenic individuals
e.g organ transplanted from pig to human, baboon to human.
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4.Write short notes on genetic basis of organ transplants.|M-11, J-14|

Success of organ transplants (ie., Cornea, Kidney, Heart, Liver, Bone marrow) and skin grafts depends on a
proper matching of histocompatibility antigens that occur in all cells of the body.
Chromosome 6 of mouse contains a cluster of genes known as the major histocompatibility complex (MHC),
which in humans is called human leukocyte antigen (HLA) complex.
The alleles of HLA genes determine the histocompatibility ie., the compatability between donor and recipient
tissues in transplants.
5.Explain the unique features of adaptive immunity.|S-08,S-13|
(i) Specificity :
It is the ability to distinguish differences among various foreign molecules.
(ii) Diversity :
It can recognize a vast variety of foreign molecules.
(iii) Discrimination between Self and Non-self :
It is able to recognize and respond to molecules that are foreign (non-self) to the body.
At the same time, it can avoid response to those molecules that are present within thebody (self antigens) of the
given animal.
(iv) Memory :
When the immune system encounters a specific foreign agent, e.g., microbe, for the first time, it generates an
immune response and eliminates the invader.
The immune system retains the memory of this encounter for a prolonged interval.
As a result, a second encounter with the same microbe evokes a heightened immune response.
6.Write a short note on antibody mediated immunity. |M-06|
Antibody mediated or humoural immunity involves the synthesis of specific antibody molecules called
immunoglobulins by the B-lymphtocytes.
Each antigen has many different antigenic determinants, each of which matches a specific antibody
and binds to it.
The B cells, direct the antibodymediated immunity.
The antibody molecules (Igs) may be bound to a cell membrane in the form of receptors or they may remain free.
Functions of antibodies
1. agglutination of particulate matter, including bacteria and viruses,
2. opsonisation or coating over bacteria for phagocytosis by the phagocytes
3. neutralization of toxins released by bacteria.
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7. What are the anatomical and inflammatory barriers in first line defence.|J-07|
1. Anatomical Barriers :
These barriers block the entry of organisms into the body.
The skin and the mucous membrane lining the respiratory and intestinal as well as the reproductive passages
constitute the barriers.
Mucous material entraps foreign microorganisms.
The ciliary movements produced by the epithelial lining cells expel out micro-organisms from the body.
2. Inflammatory Barriers :
Usually an infection or tissue injury results in redness and swelling, along with pain and production of heat that
may result in fever.
The above phenomenon is known as inflammatory response.
This response occurs due to release of chemical alarm signals, notably histamine, serotonin and prostaglandins,
by the damaged mast cells.
At the site of inflammation there may be leakage of vascular fluid, which contains serum proteins with
antibacterial activity.
Further, there is an influx of phagocytic cells into the affected area.
These responses inhibit and destroy the invading microorganisms.
8.Give an account of immunideficiency diseases.|M-08|
Immunodeficiency Diseases result from a defect in one or more components of the innate or adaptive immunity.
Affected individuals are susceptible to diseases that normally would not bother most people.
Immunodeficiency may result from gene mutations, infections, malnutrition or accidents.
A. Severe combined immunodeficiency
SCID results from one of many genetic defects; one such genetic defect leads to adenosine deaminase
deficiency.
SCID is characterized by a very low number of circulating thymocytes.
Affected individuals usually die at an early age.
B. AIDS
It is caused by a retrovirus, known as HIV.
Retroviruses have RNA genomes that are replicated via DNA copies.
HIV, selectively infects and kills T-helper cells.
The depletion of T-helper cells weakens the acquired immune response and may even abolish it completely.
The viral RNA genome is converted into DNA copy by the viral enzyme reverse transcriptase.
The DNA copy of HIV becomes inserted into the human chromosome and replicates with the cell DNA.
It may be transcribed to produce RNA copies of the viral genome.
The RNA copies are packaged and liberated as virus particles.
The infected cell is lysed in this process, and the released virus particles infect new T helper cells.
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9.What are the symptoms of allograft rejection? Write down the measures adopted in field to prevent raft
rejection.|S-09 |
1. Symptoms of allograft rejection
Skin rashes
Fluid accumulation in spleen and enlargement
Emaciation (becoming thin),
Diarrhoea,
Hepatomegaly,
Anaemia and general immune suppression,
Damage in bile ducts,
Increased bilirubin synthesis
2. Measures adopted in field to prevent graft rejection
(J-12)
Blood groups estimation (ABO and Rh) in the host,
Testing the presence of cytotoxic antibodies in the host serum,
Cross matching of tissues (Host Vs graft) prior to transplantation,
Giving immunosuppressive drugs like cyclosporine and steroids etc to the host,
Total lymphoid tissue irradiation
10.Write a short note on activation of adaptiveimmunity. |M-10|
Every antigen is processed by antigen presenting cells(APC), like macrophages, B lymphocytes and dentric
cells.
The processed antigen is presented on the surface of these cells.
A subgroup of T cells called T helper cells, specifically interacts with the presented antigen and becomes
activated.
The activated T helper cells then activate B cells, and a subgroup of T cells called cytotoxic lymphocytes (CTLs),
in a specific manner.
The activated B and cytotoxic lymphocytes proliferate to produce clones.
All the cells of a clone can recognize the same antigen and eliminate it.
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11.Describe the structure of lymph node with the help of diagram.|S-10,J-15|
The lymph nodes are small, round or ovoid bodies placed along the course of lymphatic vessels.
They are surrounded by a fibrous capsule from which trabeculae penetrate into the nodes.
The node can be differentiated into an outer cortex and an inner medulla.
In the cortex are accumulations of lymphocytes (primary follicles) within which germinal centers (secondary
follicles) develop during antigenic stimulation.
The follicles contain, besides proliferating lymphocytes, dendritic macrophages which capture and process the
antigen.
In the medulla, the lymphocytes are arranged as elongated branching bands (medullary cords).
The cortical follicles and medullary cords contain B lymphocytes and constitute the bursa or bone marrow
dependent areas.
Between the cortical follicles and medullary cords, there is a broad, intermediate zone called paracortical area
which contains T lymphocytes and constitutes the thymus dependent area.
Lymph nodes act as a filter for the lymph.
Each group of nodes drain a specific part of the body.They phagocytose foreign materials including
microorganisms.
They help the proliferation and circulation of T and B cells.
They enlarge following local antigenic stimulation.
In the human body, totally about 600 lymph nodes are distributed.
12.Describe various preventive steps in graft rejection.|J-12|
1.Blood groups estimation (ABO and Rh) in the host,
2. Testing the presence of cytotoxic antibodies in the host serum,
3. Cross matching of tissues (Host Vs graft) prior to transplantation,
4. Giving immunosuppressive drugs like cyclosporine and steroids etc to the host,
5. Total lymphoid tissue irradiation etc.
13.Explain the primary set,secondary set and final lysis of graft rejection.How clinically graft rejection is
prevented?|M-13|
1.Primary set of graft rejection:
Sensitized T cells (lymphocytes), macrophages, plasma cells are all involved in the primary or first set rejection.
2.Secondary set of graft rejection:
In the secondary or second set reaction, B cells (B lymphocytes) and their antibodies are involved.
In the cell mediated reaction substances such as interleukin 1 (IL-1), Interleukin 2 (IL-2) etc take part.
Final lysis of graft rejection:
The final lysis of the graft is achieved by lymphotoxins or TNF (Tumour necrosis factors) or proteolytic enzymes.
Measures adopted in field to prevent graft rejection
Blood groups estimation (ABO and Rh) in the host,
Testing the presence of cytotoxic antibodies in the host serum,
Cross matching of tissues (Host Vs graft) prior to transplantation,
Giving immunosuppressive drugs like cyclosporine and steroids etc to the host,
Total lymphoid tissue irradiation
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14.Describe the anatomical and physiological barriers in the first line of defence against diseases. J-13
1. Anatomical Barriers :
These barriers block the entry of organisms into the body.
The skin and the mucous membrane lining the respiratory and intestinal as well as the reproductive passages
constitute the barriers.
Mucous material entraps foreign microorganisms.
The ciliary movements produced by the epithelial lining cells expel out micro-organisms from the body.
2. Physiological Barriers :
Factors like body temperature, pH and various body secretions, prevent the growth of
pathogenic micro-organisms.
For example, fever response inhibits growth of many pathogens.
Acidity of the stomach contents due to HCl secretion kills ingested micro-organisms.
Lysozyme present in secretions, such as tears and saliva, digest bacterial cell walls.
Certain cells, like WBC, when infected with a virus, respond by releasing anti viral proteins, called interferons.
Interferons, in turn, make the cells in the vicinity resistant to viral infections.
As a result, the concerned persons exhibit increased resistance to viral infections.
15.Justify spleen as a Pheripheral Lymphoid organ . |M-14|
It is the largest lymphoid organ. It contains red and white pulp regions that serve as filters.
The macrophages within the spleen help to remove and destroy pathogens.
Functions of Spleen :
1. The spleen serves as the graveyard for effete(aged) red blood cells,
2. It acts as a reserve tank and setting bed for blood
3. It acts as a systemic filter for trapping circulating blood borne foreign particles. (The immunological function of the
spleen is primarily directed against blood borne antigens).
16.How do inflammatory barriers protect our body against diseases? |S-14|
Usually an infection or tissue injury results in redness and swelling, along with pain and production of heat that
may result in fever.
The above phenomenon is known as inflammatory response.
This response occurs due to release of chemical alarm signals, notably histamine, serotonin and prostaglandins,
by the damaged mast cells.
At the site of inflammation there may be leakage of vascular fluid, which contains serum proteins with
antibacterial activity.
Further, there is an influx of phagocytic cells into the affected area.
These responses inhibit and destroy the invading microorganisms.
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17.Differentiate immunogen from antigen.Explain Natural Antigen and Potential antigen.|M-15|

The terms immunogen and antigen are often used synonymously.
However, these terms imply two closely related entities.
The first describes a molecule that provokes an immune response(immunogenicity) and hence is called an
immunogen.
The other describes a molecule which reacts with the antibody produced, or with the activated cellular
constituents of cell mediated immunity(antigenicity), and is referred to as an antigen.
Antigens may be either natural or artificial/synthetic ones.
Natural antigens, fall into two categories viz., particulate antigens and soluble antigens.
Bacteria, viruses, erythrocytes and cells represent particulate type antigens.
Bacterial toxins, proteins, carbohydrates, glycoproteins and lipoproteins represent the soluble antigens.
In addition, a variety of chemical compounds, biological macromolecules, synthetic polypeptides are
regarded as potential antigens.
Several polysaccharides, nucleoproteins and lipoproteins are also considered as antigens.
Recently antibodies to DNA have been used in immunization.
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QUESTION NUMBER :32

4.MODERN GENETICS
1.List out the significance and benefits of Human Genome Project(HGP).|J-07,J-08,S-08,J-10,J-11|
To cure the killer diseases like cancer.
To understand more about the diseases and to design drugs.
Helps in diagnosis of defective genes that cause disease.
Tool to Eugenical concept and can create superior, disease free human beings in future.
Helps in somatic cell gene therapy and germ line gene therapy.
2. What are the ethical issues,merits and demerits of cloning?|S-06, M-11, S-11, J-14|
An unethical and unnatural technique.
May lead to the birth of wrong persons.
Cloning cannot produce children like the children born to genetic mothers. Variations in traits are bound to
appear.
The longevity of the new born, disease tolerance capacity are some criteria to be considered. Cloned animals
have also developed diseases like arthritis.
Cloning also leads to wastage of egg cells.
Cloned animals may have health problems. They may die at a much earlier age and may have short life span.
3.Write a note on scope of Bio-informatics.|J-06, M-09, S-13|
Helps to create an electronic database on genomes and protein sequences from single celled organisms to
multicellular organisms.
It provides techniques by which three- dimensional models of biomolecules could be understood along with
their structure and function.
It integrates mathematical, statistical and computational methods to analyse biological, biochemical and
biophysical data.
Bioinformatics deals with methods for starting, retrieving and analysing biological data such as nuclei acid
(DNA/RNA) and protein sequences, structure, functions pathways and genetic interactions.
It provides genome level data for understanding normal biological processes and explains the malfunctioning of
genes leading to diagnosing of diseases and designing of new drugs.
4.Mention the uses of recombinant DNA technology.|M-07, M-08,M-14|
The understanding of structure of eukaryotic genes and their components.
To synthesize certain vital life saving drugs, hormones and antibiotic s eg., Antiviral anticancer interferons
human growth hormone (HGH) somatostatin, etc.
The genotypes of plants are altered. New transgenic plants which are resistant to diseases and pest attack
have been produced.
Genetic defects in animals as well as human could be corrected through gene therapy.
Genetically engineered bacteria are called superbugs. Superbugs can degrade several aromatic Hydrocarbons
and clearing oil spills in the ocean.
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5.Write about Huntington's chorea.|M-06, S-12|

This is a fatal disease caused by an autosomal dominant gene in human.
The onset of the disease is between 35 and 40 years of age.
It is characterized by uncontrolled jerking of the body due to involuntary twitching of voluntary muscles.
It leads to progressive degeneration of the central nervous system accompanied by gradual mental and physical
deterioration.
Huntingtons disease was the first completely dominant human genetic disease to come to light.
The affected gene is located on chromosome 4.
Other characteristics of this disease are deterioration of intellectual faculty, depression,occasional
hallucination and delusions and other psychological problems.
This disease is incurable.
6.What are the uses of transgenic animals?|M-12,M-13|
More efficient than their normal counterpart in feed assimilation.
Faster growth and hence achieve the marketable size sooner.
Meat quality is good.
They are resistant to certain diseases.
They serve as bioreactors for obtaining valuable recombinant proteins and pharmaceuticals from their
milk or urine or blood.
7.Explain Dr Ian Wilmut's cloning mechanism.|S-10, S-14|
Dr. Ian Wilmut has produced a cloned sheep called Dolly by nuclear transplantation method.
To produce cloned sheep he took the udder cell which is a somatic cell with diploid number of chromosomes.
An egg cell was also removed from a donor sheep.
The egg cell cannot grow into a new sheep on its own because it only has half a set of chromosomes(n).
The body cell cannot grow into a new sheep on its own because it is not a reproductive cell.
So udder cell nucleus(2n) was removed.
Similarly the egg cell nucleus (n) was also removed.
The nucleus of the somatic cell (Udder) was injected into the enucleated egg.
The egg after the nuclear transplantation comes to possess full set of chromosomes viz. the 2n diploid.
The egg was then transplanted back into the uterus of the sheep from which it was removed.
The egg also can be transplanted to a new surrogate mother for development.
The egg cell grew and developed into a sheep (Dolly).
This cloned sheep is genetically identical to the donor sheep, which donated the diploid nucleus of its somatic
cell and not the sheep which donated the egg cell.
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8.Give the symbolic representation of pedigree chart.|S-07|
9. What is Glowing coal ? What are the uses of it?|J-09|

In proteomics, to delineate information about a protein at atomic and molecular levels, models are constructed.
X-ray crystallography can give a skeleton model of a protein from its results on its atomic details. With atomic
data, computers nowadays generate graphic images of the molecules on high-resolution screen.
Computer modeling of protein began as early as 1970.
The computer-generated models depict not only the properties of amino acids in a protein but also help to
understand the protein function.
Computer graphic models is the Glowing coal
Uses :
Protein structure helps in understanding biomolecular arrangement in tissue or cellular architecture.
Protein structures, protein models and computer aided graphic models help to understand biological reactions
mediated by enzymes(proteins).
Graphic models provided by computers are valuable to predict which fragments of a medically important protein
can be used to design drugs and vaccines.
Proteomics also helps in chemical industries to manufacture drugs, various chemical compounds and enzymes.
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10.What is database? What are its types?|S-09|

Database
Creating database means a coherent collection of data with inherent meaning, used for future application.
Database is a general repository of voluminous information or records to be processed by a programme.
Databases are broadly classified as
1. Generalized databases
2. Specialized databases.
Structural organisation of DNA, protein, carbohydrates are included under generalized databases.
Databases of Expressed Sequence Tags (ESTs), Genome Survey Sequences (GSS), Single Nucleotide
Polymorphisms (SNPs) sequence Tagged sites (STSs). RNA databases are included under specialized
data bases.
Generalized databases contain sequence database and structure databases.
a. Sequence databases
Sequence databases are the sequence records of either nucleotides or amino acids. The former is the nucleic
acid databases and the latter are the protein sequence databases.
b. Structure databases
Structure databases are the individual records of macromolecular structures.
The nucleic acid databases are again classified into
1. Primary databases
2. secondary databases.
Primary databases
Primary databases contain the data in their original form taken as such from the source eg., Genebank
(NCBI/USA)
Protein, SWISS-PROT (Switzerland), Protein 3D structure etc.
Secondary databases
Secondary databases also called as value added databases contain annotated data and information eg., OMIN
Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man. GDB - Genome Database Human.
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11.Describe the karotyping of human chromosomes.|M-10|

The 23 pairs of chromosomes in human are classified into seven groups viz, A-G based on position of centromere.
Group A :
Group A includes 1, 2 and 3 chromosomes.
It includes the largest chromosomes.
Metacentric with two equal arms.
Group B :
Group B includes 4 and 5 chromosomes.
Submetacentric with two unequal arms.
Group C :
Group C includes 6,7,8,9,10,11,12 and X chromosomes.
This is the largest group
Submetacentric with two unequal arms.
The X chromosome resembles the chromosome 6 in this group.
Group D :
Group D includes 13,14 and 15 chromosomes.
Acrocentric
Group E :
Group E includes 16,17 and 18 chromosomes.
Meta or submetacentric.
Group F :
Group F includes 19 and 20 chromosomes.
Metacentric with two equal arms.
Group G :
Group G includes 21, 22 and Y chromosomes.
Acrocentric
Very short chromosomes
12.Describe the demerits of cloning.|J-12,M-15|
1. Cloning of animals is considered as an unethical and unnatural technique by some people.
2. It is feared that attempts to clone human may lead to the birth/production of wrong persons.
3. Cloning cannot produce children like the children born to genetic mothers. Variations in traits are bound to
appear.
4. When organisms are created by cloning from somatic cells of the adult, the longevity of the new born, disease
tolerance capacity are some criteria to be considered. Cloned animals have also developed diseases like arthritis.
5. Cloning also leads to wastage of egg cells. In the cloning of Cat, 200 egg cells were used and 57 were implanted.
Out of that only one cloned cat survived to birth.
6. Cloned animals may have health problems. They may die at a much earlier age than the rest of the species. So
cloned animals from somatic cells of adult, may have short life span.
7. Among the benefits of cloning, special mention should be made regarding its role in biodiversity. Cloning will help
to maintain biodiversity. It can bring back even the animals which have become extinct recently and safe guard all
endangered species facing extinction.
8. Though human cloning has its own ethical problems, the principle could be used to grow new organs from the
cloned stem cells. Such organ culture may solve transplantation problems, such as tissue incompatibility, tissue
rejection, harmful immune reactions etc. Many human lives could be saved.
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13.Explain the protein model and its uses. |J-13|

In proteomics, to delineate information about a protein at atomic and molecular levels, models are constructed.
X-ray crystallography can give a skeleton model of a protein from its results on its atomic details. With atomic
data, computers nowadays generate graphic images of the molecules on high-resolution screen.
Computer modeling of protein began as early as 1970.
The computer-generated models depict not only the properties of amino acids in a protein but also help to
understand the protein function.
Computer graphic models is the Glowing coal
Uses :
Protein structure helps in understanding biomolecular arrangement in tissue or cellular architecture.
Protein structures, protein models and computer aided graphic models help to understand biological reactions
mediated by enzymes(proteins).
Graphic models provided by computers are valuable to predict which fragments of a medically important protein
can be used to design drugs and vaccines.
Proteomics also helps in chemical industries to manufacture drugs, various chemical compounds and enzymes.
14. Write short notes on Albinism.| J-15 |
It is an inherited disorder of melanin metabolism characterized by the absence of melanin in the skin, hairs and
eyes.
The clinical characteristics of this disease are the milk-white coloured skin and marked photophobia.
Albinism is an inborn error metabolic disease, In this,the genes by undergoing mutation do not produce particular
enzymes, which take part in the metabolic pathways.
The metabolism of one amino acid phenylalanine proceeds in chains of enzyme-mediated reactions.
The change or absence of enzyme due to defective genes, results in physiological abnormalities.
In albinism, complete lack of melanin pigment (a dark brown pigment) causes the albino to suffer.
The incidence of albinism in human has been reported to be from 1:5000 to 1:25000. The albinism may be
generalized albinism, localized albinism of the eye (ocular albinism) or partial albinism (skin and hair).
The recessive genes aa do not produce the tyrosinase enzyme, which converts DOPA (3,4 dihydroxy phenyl
alanine) into melanin in the melanocytes.
7.THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
1.Explain the various mechanism to prevent inter-specific crosses.(or)
How do prematic isolations prevent interspecific crosses? (or)
Write down the mechanism that prevents their inter specific cross. |J-07,J-10,J-11,S-11,J-12,S-13,M-14|
9. Explain pre-mating isolation.|J-08 |
a)Ecological isolation
Members of the populations occur in different habitates in the same general region.
b)Seasonal or Temporal isolation
Mating or flowering periods occur at different seasons.
c)Sexual, Psychological or Ethological isolation
It is a behavioural isolation where males and females of the same species get attracted to each other.
d)Mechanical isolation
Physical non-correspondence of the genitalia or floral parts.
e)Gametic isolation
Spermatozoa, or pollen tubes of one species are not attracted to the eggs or ovules of another species.
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2. Describe Genetic Drift (or)

Briefly describe Sewall-Wright effect.|S-08, S-09,M-10,S-12,M-13,J-14|
This theory was developed by Sewall Wright in 1930.
It is concerned with the gene frequency of a reproducing small population.
In a small population not all the alleles which are representatives of that species may be present.
Thus the process of inheritance is in violation of Hardy-Weinberg law.
In such a small population a chance event may increase the frequency of a character that has little
adaptive value.
Thus the genetic drift may remain a significant factor in the origin of new species on islands and other isolated
populations.
Due to loss of alleles having low frequency, amount of genetic variation may get reduced in small populations.
Further, continual mating within such populations may cause decrease in the proportion of heterozygotes and
increase in the number of homozygotes.
However the small population as a whole may develop characters different from that found in the main
population.
Such deviations may even lead to speciation or formation of a new species.
When a small group of individuals due to genetic drift become founders of a new population the phenomenon is
termed as founder principle.
The new population often has genotype frequencies different from the parent population. Sometimes genotypic
frequencies may get changed in a small population isolated temporarily due to natural calamities.
When the population regains its original size the members of the small population may have diverged genetically
from the original parental population.
Hence interbreeding between members of small and larger populations may not be possible.
The small population might have evolved into a new species. This type of genetic drift is referred to as bottleneck
effect.
3. Give an account of different types of species/speciation.|M-06,M-07,S-10|
A species is a natural, biological unit. Among the various taxa, a species is not man made.
It is a natural reality. The process of evolution operates at the species level only.
It is because of these reasons, in evolution much importance is given to the Origin of Species.
There are several types of species.
Allopatric species
Species occupying different geographical areas.
Ex : species of frogs in India and Srilanka.
The two land areas are separated by the Gulf of Mannar.
Sympatric species
Closely related species living together in one common locality, yet maintain their species identity
Ex:Ranahexadactyla, R.tigrina and R.cyanophlictis living together in a pond.
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4. Write a account on Population genetics

What are the conditions under which Hardy - Weinberg law operates?
What is Hardy Weinberg law? Discuss its importance in population genetics.|M-08, M-11, S-14|
A population is defined as an assemblage of living beings showing a closely interacting system.
A population comprising of sexually interbreeding organisms is termed as the genetic population or Mendelian
population.
A genetic population may be defined as a community of similar individuals living within a limited circumscribed
area at a given time and capable of interbreeding.
The genes of all the individuals of such a Mendelian population will constitute the gene pool. A gene pool
comprises a diverse forms of a gene combining and recombining by the process of sexual reproduction.
The frequency of genes and genotypes in a population had been worked out by mathematical formulations.
The gene frequency refers to the proportion of an allele in the gene pool as compared with other alleles at the
same locus. Hence the gene frequency can be calculated by substracting the number of a particular gene in
question from the total number of genes present on that locus in the population.
If the frequency of gene A is represented by P and that of gene a by q and at gene equilibrium condition their
total frequency is represented by 1, then at equilibrium
P+q = 1
or
p = 1-q
or
q = 1-p
A mathematical interpretation for the distribution of gene and genotype frequencies in the population was
developed by R.A. Fisher (England) and Sewall Wright (United States).
A fundamental idea in the form of a law to understand population genetics was provided by G.H. Hardy of
England and W.Weinberg of Germany in 1908. The law proposed by them is known as Hardy-Weinbergs law.
It is the foundation of population genetics and of modern evolutionary theory. According to this law the relative
frequencies of various kinds of genes in a large and randomly mating sexual population tend to remain constant
from generation to generation in the absence of mutation, selection and gene flow or migration.
This law concerns a theoretical situation for a population not undergoing any evolutionary change. Thus
according to the law the normal mendelian genic frequencies are maintained under certain conditions only.
If such conditions are not followed, the gene frequency will change leading to deviations and cause variations,
such variation will be the sources for future evolution.
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5. Describe the modern concept of natural selection. |M-09,J-09|

Modern development in biological fields such as Cell biology, Genetics and Populations genetics helped in the
development of modern synthetic theory of evolution.
It was caused due to contributions made by eminent scientists such as Th. Dobzhansky, S.Wright, H.J.Muller,
J.S. Huxley, R.A.Fisher, Ernst Mayr, G.L.Stebbins and others.
The basic concept of modern synthetic theory was provided by Th. Dobzhansky in his book titled Genetics and
the Origin of species (1937)
G.L.Stebbins in his book Process of organic evolution (1971) suggests five basic processes essential for
evolution.
They are
1. gene mutations,
2. chromosomal aberrations,
3. genetic recombinations,
4. natural selection
5. reproductive isolation.
Contributions made by others provided additional factors such as Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, Genetic drift and
Polymorphism.
6. What are the three types of selection processes in natural Selection? Explain.|J-06 |
1. Stabilizing selection
2. Directional selection
3. Disruptive selections
Stabilizing selection
In stabilizing selection competition in nature is not severe.
The phenotypic features coincide with normal environmental situations.
However this selection may eliminate characters that are abnormal and harmful and it tends to maintain the
phenotypic stability within population for successive generations.
Directional selection
The directional selection operates in response to gradual changes in the environment.
It operates within the phenotypic range available within the population.
The selection gradually changes the phenotypic character towards a possible extreme condition found suitable
for the changed environmental situation.
This selection will increase the frequency of desirable phenotypic character within the population.
Thus it results in gradual evolutionary change.
Disruptive selections
In disruptive selection the selection pressure may favour the existence of more than one phenotype in a
population.
It may even split a population into two sub-populations.
If gene flow between such sub-populations is prevented a new species or a sub specie may evolve.
When a disruptive selection produces more than one phenotype within a populationthe phenomenon is known as
polymorphism.
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7. Write a short note on Neo-Lamarckism.|S-06 |

Lamarcks theory of inhertitance was further studied by a group of scientists.
Their ideas supporting Lamarcks opinion collectively constitute neo-Lamarckism.
The neo-Lamarckians were of the opinion that adaptions are universal in nature.
An adaptation happens through causal relationship of structure, function and environment.
Due to changes in the environment, habits and life style of organism gets altered.
Thus gradually the organism acquires new structures.
The newly obtained character gradually becomes an inheritable trait.
This opinion and argument is a modified form of Lamarckism.
These ideas stressed direct action of environment on organisms.
Support to neo-Lamarckian concept - Experiments
McDougall Experiment
McDougall (1938) tried to prove that learning is an acquired character that can be inherited.
He did his experiments on rats.
He deviced a T shaped tank.
The tank had two exits.
One exit was well lighted. However at the terminal region of the exit he deviced an arrangement for giving
electrical shock.
The pathway to the other exit was kept dark. At the terminal exit point a small piece of cheese was kept as a
reward.
McDougall dropped several rats into the tank. Many of the rats preferred lighted pathway to escape and at the exit
they received electric shock. Those rats, that preferred dark pathway received the cheese.
He repeated the trial several times. Gradually many rats learnt the correct route for escape. Subsequently the
rats were allowed to breed and the next generation developed.
The same experiment was repeated in the second generation.
According to Mc Dougall, it was claimed that the number of mistakes committed, gradually got reduced.
The speed of learning increased from generation to generation.
Thus he concluded that learning is an acquired character.
However later workers found some technical mistakes in the work of Mc Dougall.
The same experiment while repeated in other laboratories failed to give similar results.
F.B.Sumner Experiment
Temperature related changes in the body of mice was noted by F.B.Sumner (1910).
He reared one set of white mice in warmer temperature (20 - 300c) and another set in cold conditions.
He found that in warmer conditions the mice developed larger ears and longer tails.
He further claimed that these characters were inherited.
Through similar works claim for inheritance of acquired characters were made by Lindsey, Guyer and Smith and
Kammerer.
In all these works while repeating, critics have found technical mistakes and rejected them outright.
However, the controversy over inheritance of acquired characters still continues.
This theory of Lamarck while has not been disproved totally,it remains to be proved correct.
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8. What are the objections to Darwinism.|S-07 |

While the ideas of Darwin, related to reproductive capability,prevalence of variations, concept of struggle and
survival of suitable forms are all commonly accepted, there are certain drawbacks in his original theory.
1. Darwin could not explain, the origin and cause for variations while insisting their importance in progressive
evolution.
2. He overemphasized the importance of the fittest organisms. During later periods it has been suggested that fit
and fitter forms can also exist along with the fittest.
3. As the principle of inheritance as explained in the later years were not available during Darwins time. Hence he
believed in the theory of pangenesis. According to this concept from every organ in the body very minute such
replicate structures will orginate. Later they are transferred to the gonads for transmission to future generations.
4. Over-specialization as in Irish deer and its consequent harmful effect on animals had not been accounted for by
Darwin.
9.Describe the Polymorphism?|J-13,J-15|
It is the the existence in a natural population of two or more alleles in frequencies too large to be explained by
recurrent mutation.
Thus a polymorphic population will have several alleles of a gene as a permanent feature of the species.
The varied alleles are favoured and maintained in the population by genetical mechanisms.
A classical example for such a polymorphism could be the existence of a genetic disorder in humans, namely
sickle-cell anaemia.
This disease reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and affects blood supply to various organs.
This disorder is inherited as a Mendelian recessive.
It is more frequent among American blacks than American whites.
In spite of its harmful nature the allelic gene responsible for the disorder is maintained in the black population.
According to the work of Allison (1955, 61) it was shown that in Africa the same allelic gene conferred an
advantage, that is it protected the inheritors of such gene from malaria.
Thus the connection between sickle-cell anaemia and malaria was estabilished.
Hence selection has encouraged the existence of such a polymorphic allele in the population.
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10.Explain chromosomal aberrations. |M-12|

During the process of meiosis one or more chromosomes may break.
Such broken fragments of chromosomes may be subjected to several modified organizations :
a) Deletion
A small broken fragment may become lost
b) Translocation
The broken fragment may become attached to the end of another chromosome
c) Inversion
The fragment may become turned around and rejoin the chromosome.
d)Duplication
they may become inserted into another chromosome
All the above mentioned changes may alter the genomes of gametes.
Sometimes a pair of homologous chromosomes may fail to separate in meiosis.
It will result in gametes with one chromosome less or one chromosome more, than normal.
The progeny formed from such gametes are called polysomics.
They will have fewer or more chromosomes than normal.
In certain cases, whole set of homologous chromosomes do not separate in meiosis.
It results in diploid gametes.
Fusion of such gametes with a normal haploid gamete gives rise to progeny with a triploid chromosome number.
This condition is called polyploidy.
It is commonly observed in plants.
Polyploids are usually more vigorous. Such forms can give rise to new species.
While recombinations provide regular variations, mutations enrich such variations.
Phenomena such as chromosomal abberrations, polysomics and polyploidy while, found advantageous to the
organisms, provide new directions for speciation and further evolution.
11.List out the Objections to Darwinism and write any two Neo-Darwinians Name.|M-15|
Objections to Darwinism
While the ideas of Darwin, related to reproductive capability, prevalence of variations, concept of struggle and
survival of suitable forms are all commonly accepted, there are certain drawbacks in his original theory.
1. Darwin could not explain, the origin and cause for variations while insisting
their importance in progressive evolution.
2. He overemphasized the importance of the fittest organisms. During later
periods it has been suggested that fit and fitter forms can also exist along with the fittest.
3. As the principle of inheritance as explained in the later years were not
available during Darwins time. Hence he believed in the theory of pangenesis. According to this concept from
every organ in the body very minute such replicate structures will orginate. Later they are transferred to
the gonads for transmission to future generations.
4. Over-specialization as in Irish deer and its consequent harmful effect on
animals had not been accounted for by Darwin.
240
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HIGHER SECONDARY - SECOND YEAR

GOVT QUESTION PAPERS INCLUDED

BIOLOGY - 5 MARK QUESTION & ANSWER

CELL BIOLOGY AND GENETICS

BIOLOGY IN HUMAN WELFARE

4. Discuss the outline of Bentham and Hooker's classification of plants. | S-07,S-08 |

5. Write the economic importance of members of Malvaceae. | M-08,J-09 |

Fibres from the

Cotton fibres of commercial

The tender fruit

making boat, furniture and

Root and leaves

used against fever.

6. Write any five salient features of ICBN. | M-09,M-11,M-13,S-14,M-15 |

Phyllanthus emblica (Gooseberry)

Jatropha curcas (Kattamanakku)

entire shoot system

entire shoot system

8. Give an account of the economic importance of the family Musacae. | J-11|

Musa chinensis (Dwarf banana)

Green bananas, the

cooked and eaten as

fibres obtained from

woven into Abaca cloth and

entire shoot system

entire shoot system

entire shoot system

9. Give an account of the economic importance of the family Solanaceae. | S-12 |

for relieving muscular pain.

commercial tobaccos such

entire shoot system

grown in gardens for their

10. Write the differences between Musa and Ravenala. | S-13 |

11. Define Bio systematics. Briefly write a note on it. | J-13 |

2. Explain the structure of sieve elements. | S-06, M-07, M-11,J-13 |

Sieve elements are the conducting elements of the phloem.

Based on its position, the meristem is divided into three types

5. Write short notes on vessels. | M-10 |

Vessels are perforated at the end walls.

7. Describe the structure of vascular bundles in Monocot stem. | S-10 |

Vascular bundles are scattered in the parenchymatous ground tissue.

The vascular bundles consist of xylem, phloem and cambium.

10. Explain the types of conjoint vascular bundle. | M-15 |

11. Write short notes on Tracheids. | M-12 |

Tracheids are elongated with blunt ends.

VASCULAR BUNDLES IN DICOT STEM

VASCULAR BUNDLES IN MONOCOT STEM

VASCULAR BUNDLES IN DICOT STEM

Bundle cap is present.

VASCULAR BUNDLES IN MONOCOT STEM

The gene mutation may be caused by loss or deletion of a nucleotide pair.

Addition of one or more nucleotides into a gene results in addition mutation.

6. Give an account of mutagenic agents. | S-07,M-13 |

8. Explain allo polyploidy with an example. | J-08 |

9. Write a note on t-RNA with diagram. | | S-08, J-10, M-11,S-12 |

10. Explain Frederick Griffith experiment in Diplococcus pneumoniae. | S-09 |

12. Explain the coupling aspect in Lathyrus odaratus. | J-14 |

It contains five carbon sugar ribose

14. Write the flow chart of ploidy. | S-14 |

4. How are foreign genes introduces into plants? | M-07 |

6. How is DNA cut? | S-07, M-09, S-10 |

All bacteria produce atleast one type of restriction enzymes.

ACTION OF RESTRICTION ENZYME: