Reinhardt Methodology

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AN ANALYSIS, CLARIFICATION, AND REVALUATION OF

DONALD REINHARDTS PIVOT SYSTEM FOR BRASS INSTRUMENTS
by
David Ray Turnbull
A Research Paper Presented in Partial Fulfillment

o f the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor o f Musical Arts
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY

May 2001
UMI Number: 3001298
___
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AN ANALYSIS, CLARIFICATION, AND REVALUATION OF

DONALD REINHARDTS PIVOT SYSTEM FOR BRASS INSTRUMENTS
by
David Ray Turnbull
has been approved

March 2001
. Chair
u
Supervisory Committee
ACCEPTED:
D ^ ^ S th e
-u <
Dean, Graduate College^ \
ABSTRACT
Donald Reinhardt discovered and cataloged different brass embouchure types and
established the correlation o f these types to different dental structures. He published the
results o f his research in Donald S. Reinhardts Pivot System for Trumpet in 1942 and The
Encyclopedia o f the Pivot System in 1973.
Two problems are evident with Reinhardts published research. The first problem
arises with his attempt to describe a phenomenon that takes place at a brass players
embouchurespecifically, the embouchure mechanics involved in ascending and
descending on a brass instrument. He coined the term pivot, which led to many
misconceptions and misunderstandings, and frequently resulted in a dismissal o f
Reinhardts system and a general disregard for his research-including his valuable
embouchure classifications. A solution to the problem with pivot is the substitution o f
the term track, a much more accurate term. The central incisors o f both the top and
bottom teeth form a type o f track, and it is on this track that the vertical pushing and
pulling o f the lips and mouthpiece occur as a unit.
The second problem with Reinhardts work has to do with the organization o f his
diagrams o f basic dental structures and the mouthpiece placements associated with each.
DonaldS. Reinhardt's Pivot System fo r Trumpet contains diagrams that depict various
aspects o f the different embouchure classifications, but cross-referencing is necessary and
sometimes difficult for the reader. Reinhardts lengthy second work, The Encyclopedia o f
the Pivot System, has a thorough text, but the diagrams lack the size and detail needed for
full comprehension.
iii
The present study provides a solution to these problems by providing detailed

photographs o f the predominant dental structures and o f actual trumpet players exhibiting
different embouchure types. The photographs clarify Reinhardts work and provide new
insights into understanding the brass embouchure. They illustrate that dental bite generally
affects mouthpiece placement but does not necessarily affect tracking. When coupled with
related research, the photographs show that the position o f the central and lateral incisors
affects both mouthpiece placement and tracking.
IV
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I will forever be in debt to my wife Marsha, for without her support, I would not
have been able to accomplish any o f this. Special thanks go to my good friend Rene
Bernard. His willingness to answer so many questions about Reinhardt was invaluable.
Thanks go to Elmer Krai, Christopher von Baeyer and Louise Barber. They were
extremely helpful when it came to advice on style and content. Thanks also goes to the
following ASU faculty members: Richard Strange, J. Samuel Pilafian, Daniel Perantoni,
Robert Spring, James DeMars, and Jerry Doan. I will always remember Gail Eugene
Wilson for his special help. Finally, I would like to extend a very special thanks to David
R. Hickman for helping me bring many o f my hopes and aspirations to fruition.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF FIGURES............................................................................................................ viii
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................
Background......................................................................................
Statement o f Purpose......................................................................
Rationale for the Study....................................................................
Questions to be Answered...............................................................
Limitations.......................................................................................
11
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE.................................................
12
Introduction.....................................................................................
12
Use o f Photography to Study Brass Embouchures.......................
13
Use o f Electromyography to Study Brass Embouchures..............
19
The Instrumentalist: Brass Anthology............................................
20
Central and Lateral Incisors Related to Embouchure....................
22
Summary o f Literature Review.......................................................
25
PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE DIFFERENT EMBOUCHURE TYPES
27
Research Procedures.......................................................................
27
Types I and IA .................................................................................
28
Types II and HA...............................................................................
37
Types HI, IIIA and LLJLB...................................................................
46
Types IV and IVA...............................
59
vi
CHAPTER
4
Page
SUMMARY....................................................................................................
68
Upstream and Downstream Embouchures......................................
68
Oddity o f Type IV and IVA Embouchures.....................................
70
Tracking and Mouthpiece Placement..............................................
72
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY..........................................................................................
76
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
L Front View o f a Type I Dental Structure (Even B ite).........................................
29
2. Right View o f a Type I Dental Structure (Even Bite).........................................
29
3. Left View o f a Type I Dental Structure (Even B ite)............................................
29
4.
View of a Type I Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors).....................................
30
5.
View of a Type I Dental Structure (Mandible Incisors)......................................
30
6.
View o f the Mouthpiece Placement o f a Downstream, Type I Embouchure
30
7.
View o f a Type I Embouchure Playing C4 (Concert B-flat 3)...........................
31
8. View o f a Type I Embouchure Playing C5 (Concert B-flat 4 )............................
31
9. View of a Type I Embouchure Playing C6 (Concert B-flat 5)............................
31
10. Front View of a Type LA. Dental Structure (Even B ite)......................................
33
11. Right View of a Type LA Dental Structure (Even B ite)......................................
33
12. Left View of a Type LA Dental Structure (Even B ite)........................................
33
13.
View of a Type LA Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors).................................
34
14.
View of a Type LA Dental Structure (Mandible Incisors)..................................
34
15.
View o f the Mouthpiece Placement of an Upstream, Type IA Embouchure
34
16.
View of a Type LA Embouchure Playing C 4 ......................................................
35
17.
View of a Type LA Embouchure Playing C 5......................................................
35
18.
View of a Type LA Embouchure Playing C 6......................................................
35
19.
Front View o f a Type LI Dental Structure (Underbite).......................................
38
20.
Right View of a Type II Dental Structure (Underbite)......................................
38
viii
Figure
Page
21. Left View o f a Type II Dental Structure (Underbite)..........................................
38
22.
View o f a Type II Dental Structure (MaxillaryIncisors).....................................
39
23.
View o f a Type II Dental Structure (Mandible Incisors)....................................
39
24.
View o f the Mouthpiece Placement o f an Upstream, TypeII Embouchure
39
25.
View o f a Type II Embouchure Playing C 4.........................................................
40
26.
View of a Type II Embouchure Playing C 5.........................................................
40
27.
View of a Type II Embouchure Playing C 6.........................................................
40
28.
Front View o f a Type DA Dental Structure (Underbite)....................................
42
29.
Right View o f a Type HA. Dental Structure (Underbite)....................................
42
30.
Left View o f a Type HA. Dental Structure (Underbite)......................................
42
31.
View of a Type DA Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors)................................
43
32.
View of a Type DA Dental Structure (Mandible Incisors).................................
43
33.
View of the Mouthpiece Placement of an Upstream, TypeDA Embouchure....
43
34.
View of a Type DA Embouchure Playing C 4 .....................................................
44
35.
View of a Type DA Embouchure Playing C 5.....................................................
44
36.
View o f a Type DA Embouchure Playing C 6.....................................................
44
37.
Front View o f a Type ID Dental Structure (Overbite).......................................
47
38.
Right View o f a Type ID Dental Structure (Overbite).......................................
47
39.
Left View o f a Type ID Dental Structure (Overbite)..........................................
47
40.
View of a Type ED Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors)..................................
48
41.
View of a Type ED Dental Structure (Mandible Incisors).................................
48
ix
Figure
Page
42. View o f the Mouthpiece Placement o f a Downstream, Type IH Embouchure..
48
43.
View o f a Type III Embouchure Playing C4........................................................
49
44.
View o f a Type III Embouchure Playing C5........................................................
49
45.
View o f a Type IH Embouchure Playing C6........................................................
49
46.
Front View of a Type 1HA Dental Structure (Overbite)........................................
51
47.
Right View o f a Type IDA Dental Structure (Overbite).......................................
51
48. Left View o f a Type IDA Dental Structure (Overbite)...........................................
51
49.
View o f a Type IDA Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors).................................
52
50.
View o f a Type EIA Dental Structure (Mandible Incisors).................................
52
51.
View of the Mouthpiece Placement o f a Downstream, Type HIA

Embouchure.........................................................................................................
52
52.
View of a Type IDA Embouchure Playing C4......................................................
53
53.
View o f a Type IDA Embouchure Playing C 5......................................................
53
54.
View o f a Type IDA Embouchure Playing C6......................................................
53
55.
Front View o f a Type DTB Dental Structure (Overbite)........................................
55
56.
Right View o f a Type DIB Dental Structure (Overbite)........................................
55
57.
Left View o f a Type 111B Dental Structure (Overbite)..........................................
55
58.
View o f a Type DTB Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors).................................
56
59.
View of a Type DIB Dental Structure (Mandible Incisors)..................................
56
60.
View of the Mouthpiece Placement o f a Downstream, Type DIB

Embouchure.........................................................................................................
56
View of a Type DIB Embouchure Playing C 4.....................................................
57
61.
Figure
Page
62.
View of a Type IIIB Embouchure Playing C 5 .....................................................
57
63.
View of a Type IDB Embouchure Playing C 6.....................................................
57
64.
Front View o f a Type IV Dental Structure (Overbite).........................................
60
65.
Right View o f a Type IV Dental Structure (Overbite).........................................
60
66.
Left View of a Type IV Dental Structure (Overbite)..........................................
60
67.
View of a Type IV Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors)..................................
61
68.
View of a Type IV Dental Structure (Mandible Incisors)...................................
61
69.
View of the Mouthpiece Placement o f an Upstream, Type IVEmbouchure
61
70.
View of a Type IV Embouchure Playing C 4 ........................................................
62
71.
View of a Type IV Embouchure Playing C 5 .......................................................
62
72.
View of a Type IV Embouchure Playing C 6 .......................................................
62
73.
Front View of a Type IVA Dental Structure (Overbite).....................................
64
74.
Right View of a Type IVA Dental Structure (Overbite).....................................
64
75.
Left View of a Type IVA Dental Structure (Overbite).......................................
64
76.
View of a Type IVA Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors)................................
65
77.
View of a Type IVA Dental Structure (Mandible Incisors)................................
65
78.
View of the Mouthpiece Placement of an Upstream, Type IVA Embouchure..
65
79.
View o f a Type IVA Embouchure Playing C4.....................................................
66
80.
View of a Type IVA Embouchure Playing C5.....................................................
66
81.
View of a Type IVA Embouchure Playing C6.....................................................
66
82.
Left View of a Type IV Dental Structure (Overbite)............................................
xi
71
Figure
Page
83.
View of the Mouthpiece Placement o f an Upstream, Type IV Embouchure
71
84.
View of a Type IVA Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors)...............................
72
85.
View of the Mouthpiece Placement o f an Upstream, Type IVA Embouchure.. 72
86.
View of a Type DA Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors)................................
87.
View of the Mouthpiece Placement o f an Upstream, Type HA Embouchure.... 74
xii
73
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background
In the field of brass pedagogy, the subject of the players embouchure continues to
be a source of debate and confusion, so much so that, according to Roger Dane* Theories
on positioning the embouchure are very inconsistent. The complex nature of this subject
causes some teachers to refrain from an educational discussion of the matter.1
Differences of opinion on mouthpiece placement are also abundant, as the
following two contradictory examples illustrate. Bailey and others state that:
Unfortunately, there is no magic spot on the lips to place the mouthpiece. The
mouthpiece should be centered over the aperture.. . . For most, this is directly centered on
the lips both vertically and horizontally. The mouthpiece should be placed so that equal
amounts fall on both the upper and lower lips.2 However, Zom insists that: . . . the
inside rim o f every brass-instrument mouthpiece is placed on the players lower lip
line.. . . The amount of upper lip encompassed by the rest of the mouthpiece will vary
with both players and mouthpieces.3
1 Roger Dane, Theories on Embouchure and Breathing: An Analytical Investigation into the
Functions for Sound Production on the Trumpet (Masters th., University of Louisville, 1983), 4.
- Wayne Bailey and others, Teaching Brass: A Resource Manual (New York: McGraw-Hill,
1992), 25.
3 Jay Zom, Brass Ensemble Methods (San Francisco: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1995), 4.
2
Other sources o f informatiom on the subject o f mouthpiece placement make safe
generalizations. Keith Johnson says that: as a general observation, most trumpet players
appear to use slightly less upper thain lower lip, although there are certainly some veiy
successful exceptions to this.4
Yet the common sense appnoach to the discussion o f mouthpiece placement is the
one that considers the differing physical properties o f each individual. This single factor
accounts for a vast number o f differ-ences. Charles Colin concludes that: . . . wherever the
mouthpiece feels most comfortable. and the lips vibrate most freely,. . . is the correct
placement. Lip formations o f every player are as different as the individual. . . . Therefore
it is obviously foolish to say that th e best placement is half and half.5 Finally, Rafael
Mendez, among the greatest o f trunnpet players o f the twentieth century, seems to agree.
In Prelude to Brass Playing he conltributes to the common sense approach:
As to the amount of'mouthpiece on each lip, there can be no hard-and-fast
rule. One player will get his best results from half on each lip; one will find that
more mouthpiece on the upper lip suits him; another will use more on the lower
lip. It is important that you adopt a position that is natural to you. This will be
determined largely by the shiape o f your mouth and teeth.6
Although the shape o f the imouth and teeth (the dental structure) determines the
natural placement o f the mouthpiecee, only two significant sources o f information on this
subject exist: one is by William A. Fsfund, currently on faculty at the University o f
Northern Colorado-Greeley; the otbier is by the late Donald S. Reinhardt. Pfunds research
4 Keith Johnson, The Art ofTrurmpet Playing (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1981), 64.
5 Charles Colin, Vital Brass Not&s (New York: Charles Colin, 1967), 7.
6 Rafael Mendez, Prelude to Brazss Playing (Boston: Carl Fischer, 1961), 35.
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
3
deals primarily with mouthpiece placement and its relationship to the position o f the
maxillary incisors, while Reinhardts research classifies mouthpiece placement and its
relationship to dental bite.
Reinhardts work is the more compelling. In the opinion o f many, the foremost
authority on the subject o f brass instrument embouchures was Donald Reinhardt (d.
1989), a highly respected trombone player and brass pedagogue. For nearly fifty years
hundreds o f professional brass players sought his insight and instruction. Reinhardt was
one o f the first to discover upstream and downstream embouchures (i.e., air splashes in
the cup above or below the throat o f the mouthpiece respectively).7 He also discovered
and cataloged different brass embouchure types and the correlation o f these types to
different dental structures, published in his books Donald S. Reinhardts Pivot System fo r
Trumpet: A Complete Manual with Studies (1942) and The Encyclopedia o f the Pivot
System fo r all Cupped Mouthpiece Brass Instruments: A Scientific Text (1973). In both
books he documents four basic dental structures and the mouthpiece placements
associated with each.
Two problems are evident with the presentation o f Reinhardts research in his
books. The first problem arises with Reinhardts attempt to describe a phenomenon that
takes place at a brass players embouchurespecifically, the embouchure mechanics
7 Rene Bernard, long a student of Reinhardts, demonstrated this phenomenon at a clinic. Several
trumpet students performed using a transparent mouthpiece. The air and saliva o f downstream players
exited the aperture, splashed into the cup of the mouthpiece below the throat, and spiraled
counterclockwise around the cup into the throat o f the mouthpiece. The air and saliva o f the upstream
player exited the aperture, splashed into the cup o f the mouthpiece above the throat, and also spiraled
counterclockwise around the cup into the throat (Rene Bernard, Trumpet Clinic, University of Kansas,
March 11, 1991).
4
involved in ascending and descending on a brass instrument. He coined the term pivot,
but it is a poor choice because it does not accurately describe this natural event. The term
has led, instead, to many misconceptions and misunderstandings, one o f which is tilting the
instrument down to ascend and up to descend. Attempts to apply such a misguided
technique have been counterproductive, and have resulted in a general rejection o f
Reinhardts system and a virtual disregard for his researchincluding his valuable
embouchure classifications.
The second problem has to do with his diagrams o f basic dental structures and the
mouthpiece placements associated with each. Donald S. Reinhardt's Pivot System fo r
Trumpet contains diagrams that depict various aspects o f the different embouchure
classifications, but cross-referencing is necessary and sometimes difficult for the reader.8
Reinhardts lengthy second work, The Encyclopedia o f the Pivot System, has a thorough
text, but the diagrams lack the size and detail needed for full comprehension.9
As stated above, many brass players have the idea that the term pivot refers to
the mechanical tilting or tipping o f the instrument to change registers, a reasonable
perception. Pivot is defined as . . . the action [underline added] o f turning about,
oscillating, or balancing on or as if on a pivot.10 When playing a brass instrument tilting
or tipping the instrument in this manner increases the pressure on one lip while decreasing
8 Donald S. Reinhardt, Donald S. Reinhardts Pivot System fo r Trumpet: A Complete Manual

with Studies (Bryn Mawr: Elkan-Vogel, Inc., 1942), 8-11.
9 Donald S. Reinhardt, The Encyclopedia o f the Pivot System fo r all Cupped Mouthpiece Brass
Instruments: A Scientific Text, aug. ver. (New York: Charles Colin, 1973), 202-203.
10 Websters Third New International Dictionary, 1993 ed., s.v. pivot.
5
the pressure on the other. But because this destroys the hermetic seal and produces
embouchure problems, most players avoid such a maneuver.
Roger Danes thesis illustrates this misinterpretation well. He states that:
Another theory is the system of pivoting the mouthpiece in different
registers. This pivot system was popularized by Donald Reinhardt and is
personalized with a system of categorizing types of dento-facial [s/c] groupings.
Basically it is a tilting of the horn downward in the upper range to lessen the
pressure on the top lips [sic] and vice versa. This system is indeed controversial
and Delbert Dale . . . expressed gratitude for the short life o f the pivot system.11
In his thesis, Charles L. Isley, Jr. similarly misinterprets the pivot:
A great many brasswind teachers subscribe to a pivoting of the mouthpiece
while changing registers in playing. Outwardly, this method would appear to be a
change of mouthpiece angle. Actually, the pivot accompanies a movement of the
jaw, and is necessary to maintain the ninety degree angle of the mouthpiece as
described above.1"
Dane and Isley both interpreted pivot as a tilting or tipping of the instrument.
Reinhardt, however, intended pivot to mean a vertical movement of the mouthpiece and
lips on the face of the front teeth:
The PIVOT [sic] pulls or pushes the performers lips into the path of the
air column, so that the air column will cause the lips to vibrate over the entire
range of the instrument.. . . The PIVOT is controlled by pulling down or pushing
up the lips on the teeth with the rim of the mouthpiece. The outer embouchure and
the mouthpiece move vertically (some with slight deviations to one side or the
other) as one combined unit on the invisible vertical track of the inner
embouchure; however, the position of the mouthpiece on the outer embouchure
must not be altered in any way.13
11 Dane, Theories on Embouchure and Breathing, 33.

12 Charles L. Isley, Jr., A Theory o f Brasswind Embouchure Based Upon Facial Anatomy,
Electromyographic Kinesiology, and Brasswind Embouchure Pedagogy (Doctoral diss., North Texas State
University, 1972), 89.
13 Reinhardt, The Encyclopedia of the Pivot System, 193-194.
6
Another common misconception (not attributed to Reinhardts work) is the notion
that all brass players pivot down to ascend and up to descend. Wayne Bailey
erroneously asserts that the mouthpiece and trumpet should pivot down slightly when
ascending in range and pivot up when descending.14 A. Keith Amstutz makes the same
assertion in his dissertation: In the commonly held theories about instrument pivot, the
angle between the face o f the mouthpiece and the line determined by the lower teeth and
the tip o f the mandible increases as the pitch ascends and decreases as the pitch
descends.15
Bailey and Amstutz advocate a downward motion to ascend and an upward
motion to descend. (It is interesting that Amstutz fails to resolve an unanticipated problem
when he discovers that the instrument pivot o f subject 9 in his study was the reverse o f the
anticipated tendency.)16 But Reinhardt himself states that while many brass players pivot
down to ascend, some individuals pivot up to ascend.
It is obvious to see that the use o f the term pivot is a problem. Rene Bernard
describes a moment late in Reinhardts life when the teacher admitted the need for a
different term: Reinhardt stated that the use o f the word pivot was one o f the worst
mistakes he had ever made. It did not accurately describe the phenomenon that was taking
place.17
14 Bailey and others, Teaching Brass, 25.

15 A. Keith Amstutz, A Videojluorographic Study o f the Teeth Aperture, Instrument Pivot and
Tongue Arch and Their Influence on Trumpet Performance (Doctoral diss., University o f Oklahoma,
1970), 29.
16 Amstutz, A Videofluorographic Study, 41.
17 Rene Bernard, interview by author, 16 April 1991, Olathe, KS.
7
One solution to the problem with pivot is the use o f the term track, a much
more accurate term. The central incisors o f both the top and bottom teeth form a type o f
track, and it is on this track that the vertical pushing and pulling o f the lips and mouthpiece
as a unit occur. To make this effective . . . an adequate mouthpiece pressure must be
employed against the lips to provide the all-essential grip.. . . the position o f the
mouthpiece on the outer embouchure must not slide or change and permit multiple
embouchures to form.18 Some individuals track down when ascending while others
track up when ascending; therefore, two distinct tracking classifications exist.
Throughout the rest o f this document, the term track will replace the term pivot. The
use o f this new term should help eliminate misconceptions and misunderstandings, and
reverse the general disregard for Reinhardts research, most importantly the embouchure
classifications.
Donald S. Reinhardt's Pivot System fo r Trumpet contains three sets o f diagrams:
the first illustrates four classifications o f dental structures, the second shows the difference
in direction o f the airstream between upstream and downstream players, and the third
displays what he calls the playing base or foundation o f upstream and downstream
players.19 However, the reader has to compare and contrast the three sets o f diagrams and
can easily become confused by the task o f cross-referencing necessary to identify
individual type classification. In 1973, Reinhardt sought to rectify this problem by
18 Reinhardt, The Encyclopedia o f the Pivot System, 194.

19 Reinhardt, Donald S. Reinhardts Pivot System fo r Trumpet, 8-11.
combining the three sets o f diagrams into one composite set. In The Encyclopedia o f the
Pivot System, Reinhardt depicts the nine different embouchure types (four standard types
and five subtypes). In this later text, the ability to determine standard type classifications is
easier than in the first volume, but determining the subtype is still difficult, largely due to
diagrams that are hand-drawn and too small.20
Statement o f Purpose
This study proposes a solution to the lack o f clarity in Reinhardts work by
providing detailed photographs o f the predominant dental structures and o f actual trumpet
players exhibiting different embouchure types. Three sets o f photographs are necessary.
With the aid o f lip retractors, the one set captures the dental bite o f each individual (i.e.,
overbite, underbite, or even bite); with the aid o f an embouchure visualizer, the second set
illustrates the mouthpiece placement o f each individual; and finally, the third set
demonstrates the tracking used by each individual. Controlled photographic
documentation was accomplished by taking three separate photographs o f each individual
playing the concert pitches o f B-flat 3, B-flat 4, and B-flat 5 on his or her instrument.
20 Reinhardt, The Encyclopedia o f the Pivot System, 202-203.
9
Rationale for the Study
Reviving and bolstering Reinhardts discovery and documentation o f different
brass embouchures is important for the purpose o f aiding teachers and students.
Furthermore, detailed photographs o f trumpet players exhibiting different embouchure
classifications should be useful as a guide for the beginning student andi as an instructional
aid for students suffering embouchure problems. Instrumental music teachers often try to
initiate trumpet instruction with a mouthpiece placement using one-thirsd top lip and twothirds bottom lip. While this is beneficial for some, it leads to failure fo r others.
Photographs illustrating the different embouchure classifications should help instructors
find a more accurate mouthpiece placement for each student based on individual dental
bite.
Students with embouchure problems should benefit from the derailed illustrations
o f the different embouchure types because the photographs can aid the student in
determining if he or she needs an embouchure change. In many instances, a lack o f air
support is misinterpreted as an embouchure problem. However, if the sfrudent does need to
modify mouthpiece placement, the photographs should help determine tthe most
appropriate position based on dental bite.
Questions to be Answered
This study addresses three specific questions. First, why do individuals with
perfectly even dental bites use an extreme mouthpiece placement? Second, why do some
10
embouchure types track up when ascending while others track down? Third, why do many
individuals track at an angle?
The first question concerns Reinhardts discovery that successful players with an
even dental bite use a lip ratio o f 85 to 15 percent. According to Bernard, less than six
percent o f the population have this kind o f dental structure.21 Reinhardt states that these
people are rare in that they possess perfectly even teeth, upper and lower, meeting flush
when the lower jaw is in its natural position.. . . The oddity. . . is the feet that they must
either place their mouthpieces very high on their upper lips (Type I), or very low on their
lower lips (Type IA). It seems that anything resembling a half and half placement never
works out for either o f these types.. . .22 What possible reason is there for this?
The second question concerns Reinhardts discovery that some embouchure types
track up when ascending while others track down when ascending. At first, one might
guess that this oddity has to do with whether the individual is an upstream or downstream
player. This, however, is not the case. After examining Reinhardts research carefully, it
becomes apparent that some downstream players use tracking classification one while
others use tracking classification two. Upstream players use only tracking classification
two. Specifically, Reinhardt concluded the follo wing classifications:
PIVOT [TRACKING] CLASSIFICATION ONE
This is the performer who while ascending pushes his lips up to a slightly higher
position on his teeth (toward his nose) with the rim o f the mouthpiece, and while
descending pulls his lips to a slightly lower position on his teeth (toward his chin)
with the rim o f the mouthpiece.
21 Bernard, interview by author.

11
PIVOT rTRACKINGl CLASSIFICATION TWO

This is the player who while ascending pulls his lips down to a slightly lower
position on his teeth (toward his chin) with the rim o f the mouthpiece, and while
descending pushes his lips to a slightly higher position on his teeth (toward his
nose) with the rim o f the mouthpiece.23
A third question regards tracking at an angle. According to Rene Bernard,
Reinhardt found that most brass players do not track in a perfectly vertical motion, but at
a slight angle: A typical example is for a trumpet player to track down and slightly to the
right while moving the lower jaw a little to the left.24 Why isnt tracking a perfectly
vertical motion?
Limitations
This study is limited to the clarification and enhancement o f Reinhardts research,
specifically, his discernment o f the different embouchure classifications and their relation
to different dental structures. Any discussion concerning the manipulation o f dental
structure as an enhancement to trumpet performance is beyond the scope o f this
dissertation. Therefore, any discussion o f orthodontics, removables, bonding, the removal
o f wisdom teeth, plaster casts, or reconstructions is not included.

24 Bernard, interview by author.
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Introduction
Sources containing information on the brass embouchure are so numerous that an
attempt to review all o f it would be overwhelming and unnecessary for the purposes o f
this dissertation. Therefore, the field has been narrowed to include books, articles, and
dissertations that (1) use some type o f photography to study the brass embouchure, (2)
discuss or address the mechanics o f the embouchure (i.e., tracking or pivot), and/or (3)
discuss or address mouthpiece placement in relation to dental structure.
Surprisingly, a fair amount o f literature using photography exists. Still pictures and
videotape are used the majority o f the time, while the use o f X-rays is limited to only a few
o f the studies. Electromyography (a process that measures muscle use) was used in several
studies to observe mechanics. Worth mentioning are three articles published by The
Instrumentalist', like most o f the literature mentioned, they address more than just one o f
the three aspects o f embouchure. An intriguing set o f studies exists concerning the
position o f the central and lateral incisors and their relation to mouthpiece placement. This
particular set o f studies is exciting in that, when coupled with Reinhardts research, it
provides totally new insights into the mechanics o f the brass embouchure.
13
The Use o f Photography to Study Brass Embouchures
Philip Farkas, former Principal Horn with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, was
one o f the first to use photography to study the embouchure. Farkas published two books
on the subject, The Art o f Brass Playing (1962) and A Photographic Study o f 40 Virtuoso
Horn Players Embouchures (1970). The Art o f Brass Playing is a treatise on the
formation and use o f the brass players embouchure and is probably one o f the most wellknown books on the subject. It contains specific information on embouchure function,
mouthpiece placement, and lip aperture. Farkas provides photographs o f the embouchures
o f the entire brass section o f the Chicago Symphony Orchestra [CSO], Three photographs
o f each player are included, one o f which shows the position o f the mouthpiece on the lips
through an embouchure visualizer; the other two show the player playing the instrument.
Embouchure mechanics are discussed with an emphasis on formation, advocating a smile
and pucker. No discussion o f tracking takes place.25
One section o f the book discusses mouthpiece placement with a division into
subsections for each member o f the brass family. Farkas notes that the best position o f the
trumpet mouthpiece is one-third upper lip and two-thirds lower lip based upon . . . the
rule o f the best known trumpet teachers, who include . . . Arban, St. Jacome, Vincent
Bach and Max Scholssberg.26 When reviewing the photographs o f the CSO trumpet
section, one discovers that two o f the four trumpet players use more top lip in the
25 Philip Farkas, The A rt o f Brass Playing (Bloomington: Brass Publications, 1962).

26 Farkas, The Art o f Brass Playing, 33.
14
mouthpiece than bottom. Farkas does not account for this, and no correlation is drawn
between the players dental structure and the position o f the mouthpiece.
In A Photographic Study o f 40 Virtuoso Horn Players Embouchures Farkas
provides the reader with 120 photographs o f 40 different professional hom players
embouchures. This book, while limited only to the depiction o f the hom embouchure, is
much more valuable to the understanding o f embouchure mechanics. Each player was
asked to play the written pitches C6, C5, and C3. The player was then asked to produce
the same pitches on an embouchure visualizer for photographing. The direction o f the
airstream is carefully indicated by an arrow, which consistently shows the airstream
directed towards the throat o f the mouthpiece for the low register and towards the rim o f
the mouthpiece for the upper register. One subject o f the study worth noting exhibits an
upstream embouchure with a lip ratio o f 15% top and 85% bottom.27
The illustrations in this second book by Farkas help prove that the airstream
splashes into different areas o f the cup for different registers o f the instrument, as
theorized by Reinhardt:
In order to assist in the creation o f the fester, tenser lip vibrations for the
production o f the upper register, the air stream strikes just short o f the lower
mouthpiece rim. Conversely, the slower, less tense lip vibrations for the production
o f the lower register are assisted by the air stream striking just short o f the throat
(hole) o f the mouthpiece. Thus the striking area for the air stream follows the
contour o f the mouthpiece cup, toward the rim to ascend and toward the throat to
descend.28
27 Philip Farkas, A Photographic Study o f 40 Virtuoso H om Players Embouchures

(Bloomington: Wind Music Inc., 1970), 10-11.
15
Farkas does not make any correlation between the players dental structure and the
position o f the mouthpiece. He does admit that . . . there is no one correct, set way in
which a hom player must form his embouchure.. . . There are as many different
embouchures as there are players.29
Another o f the early studies to use photography to study the brass embouchure is
by John Haynie. Haynie made the first attempts at using an image intensifier
(fluoroscope) attached to an instant replay videotape recorder.30 Attention was drawn to
specific areas o f technical performance: jaw action, teeth alignment, tongue arch, pivot
[tracking], mouthpiece pressure, and tongue position during articulation.
X-ray and a video recorder were used to film fourteen performers. Haynies
findings are as follows: (1) those with an overbite thrust the bottom jaw so as to align the
upper and lower teeth, with one subject actually pulling in his jaw; (2) the teeth and jaw
aperture open and close for the low and high registers respectively; (3) arching o f the
tongue is used to affect the pitch being played; (4) the pivot [tracking] appears as either a
change in mouthpiece angle or as a tilting o f the head; (5) mouthpiece pressure increases
as one plays higher and louder with all fourteen subjects using more pressure for a C6
when setting for the note than when slurring up to it; and (6) the tongue touches forward
in the mouth when articulating low notes and back in the mouth when articulating high
29 Farkas, A Photographic Study, iii.

>0 John J. Haynie, A Cinefluorographic (changed to video) Presentation o f the Physiological
Phenomena Influencing Trumpet Performance (Unpublished research report, North Texas State
University, 1967), 2.
16
notes. Haynie also concluded that multiple tongue placements differ when the subject is
speaking than when he is playing.31
This discussion o f mechanics undoubtedly provided new information to the world
o f brass pedagogy. The findings concerning tongue placement are especially important,
while the information concerning tracking provides nothing new other than proof that it is
an important function o f brass embouchure. Unfortunately the study includes no
observations about mouthpiece placement and dental structure. Admitting that his was not
a complete work, Haynie offered it as a starting point on behalf o f better trumpet
pedagogy.32
Like Haynie, Keith Amstutz studied several aspects o f trumpet playing using
photographic techniques. His dissertation, A Videofluorographic Study o f the Teeth
Aperture, Instrument Pivot and Tongue Arch and Their Influence on Trumpet
Performance, is important for its contribution to instrument pivot [tracking]. While no
conclusions are made regarding the interaction o f teeth aperture and mouthpiece
placement, Amstutz does help support the pivot system as defined by Reinhardt. He
points out that: during trumpet performance the teeth aperture, instrument pivot, and
tongue arch function in a consistent manner and have a direct effect on trumpet
performance.33 In addition, he observes:
The predicted tendency for instrument pivot was demonstrated by the
performance o f the trumpet players in the research. The angle o f inclination
between the face o f the mouthpiece and a line determined by the face o f the lower
31 Haynie, A Cinefluorographic (changed to video) Presentation.
32 Haynie, A Cinefluorographic (changed to video) Presentation.
" Amstutz, A Videofluorographic Study, 36.
17
teeth and the base o f the mandible increases as the pitch ascends and decreases as
the pitch descends. The natural instrument placement angle for the middle register
ranged from parallel to the line between the teeth and mandible to an inclination o f
21 degrees. The average angle o f inclination was eight degrees. There was a
marked increase in the degree o f pivot in the upper register over that o f the lower
register.34
The observation is not surprising, considering that the face o f the front teeth is generally
rounded, and that most o f the population has an overbite. Tracking will generally produce
a change in the angle o f the instrument. O f interest in the Amstutz study is a subject for
whom the instrument pivot was the reverse o f the anticipated tendency. Amstutz failed to
resolve the dilemma and eventually ignored it.35
In 1973, another significant study o f the brass embouchure was undertaken by
Daryl Gibson. He used X-ray, cinefluorography, radiography, spectrography, and
electromyography to investigate physical changes that take place during trumpet
performance. These changes were in the areas o f embouchure, air flow, trumpet angle, and
fecial muscle usage.36 After careful analysis, Gibson concluded that: the hypotheses that
there is no measurable embouchure change inside the mouthpiece ring while playing from
a Low C to a Double High C can be rejected as a result o f analyzing the data.. . ,37
Gibson discovered that the lip ratio in the mouthpiece changes depending on the register
being played. Furthermore, his measurements o f the change in trumpet angle reinforce
Reinhardts research, and prove again that a mechanical process takes place in the brass
34 Amstutz, A Videofluorographic Study, 41.

j5 Amstutz, A Videofluorographic Study, 41.
36 Daryl R. Gibson, A Photographic Study o f Twelve Professional Trumpet Embouchures while
Playing from the Low to the Extreme Upper Register (Ph.D. diss. University o f Minnesota, 1973).
37 Gibson, A Photographic Study o f Twelve Professional Trumpet Embouchures, 173.
18
embouchure. Gibson, however, does not make any correlation between dental structure
and mouthpiece placement
One final photographic study is that of Walter Myers. In his 1979 dissertation he
sought to: compare photographically upper and lower lip inversion o f two contrasting
trumpet embouchure techniques, to determine and compare air flow direction as
influenced by these embouchure techniques, and to compare graphically the strength of
partial tones . . . as generated by each embouchure system.38 This study is somewhat
confusing because it is difficult to discern the difference between the two embouchure
techniques. Myers states that:
Two basic embouchure systems appear to have pervaded trumpet
performance. One embouchure encouraged more horizontal air flow direction and
was characterized and apparently influenced by less upper lip inversion and more
upper lip overlap. The other embouchure encouraged downward air flow direction
as influenced by less upper lip inversion and more upper lip overlap.39
Both air flow directions are influenced by less upper lip inversion and more upper lip
overlap. Can this be a misprint? Myers may be trying to further the work done by Robert
Weast. In Brass Performance: An Analytical Text of the Physical Processes, Problems
and Technique of Brass, Weast defines and makes more sense out o f two embouchure
systems: The more horizontal air stream uses more upper lip inversion and less upper lip
overlap, and the less horizontal air stream uses less upper lip inversion and more upper
lip overlap.40
38 Walter J. Myers, A Photographic, Air Flow Direction, and Sound Spectra Analysis of Two
Trumpet Embouchure Techniques (Doctoral diss., University of Missouri-Kansas City, 1979), ii.
39 Myers, A Photographic, Air Flow Direction, and Sound Spectra Analysis, ii.
40 Robert D. Weast, Brass Performance: An Analytical Text of the Physical Processes, Problems
and Technique of Brass (New York: McGinnis and Marx, 1962), 36.
19
After clearing up this possible misprint intended to support Weast, the study by
Myers seems to shed new light on embouchure mechanics; however, further analysis
proves it to be only a comparison o f upstream and downstream embouchures. Myers
observes that trumpet performers who use more [upper] lip inversion, and who employ
more horizontal air flow direction tend to produce partial tones o f greater strength within
the tonal spectra o f selected frequencies and intensities.41 The reason for this is simple:
when the upper lip is inverted, there is more lower lip overlap. This puts more lower lip in
the mouthpiece than upper lip, creating an upstream embouchure. This, in turn, means
there is less upper lip vibrating in the mouthpiece, resulting in a brighter sound.
The Use o f Electromyography to Study Brass Embouchures

Two significant studies used an electromyograph to study the brass embouchure.
Elmer White and Charles Isley both completed their respective studies in 1972. Whites
work sought to determine electromyographic [EMG] potentials (muscle activity) o f
certain fecial muscles as well as mouthpiece pressure used during trumpet performance.
Measurements were made during performance in different registers and at different
volumes. Nine advanced and nine beginning players were administered various tests while
EMG potentials were measured. There are no surprises in the statistical information,
41 Myers, A Photographic, Air Flow Direction, and Sound Spectra Analysis. ii.
20
which confirm that more mouthpiece pressure is used while playing in the high register
than in the low register.42 No parallels to Reinhardts work can be drawn.
Isley used electromyographic kinesiology to study the brass embouchure. Like
Amstutz (see pp. 16-17 above), Isley observed movement in the embouchure that supports
the pivot [tracking] system. He notes that: The higher the tone to be played, the nearer
the rim o f the mouthpiece the air is to be directed, whether up or down. In the middle
register, the air is directed toward the center o f the mouthpiece.43 In terms o f mouthpiece
placement, Isley draws the following conclusion: The mouthpiece . . . is centered
horizontally opposite the largest part o f the incisal aperture [the distance between the
upper and lower incisors].44 Isleys study is, therefore, one o f the first attempts (other
than Reinhardts) to make some correlation between a players teeth and mouthpiece
placement.
The Instrumentalist: Brass Anthology

The Instrumentalist, a publication intended for high school and college band
directors, combined all previous articles on the subject o f brass instruments into a book
entitled Brass Anthology. This 1969 anthology contains numerous articles on the brass
embouchure, three o f which are particularly germane to this study: Douglas Smiths The
42 Elmer R. White, Electromyographic Potentials o f Selected Facial Muscles and Labial

Mouthpiece Pressure Measurements in the Embouchure o f Trumpet Players (Ph.D. diss., Columbia
University, 1972).
43 Isley, A Theory o f Brasswind Embouchure, 134.
44 Isley, A Theory o f Brasswind Embouchure, abstract.
21
Brass Players Pivot, and Vincent Maleks Embouchures o f Professional TrumpetComet Players and What About Brass Embouchure?
Although Smith does not discuss mouthpiece placement and dental structure, he
does address tracking: . . . this motion [tracking] can be seen in rank beginners as well as
in seasoned professionals, and many who do it well know absolutely nothing about it.45
He goes on to define the pivot as the tendency o f a brass players instrument to tilt
slightly up or down when he changes registers.46 This observation is understandable,
since the trumpet tends to look as if it is tilting when the mouthpiece and lips track up and
down on the face o f the teeth. Two X-ray photographs are included, but they are small
and o f extremely poor quality, and prevent careful analysis or conclusion.
In Embouchures o f Professional Trumpet-Comet Players, Malek classifies the
embouchures o f fifty-two professional trumpet players according to lip thickness, eveness
o f teeth, jaw position, moist versus dry lips, placement o f the mouthpiece, and shaving.
The conclusions drawn are very general and no discussion o f mouthpiece placement or
tracking takes place.47
Maleks What About Brass Embouchure? is more detailed, and he again
analyzes the physical structure o f the lips, teeth, and jaw. Concerning dental structure he
specifically includes the following:
Its position [the jaw] when relaxed determines the occlusion or
malocclusion o f the teeth. In dental terminology there are several classes o f jaw45 Douglas Smith, The Brass Players Pivot, Brass Anthology (Evanston: The Instrumentalist,
1969), 450.
46 Smith, The Brass Players Pivot, 451.
47 Vincent Malek, Embouchures o f Professional Trumpet-Comet Players, Brass Anthology
(Evanston: The Instrumentalist, 1969), 163.
22
tooth formations. Mainly, they are: (1) Normal: normal jaw recession, regular
teeth. (2) Class I, Neutroclusion: normal jaw recession, irregular teeth. (3) Class
H, Distoclusion: marked jaw recession. (4) Class HI, Mesioclusion: protrusion o f
the jaw.48
It is interesting that Malek classifies both overbite and underbite but omits even bite
altogether. In terms o f mouthpiece placement, he makes no unusual observations; his
conclusion is simply that: serious malformations are incompatible . . . with fine
performance on trumpet or comet.49 Additionally, he draws no significant conclusions on
the position o f mouthpiece placement in relation to dental structure, nor does any
discussion o f tracking take place.
Central and Lateral Incisors Related to Embouchure

Some very interesting studies have been conducted by William Pfund who, for the
past thirty years, has studied the relationship o f tooth or teeth position to mouthpiece
placement. His conclusions in The Trumpeters Pedagogical Guide are simply that it is
advantageous to center the mouthpiece over a protrusion or overlap o f the central and/or
lateral incisors. He states that a player should:
Locate the center o f the malocclusion that best facilitates playing and
always consider the protrusive angle o f the teeth. There must be a protrusion for
the lip to vibrate efficiently. Frequently the lower jaws position must be altered to
accommodate this. In the case o f two malocclusions in the same jaw select the
position that produces the easiest and most natural sound.50
48 Vincent Malek, What About Brass Embouchure? Brass Anthology (Evanston: The
Instrumentalist, 1969), 187-188.
49 Malek, What About Brass Embouchure? 188.
50 William A. Pfund, The Trumpeters Pedagogical Guide (Eaton: William A. Pfund, 1992), 20.
23
Pfund became interested in this area of study after becoming acquainted with the
work of brothers Matthew and Edwin Shiner, both recently deceased. Professors emeriti
at Duquesne University in Pittsburgh, the Shiners conducted research that led them to
believe that there was a relationship between tooth formation and success in brass
performance. Unfortunately, while none of their research was ever published, their work
did stimulate similar research by others, including Richard Giangiulio,51 William
Lieberman and Robert Jones,52 and Karl Sievers,33 who worked directly with Pfund.
By far, the most in-depth study was that of Sievers, who states that it is possible
that there is a relationship between maxillary incisor formation and high register prowess
for the trumpet player.54 He also disagrees with the main school of thought concerning
dental structure and efficient brass playing: Traditional pedagogy states that large, even
upper teeth are preferred, with more recent theories preferring almost anything but even
upper teeth, suggesting that those whose upper teeth plane possesses a high point have
the advantage.53 His theory is based on data gathered from numerous trumpet players at
the 1995 International Brassfest in Bloomington, Indiana. This information also led
Sievers to conclude that three types of dental formations lend themselves to a more
successful upper register. He states that:
51 Richard C. Giangiulio, The Role of Orthodontics in Correcting Selected Embouchure

Problems, Journal of the International Trumpet Guild (October 1979): 20-21.
52 William B. Lieberman and Robert C. Jones, Dental Appliances as an Aid to Brass Playing,
The Instrumentalist (October 1971): 52-54.
53 Karl H. Sievers, Relationship Between Maxillary Incisor Formation, Practice Habits, and High
Register Prowess for the Trumpet Player: Insights from Three Perspectives (Doctoral diss., University of
Missouri-Kansas City, 1997).
54 Sievers, Maxillary Incisor Formation, Practice Habits, and High Register Prowess, ii.
55 Sievers, Maxillary Incisor Formation, Practice Habits, and High Register Prowess, ii-iii.
24
These three upper incisor arrangements that are thought to enhance success
in the upper register are teeth which: (1) have a space between the two upper
incisors (and perhaps elsewhere in addition to this space); (2) come to a point at
the center junction o f the two upper incisors, teeth may or may not overlap; or (3)
are even and without space, but are relatively short vertically.56
Sievers worked closely with William Pfund to discover more information relating
mouthpiece placement to dental structure. After an interview with Pfund, Sievers wrote:
The guideline in assessing the relationship o f students teeth to their
trumpet playing is to place the mouthpiece and angle the mouthpiece so as to take
advantage o f a high spot in the plane o f the upper teeth if present. As with others
who advocate these concepts, he believes that there should be absolutely no
concern if such a mouthpiece placement results in an o f f center set-up, just so it
is not to an extreme, or such that the center o f the lip is outside the mouthpiece.
Pfund believes strongly that the advantages o f this concept are undeniable, and that
in all cases the trumpeter benefits from employing these concepts. He cautions that
without consideration o f other requisites such as correct breathing, correct
embouchure, intelligence, correct practice habits and musical ability, focusing on
teeth arrangement alone will not yield success.S7
The two articles mentioned above by Giangiulio and Lieberman and Jones lend
more insight into why this occlusion o f the central incisors is advantageous. Giangiulio
says that the upper teeth.. . . project the vibrating surface o f the lip forward inside the
mouthpiece, enabling the top lip to respond to the air passing over it. He further
concludes that the ideal position for the upper central incisors is usually in an obtuse
angle, whose mildly pointed center is at the front o f the mouth.58
Lieberman and Jones state that the upper or maxillary teeth should be
56 Sievers, Maxillary Incisor Formation, Practice Habits, and High Register Prowess, 9.
57 Sievers, Maxillary Incisor Formation, Practice Habits, and High Register Prowess, 23.
58 Giangiulio, The Role o f Orthodontics, 21.
25
positioned . . . in order that the lip might vibrate freely. . . [and they] note that the mesial
labial or the vee formed at the midline o f the two upper central incisors would bear the
brunt o f any mouthpiece pressure allowing the lateral portions o f the lip to vibrate with
more freedom than if the entire surface were flat or in some other equally poor or less
comfortable position.59
The work by the Shiners, along with the publications o f Giangiulio, Lieberman and
Jones, Pfund, and Sievers indicate a direct correlation between dental structure and
mouthpiece placement. No discussion o f mechanics (i.e., tracking) occurs. The only
illustrations used are those in Pfimds book, but they are very simple drawings that
indicate the proper mouthpiece angle in relation to any overlaps o f the incisors.
Summary o f Literature Review

The vast majority o f the related literature seems to agree on three aspects o f the
brass embouchure. First is the belief that the position o f the mouthpiece varies for each
individual. Second is the conclusion that the airstream splashes toward the throat o f the
mouthpiece for lower frequencies and toward the rim for higher frequencies. Third is the
idea that a mechanical action takes place in the embouchure when changing registers. All
three o f these conclusions support Donald Reinhardts research. More interesting, for this
study, is the research initiated by the Shiners that produced the notion o f centering the
mouthpiece over a protrusion or overlap o f the central and/or lateral incisors.
59 Lieberman and Jones, Dental Appliances, 54.
26
The work by the Shiners, Pfund, Sievers, and others is concerned primarily with
the relation between the position o f incisors and mouthpiece placement. Reinhardts work
is concerned with the relation between dental bite and mouthpiece placement. When
comparing the work in both areas, a stimulating question arises. If it is advantageous to
center the mouthpiece over a protrusion or overlap o f the central and/or lateral incisors, is
it then also advantageous to track from a protrusion or overlap in the upper incisors to
one in the lower incisors and vice versa? I f so, this may provide an answer to the question
o f tracking at an angle posed earlier in the first chapter.
CHAPTER THREE
PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE DIFFERENT EMBOUCHURE TYPES
Research Procedures
As stated earlier, the main purpose o f this study is the compilation o f detailed
photographs o f actual trumpet players exhibiting the different embouchure types as
described by Donald Reinhardt. Reinhardts definitions o f the embouchure type
classifications are used, and three sets o f photographs o f each type are provided. With the
aid o f lip retractors, the first set shows the dental bite o f each individual (i.e., overbite,
underbite, or even bite). With the aid o f an embouchure visualizer, the second set shows
the mouthpiece placement o f each individual. Finally, the third set shows the tracking used
by each individual, accomplished with three separate photographs o f each individual
playing the concert pitches o f B-flat 3, B-flat 4, and B-flat 5 on his or her instrument.
It is intended for these detailed photographs to lead to insights and answers to the
following questions (mentioned previously): Why do individuals with perfectly even dental
bites use an extreme mouthpiece placement? Why do some individuals track up to ascend
while others track down to ascend? The third question, which may already have been
answered after the review o f the related literature, is why do many brass players track at
an angle and not in a perfectly vertical line?
28
Types I and IA
Types I and IA are rare in that they possess perfectly even teeth, upper and lower,
meeting flush when the lower jaw is in its natural position.. . . The oddity o f the two Type
I groups . . . is the fact that they must either place their mouthpieces very high on their
upper lips (Type I), or very low on their lower lips (Type IA). It seems that anything
resembling a half and half placement never works out for either o f these types.. . . Type I
places the mouthpiece with more on the upper lip than on the lower.. . . Type I may come
trader either o f the two PIVOT CLASSIFICATIONS [see pp. 10-11 above], . . . Type IA
places the mouthpiece more on the lower lip than on the upper.. . . Generally speaking,
the Type IA comes under PIVOT CLASSIFICATION TWO [see pp. 10-11 above].. . -60
29
Figure 1. Front View o f a Type I Dental Structure (Even Bite)

Note: Upper and lower teeth meet flush when the lower jaw is in its natural position.
Figure 2. Right View o f a Type I Dental Structure (Even Bite)

Figure 3. Left View o f a Type I Dental Structure (Even Bite)

30
Figure 4. View o f a Type I Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors)

Note: In this subjects case, no malocclusion exists between any incisors o f the top teeth.
Figure 5. View o f a Type I Dental Structure (Mandible Incisors)

Note: In this subjects case, no substantial malocclusion
exists between any incisors o f the lower teeth.
Figure 6. View o f the Mouthpiece Placement o f a Downstream, Type I Embouchure

Note: In this subjects case, no substantial malocclusions exist between the
incisors o f the top teeth, so the mouthpiece is placed in the center horizontally.
Figure 7. View o f a Type I Embouchure Playing C4 (Concert B-flat 3)

Note: This embouchure type may come under either
o f the two pivot classifications (see pp. 10-11 above).

Note: This particular subject tracks down to ascend.

Note: This subject tracks straight down to ascend
with no lateral movement o f the jaw.
32
Even though the subject in the preceding photographs (Type I) has a significant
amount o f upper lip in the mouthpiece, he plays with a surprisingly bright tone quality. He
also plays in the upper register easily, but he has some trouble in the lower register.
Mouthpiece placement may have something to do with this. The subjects airstream exits
rather close to the mouthpiece rim, facilitating the upper register but making the lower
register more difficult to obtain.
33
Figure 10. Front View o f a Type IA Dental Structure (Even Bite)

Figure 11. Right View o f a Type IA Dental Structure (Even Bite)

Figure 12. Left View o f a Type IA Dental Structure (Even Bite)

34
Figure 13. View o f a Type IA Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors)

Note: A substantial malocclusion exists between the right central and right lateral incisors.
Figure 14. View o f a Type IA Dental Structure (Mandible Incisors)

Note: A small malocclusion exists between the left central and left lateral incisors.
Figure 15. View o f the Mouthpiece Placement o f an Upstream, Type IA Embouchure

Note: In this subjects case, the mouthpiece is placed to the right o f center,
taking advantage o f the malocclusion that exists between the
right central and right lateral incisors o f the top teeth.
Figure 16. View o f a Type IA Embouchure Playing C4

Note: This embouchure type tracks down to ascend.

Note: This subject tracks down and to the left to ascend while the jaw moves to the right.
This may be because o f the small malocclusion that exists between the
subjects left central and left lateral incisors o f the lower teeth.
36
The subject in the preceding photographs (Type IA) plays with an extremely bright
sound. He also has difficulty playing in the upper register. The Type IA sets the
mouthpiece rim so low on the top lip that it has a tendency to come into contact with the
vibrating area. This is especially noticeable when ascending into the upper register. As the
Type IA tracks down to ascend, the mouthpiece can accidentally slide down on the top lip
causing the rim to interfere with the vibration. The sliding may be minute, but it can be
enough to impede the vibration entirely. Playing with a dry top lip helps this embouchure
type tremendously.
37
Types II and HA
Types H and DA possess lower teeth which protrude beyond their uppers while
their lower jaws are reposed in their natural positions.. . . Type II places the mouthpiece
more on the lower lip than on the upper; generally with the lower jaw protruded even
more during the playing than when in its natural position.. . . The Type II generally
utilizes PIVOT CLASSIFICATION TWO [see pp. 10-11 above]
Type HA also
places the mouthpiece more on the lower lip than on the upper, but the lower jaw is
receded beneath the upper during the playing. The Type HA, with few exceptions, comes
under PIVOT CLASSIFICATION TWO [see pp. 10-11 above].61
38
Figure 19. Front View o f a Type II Dental Structure (Underbite)

Note: Lower teeth protrude beyond upper when the lower jaw is in its natural position.
Figure 20. Right View o f a Type II Dental Structure (Underbite)

Figure 21. Left View o f a Type II Dental Structure (Underbite)

39
Figure 22. View o f a Type H Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors)

Note: In this subjects case, a substantial malocclusion exists between the central incisors
and between the left central and left lateral incisors o f the top teeth.
Figure 23. View o f a Type II Dental Structure (Mandible Incisors)

Note: No substantial malocclusion exists between any o f the incisors o f the lower teeth.
Figure 24. View o f the Mouthpiece Placement o f an Upstream, Type II Embouchure

Note: In this subjects case, the mouthpiece is placed in the center horizontally, taking
advantage o f the malocclusion that exists between the central incisors o f the top teeth.
Figure 25. View o f a Type II Embouchure Playing C4
Figure 26. View o f a Type II Embouchure Playing C5

Figure 27. View of a Type II Embouchure Playing C6

Note: This subject tracks straight down to ascend
41
The subject in the preceding photographs (Type II) plays with a bright sound, but
he plays in the upper register with relative ease. This may be because he uses
approximately 1/3 top lip and 2/3 bottom lip in the mouthpiece.
Figure 28. Front View o f a Type DA Dental Structure (Underbite)

Figure 29. Right View o f a Type DA Dental Structure (Underbite)

Figure 30. Left View o f a Type HA Dental Structure (Underbite)

43
Figure 31. View o f a Type DA Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors)

Note: A substantial malocclusion exists between the right central and right lateral incisors.
Figure 32. View o f a Type HA Dental Structure (Mandible Incisors)

Note: A small malocclusion exists between both the right incisors and the left incisors.
Figure 33. View o f the Mouthpiece Placement of an Upstream, Type HA Embouchure

Note: In this subjects case, the mouthpiece is placed in the center horizontally. The
substantial malocclusion between the right incisors o f the top teeth may not be
usable because the position o f the right canine tooth is too far forward.
44
Figure 34. View o f a Type DA Embouchure Playing C4


45
The subject in the preceding photographs (Type HA) plays with a fairly bright
sound. He has a mediocre upper register, possibly because o f the poor position o f the
central incisors o f the top teeth.
46
Types III. IDA and HIB
Much more common are the Types HI, ITTA. and II1B which all possess lower
teeth that recede beneath the upper while their jaws are in their natural positions.. . . Type
m . . . places the mouthpiece more on the upper lip than on the lower. . . . Type HI is very
common among trombone performers, and can be recognized by the downward tilt o f the
instrument angle.. . . In most cases the Type III utilizes PIVOT CLASSIFICATION
TWO [see pp. 10-11 above].
Type m A , often called the High Type IIP, places the mouthpiece with much
more upper lip than lower. . . . The Type IHA must observe the rules as presented in
PIVOT CLASSIFICATION ONE [see pp. 10-11 above]. Type HIB...places the
mouthpiece not so high on the upper lip as the High Type HI (Type IHA). . . . Type
I1JLB
must observe the rules as presented in PIVOT CLASSIFICATION TWO [see pp. 10-11
above].62
47
Figure 37. Front View o f a Type III Dental Structure (Overbite)

Note: Lower teeth recede beneath the upper teeth when the jaw is in its natural position.
Figure 38. Right View o f a Type IE Dental Structure (Overbite)

Figure 39. Left View o f a Type III Dental Structure (Overbite)

48
Figure 40. View o f a Type EH Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors)

Note: A substantial malocclusion exists between the central incisors o f the top teeth.
Figure 41. View o f a Type HI Dental Structure (Mandible Incisors)

Note: In this subjects case, a very small malocclusion exists
between the left central and left lateral incisors o f the lower teeth.
Figure 42. View o f the Mouthpiece Placement o f a Downstream, Type HI Embouchure

49
Figure 43. View o f a Type III Embouchure Playing C4

Note: This type can be recognized by the downward tilt o f the instrument angle.
Figure 44. View o f a Type III Embouchure Playing C5

Figure 4 5 . View o f a Type i n Embouchure Playing C 6

50
The subject in the preceding photographs (Type HI) plays with a fairly dark sound.
Her lower teeth recede a fair distance beneath the upper teeth creating a downward
instrument angle, but she still plays surprisingly well.
51
Figure 46. Front View o f a Type IHA Dental Structure (Overbite)

Figure 47. Right View o f a Type EIA Dental Structure (Overbite)

Figure 48. Left View o f a Type EHA Dental Structure (Overbite)

52
Figure 49. View o f a Type IHA Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors)

Note: In this subjects case, no malocclusion exists between any incisors o f the top teth.
Figure 50. View o f a Type IHA Dental Structure (Mandible Incisors)

Note: No substantial malocclusion exists between any o f the incisors o f the lower te=eth.
Figure 51. View o f the Mouthpiece Placement o f a Downstream, Type IHA Embouclhure
Figure 52. View o f a Type IHA Embouchure Playing C4
Figure 53. View o f a Type EDA Embouchure Playing C5

Note: This embouchure type tracks up to ascend.
Figure 54. View o f a Type HLA Embouchure Playing C6

Note: This subject tracks straight up to ascend
54
The subject in the preceding photographs (Type IDA) plays with a very brilliant
sound. He also has tremendous power in the upper registersomething that seems to be
quite common for the Type IHA.
55
Figure 55. Front View o f a Type 111B Dental Structure (Overbite)

Figure 56. Right View o f a Type lllB Dental Structure (Overbite)

Figure 57. Left View o f a Type HIB Dental Structure (Overbite)

56
Figure 58. View o f a Type HEB Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors)

Note: Substantial malocclusions exist between the central and lateral incisors.
Figure 59. View o f a Type HIB Dental Structure (Mandible Incisors)

Note: A substantial malocclusion exists between the central incisors.
Figure 60. View o f the Mouthpiece Placement o f a Downstream, Type HIB Embouchure
Note: In this subjects case, the mouthpiece is placed in the center horizontally. The
substantial malocclusions between the central and lateral incisors o f the top teeth
may not be usable because the positions o f the canine teeth are too far forward.
Figure 61. View o f a Type DIB Embouchure Playing C4
Figure 62. View o f a Type EEB Embouchure Playing C5

Figure 63. View o f a Type DIB Embouchure Playing C6

Note: This subject tracks down and to the right to ascend while the jaw moves to the
This may be because o f the substantial malocclusion that exists between the
subjects central incisors o f the lower teeth.
58
The subject in the preceding photographs (Type HIB) plays with a brilliant sound,
and he has a moderately good high register. The most common trumpet embouchure is the
Type BIB.
59
Types IV and IVA
Types IV and IVA possess lower teeth which recede beneath the uppers while
their lower jaws are in their natural positions.. . . The embouchure and jaw Type IV . . .
places the mouthpiece with more lower lip than upper.. . . Type IV in almost all cases
utilizes PIVOT CLASSIFICATION TWO [see pp. 10-11 above]. The Type IVA, often
called the Down Type IV, places the mouthpiece with more lower than upper, but with
the lower jaw receded beneath the upper during the playing.. . . Type IVA must observe
all rules presented in PIVOT CLASSIFICATION TWO [see pp. 10-11 above].63
Figure 64. Front View o f a Type IV Dental Structure (Overbite)

Note: Lower teeth recede beneath the upper when the lower jaw is in its natural position.
Figure 65. Right View o f a Type IV Dental Structure (Overbite)

Figure 66. Left View o f a Type IV Dental Structure (Overbite)

61
Figure 67. View o f a Type IV Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors)

Note: A malocclusion exists between the central incisors o f the top teeth.
Figure 68. View o f a Type IV Dental Structure (Mandible Incisors)

Note: In this subjects case, malocclusions exist between the central incisors and also
between the left central and left lateral incisors o f the lower teeth.
Figure 69. View o f the Mouthpiece Placement o f an Upstream, Type IV Embouchure

62
Figure 70. View o f a Type IV Embouchure Playing C4


Note: This subject tracks down and to the right to ascend while the jaw moves to the left.
This may be because o f the more significant m alocclusion that exists
between the subjects central incisors o f the lower teeth.
63
The subject in the preceding photographs (Type IV) plays with a bright sound, and
he has sound production problems at times. Even though his lower teeth recede beneath
the upper teeth while the lower jaw is in its natural position, he thrusts his bottom jaw out
when playing, creating an upward instrument angle. This causes him to have to hold the
instrument up higher than the average player. He compensates for this by tilting his head
downpossibly causing a constriction at the throat.
64
Figure 73. Frotit View o f a Type IVA Dental Structure (Overbite)

Figure 74. Right View o f a Type IVA Dental Structure (Overbite)

Figure 75. Left View o f a Type IVA Dental Structure (Overbite)

65
Figure 76. View" o f a Type IVA Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors)

Note: In this subjects case, no malocclusion exists between any incisors o f the top teeth.
Figure 77. View o f a Type IVA Dental Structure (Mandible Incisors)

Note: In this subjects case, small malocclusions exist between the left central and left
lateral incisors and also between the right central and right lateral incisors.
Figure 78. View o f the Mouthpiece Placement o f an Upstream, Type IVA Embouchure
Figure 79. View o f a Type IVA Embouchure Playing C4


This may be because o f the more easily accessed malocclusion that exists
between the subjects left central and left lateral incisors o f the lower teeth.
67
The subject in the preceding photographs (Type IVA) plays with a fairly bright
sound. She has a mediocre upper register, much like the subject in the Type IIA
photographs.
CHAPTER FOUR
SUMMARY
The photographs in the previous chapter clarify Reinharts work and provide new
insights into understanding the brass embouchure: they clearly show that all embouchure
types are either upstream or downstream; that dental bite generally affects mouthpiece
placement but does not necessarily affect tracking; and finally, that the position o f the
central and lateral incisors affects both mouthpiece placement and tracking.
Upstream and Downstream Embouchures

According to Reinhardt, all embouchure types are either upstream or
downstream.64 Although there are some disagreements with this, the photographs in
Chapter Three tend to support Reinhardt:
. . . if the performers mouthpiece placement utilizes more upper than lower
lip, then his upper lip will predominate into the cup o f the mouthpiece during the
playing. Thus his air stream will strike into the mouthpiece cup in a downward
direction (toward his chin) at varying angles according to the register being
played.. . . When the performers mouthpiece placement utilizes more lower than
upper lip, then his lower lip predominates during the playing. Consequently his air
stream strikes into the mouthpiece cup in an upward direction (toward his nose)
again at varying angles according to the register.63
64 The author knows of several studies that may contradict Reinhardts theory on the existence of
upstream players; however, these studies have not been significant enough to prove or disprove Reinhardt.
69
One o f the strongest opponents o f this theory was Vincent Bach, who truly believed that
he played the trumpet using an airstream that was sent directly into the throat o f the
mouthpiece:
Bach told him [Reinhardt] that he did not play either downstream or
upstream, but delivered his vibrations directly into the throat o f the mouthpiece.
After lunch, Reinhardt produced a transparent mouthpiece and a pocket flashlight
and asked Bach to play in it, with [George] Bundy as a witness.. . . Upon
examining Bach playing the mouthpiece, Bundy declared, Vincent, even I can see
that you are playing downstream.66
Dental bite directly affects mouthpiece placement because it causes one lip to
predominate into the cup o f the mouthpiece. This is easily seen in the photographs o f the
Type IH, IEA, and LLIB embouchures. Because these players have overbites, the top lip
extends farther into the mouthpiece than the bottom lip. This directs the airstream in a
downward manner, and it splashes into the bottom o f the cup. The player is naturally
inclined to use more top lip than bottom lip in the mouthpiece to insure that the airstream
always splashes below the throat o f the mouthpiece. The same holds true for the Type E
and EA embouchures. Because these players have underbites, the bottom lip extends
farther into the mouthpiece than the top lip. This directs the airstream in an upward
manner, and it splashes into the top o f the cup. This type o f player is naturally inclined to
use more bottom lip than top lip in the mouthpiece to insure that the airstream always
splashes above the throat o f the mouthpiece.
66 Ralph Dudgeon, Credit Where Credit is Due: The Life and Brass Teaching o f Donald S.
Reinhardt, Journal o f the International Trumpet Guild (June 2000): 35.
70
The airstream must splash into the cup o f the mouthpiece for quality sound
production; because this is the case, individuals with even dental bites (Types I and IA)
need to use an extreme mouthpiece placement. The airstream o f the person with an even
dental structure has a tendency to exit in a perpendicular manner. With a mouthpiece
placement anywhere close to half top and half bottom lip, the airstream is usually sent
directlyperpendicularlyinto the throat o f the mouthpiece, and accordingly, no sound is
produced. Significantly offsetting the mouthpiece placement allows the airstream to splash
into the cup o f the mouthpiece, either above or below the throat.
Oddity o f Type IV and IVA Embouchures

Type IV and IVA embouchures are odd in that the player has a natural overbite
but plays as if he had an underbite. This seems contradictory, but a closer look at the angle
o f the central incisors o f both the top and bottom teeth may provide an explanation. If the
central incisors o f the bottom teeth angle forward far enough, they can cause the bottom
lip to extend as far into the mouthpiece as the top lip, possibly creating the same problem
that players with Type I and IA embouchures have to deal withan airstream directed
straight into the throat o f the mouthpiece. The solution for them would then be to thrust
out the bottom jaw and play as an upstream player (see figures 82-83).
Figure 82. (fig. 66 repeated). Left View o f a Type IV Dental Structure (Overbite)
Note: The central incisors o f the lower teeth angle forward and
possibly affect how the bottom lip protrudes into the mouthpiece.
Figure 83. (fig. 69 repeated). View o f the Mouthpiece Placement

o f an Upstream, Type IV Embouchure
Note: Even though this person has a natural overbite, he plays as if he had an underbite.
This may be caused by the protruding central incisors o f the lower teeth.
If the central incisors o f the top teeth angle backward far enough, the top lip may not
protrude as far into the mouthpiece as the bottom lip. Therefore, the player would almost
certainly have to play upstream (see figures 84-85).
72
Figure 84. (fig. 76 repeated). View o f a Type IVA Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors)
Note: The central incisors angle backward and
possibly affect how the top lip protrudes into the mouthpiece.
Figure 85. (fig. 78 repeated). View o f the mouthpiece Placement o f an Upstream,

Type IVA Embouchure
Note: Even though this person has a natural overbite, she plays as if she had an underbite.
This may be caused by the backward sloping o f the central incisors o f the upper teeth.
Tracking and Mouthpiece Placement

While dental bite does seem to affect mouthpiece placement, it does not
necessarily affect tracking. A common assumption is that upstream players track up to
ascend while downstream players track down to ascend, in spite o f the fact that nothing
could be further from the truth. All upstream players track down to ascend while
73
downstream players fell under both pivot classifications (see pp. 10-11 above) depending
on their specific embouchure types. Further study is needed to determine why some
downstream players track up when ascending while others track down when ascending. It
is interesting to note that some Type I embouchures use Pivot Classification One while
others use Pivot Classification Two (see pp. 10-11 above). This means that instead o f nine
embouchure types there are really ten.
The research initiated by the Shiners and furthered by Pfimd and Sievers produced
the notion o f centering the mouthpiece over a malocclusion o f the central and/or lateral
incisors o f the top teeth. This too seems to be supported by the photographs in Chapter
Three. The only possible exception might be the Type II example. This particular player
has a substantial malocclusion between the right central and right lateral incisors o f the top
teeth, yet the mouthpiece placement is in the center horizontally (see figures 86-87).
Figure 86. (fig. 31 repeated). View o f a Type DA Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors)
Note: In this subjects case, a substantial malocclusion exists
between the right central and right lateral incisors o f the top teeth.
Figure 87. (fig. 33 repeated). View o f the Mouthpiece Placement o f an Upstream,

Type HA Embouchure
Note: In this subjects case, the mouthpiece is placed in the center horizontally.
The substantial malocclusion between the right incisors o f the top teeth
does not seem to affect mouthpiece placement.
This example seems to debunk the research o f the Shiners, Pfimd and Sievers, but
closer study o f Pfimds work provides an explanation. While it is advantageous to have a
malocclusion between two teeth, by contrast, the worst possible scenario is one in which
two malocclusions exist on either side o f the same tooth,67 as illustrated in Figure 86. A
substantial malocclusion exists between the right central and right lateral incisors, but
there is also a substantial malocclusion between the right lateral incisor and the right
canine tooth. Trying to place the mouthpiece to the right o f center would undoubtedly
produce negative results.
Finally, the photographs in Chapter Three seem to provide new insights into the
mechanics o f the embouchure. They seem to indicate that it is advantageous to track from
the protrusion o f the upper incisors to the protrusion o f the lower incisors, or from the
67 Pfimd, The Trumpeters Pedagogical Guide, 19-20.
protrusion o f the lower incisors to the protrusion o f the upper incisors. In every case, a
player with a usable malocclusion (even if slight) tracked to the one most forward in his
dental structure. Those players without any significant malocclusion tracked straight up
and down.
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1995.
82
Dissertations and Theses

Amstutz, A. Keith. A Videofluorographic Study o f Teeth Aperture, Instrument Pivot and
Tongue Arch and Their Influence on Trumpet Performance. Doctoral diss.,
University o f Oklahoma, 1970.
Bjurstrom, Ned A. An Exploratory Investigation o f Orthodontic Treatment as a Factor in
the Selection and Performance o f Brass Musical Instruments. PhD. diss.,
University o f Iowa, 1972.
Briggs, Guy Vinton. Electrophysiologicai Examination o f Labial Function in College-Age
Trumpet Performers. Doctoral dissertation, University o f Oklahoma, 1968.
Cheney, Edward A. Adaptation to Embouchure as a Function o f Dentofacial Complex.
Masters th., University o f Michigan, 1945.
Dane, Roger. Theories on Embouchure and Breathing: An Analytical Investigation into
the Functions for Sound Production on the Trumpet. Masters th., University o f
Louisville, 1983.
Gibson, Daryl R. A Photographic Study o f Twelve Professional Trumpet Embouchures
while Playing from the Low to the Extreme Upper Register. PhD. diss.,
University o f Minnesota, 1973.
Hall, Jody C. A Radiographic, Spectrographic, and Photographic Study o f the NonLabial Physical Changes Which Occur in the Transition from Middle to Low and
Middle to High Registers during Trumpet Performance. Doctoral diss., Indiana
University, 1954.
Hammer, James W. The Use o f Method Books and Photographs to Determine Good
Embouchure Formation. Masters th., University o f Kansas, 1951.
Haynie, John J. A Cinefluorographic (changed to video) Presentation o f the Physiological
Phenomena Influencing Trumpet Performance. Unpublished research report,
North Texas State University, 1967.
Isley, Charles L., Jr. A Theory o f Brasswind Embouchure Based Upon Facial Anatomy,
Electromyographic Kinesiology, and Brasswind Embouchure Pedagogy. Doctoral
diss., North Texas State University, 1972.
Joachim, Nile. Tone Production on Brass Wind Instruments. Masters th., University o f
Oklahoma, 1972.
83
Leno, Harold L. Lip Vibration Characteristics o f Selected Trombone Performance.
Doctoral diss., University o f Arizona, 1970.
Malek, Vincent F. A Study o f Embouchure and Trumpet-Comet Mouthpiece
Measurements Doctoral diss., Northwestern University, 1953.
McQueen, William M. The Brass Embouchure. Masters th., Illinois Wesleyan
University, 1945.
Meidt, Joseph A. A Cinefluorographic Investigation o f Oral Adjustments for Various
Aspects o f Brass Instrument Performance. Ph.D. diss., University o f Iowa, 1967.
Myers, Walter J. A Photographic, Air Flow Direction, and Sound Spectra Analysis o f
Two Trumpet Embouchure Techniques. Doctoral diss., University o f MissouriKansas City, 1979.
Richtmeyer, L. C. A Definitive Analysis o f Brass Embouchure Abnormalities Including
Recommended Remedial Techniques. Ph.D. diss., Michigan State University,
1966.
Savits, Myer F. Muscle Training Techniques Applicable to Methods Incorporating
Myological Principles in Elementary Brass Embouchure Training Curricula. Ph.D.
diss., New York University, 1982.
Sievers, Karl H. Relationship Between Maxillary Incisor Formation, Practice Habits, and
High Register Prowess for the Trumpet Player: Insights from Three Perspectives.
Doctoral diss., University o f Missouri-Kansas City, 1997.
Snyder, Randy Lee. Influences o f the Lips, Teeth, Tongue, Oral Cavity, and Throat on
Brass Instrument Tone Production: A Guide for Secondary and College
Teachers. Masters th., Bowling Green State University, 1998.
Testa, Robert F. The Effect o f Jaw Thrust Instruction on Four Selected Aspects o f
Trumpet Performance and Overjet o f Young Players. Ph.D. diss., University o f
Miami, 1972.
Tunison, Earl H. The Embouchure and Its Effect Upon the Tone and Technique o f the
Brass Family. Masters th., University o f Idaho, 1942.
White, Elmer R. Electromyographic Potentials o f Selected Facial Muscles and Labial
Mouthpiece Pressure Measurements in the Embouchure o f Trumpet Players.
Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1972.
84
Articles
Amstutz, A. Keith. A Videofluorographic Study o f the Teeth Aperture, Instrument Pivot
and Tongue Arch and Their Influence on Trumpet Performance. Journal o f the
International Trumpet Guild (October 1977): 25ff.
________ . Orthodontics and the Trumpeters Embouchure A Practical Solution.
Journal o f the International Trumpet Guild (May 1983): 18-20.
Blanton, Patricia L., Norman L. Biggs, and Roland C. Perkins. Electromyographic
Analysis o f the Buccinator Muscle. Journal o f Dental Research 49 (March-April,
1970): 389-394.
Broiles, Mel. On Professional Trumpet Playing. Brass World 4 (Spring, 1968): 358-360.
Cheney, Edward A. Adaptation to Embouchure as a Function o f Dentofacial Complex.
American Journal o f Orthodontics 35, no. 6 (June, 1949): 440.
Cherry, C. L. Lip Formation Exercises for Embouchure Development. Brass World 4
(Fall, 1968): 1-39.
Dudgeon, Ralph. Credit Where Credit is Due: The Life and Brass Teaching o f Donald S.
Reinhardt. Journal o f the International Trumpet Guild (June 2000): 27-39.
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International Trumpet Guild (February 1987): 25-27.
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53 (January 1986): 3-9.
Gardner, Ned. Dental Bonding: An Aid for the Embouchure. Journal o f the
International Trumpet Guild (February 1986): 19-20.
Giangiulio, Richard C. The Role o f Orthodontics in Correcting Selected Embouchure
Problems. Journal o f the International Trumpet Guild (October 1979): 20-21.
Greene, William T., and George S. Befu. The Orthodontics Alternative - Removables.
Journal o f the International Trumpet Guild (February 1987): 28-29.
Gualtiere, Paul A. May Johnny or Janie Play the Clarinet? The Eastman Study: A Report
on the Orthodontic Evaluations o f College-level and Professional Musicians Who
Play Brass and Woodwind Instruments. Eastman Orthodontic Alumni
Association (June 1976): 260-276.
85
Henderson, Hayward W. An Experimental Study o f Trumpet Embouchure. Journal o f
the Acoustical Society o f America 13 (July, 1942): 58-64.
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in Trumpet Players. Medical Problems o f Performing Artists (June 1991): 51-56.
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Association Journal XV, no. 4 (Fall 1987): 36-37.
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11 (June, 1957): 33.
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Newsletter (May 1982): 12-13.
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the Brass and Woodwind Musical Instruments. Journal o f the American Dental
Association (July 1935): 1232-1236.
Lieberman, William B. and Robert C. Jones. Dental Appliances as an Aid to Brass
Playing. The Instrumentalist (October 1971): 52-54.
Martin, Daniel W. Lip Vibrations in a Comet Mouthpiece. The Journal o f the
Acoustical Society o f America 13 (January, 1942): 305-308.
Mortenson, Gary C., and Lawrence W. Kolar. The Extraction o f Wisdom Teeth:
Information on Procedures and Problems. Journal o f the International Trumpet
Guild (February 1990): 19-23.
Moorehead, Jean K. Embouchures: Their Assets and Liabilities -- An Interview with
Armando Ghitalla. Journal o f the International Trumpet Guild (February 1987):
17ff.
Olson, R. Dale. Brass Mouthpiece Function. Brass World 3 (Winter 1967): 206-208.
The Pupils the Thing. Brass Embouchure. The Instrumentalist 3 (March-April, 1949):
58.
Reynolds, George E. Brass Tone and Embouchure. The Instrumentalist 3 (March-April,
1949): 58.
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1993): 29.
86
________ . Dentistry and the Wind Musician. Journal o f the International Trumpet
Guild (February 1992): 14fF.
________ . Lets Fix It Before It Breaks - A Career Almost Destroyed. Journal o f the
International Trumpet Guild (May 1992): 2 Iff.
Usov, Yuri. The Scientific-Theoretical Principles o f Performance for Playing Brass Wind
Instruments. Journal o f the International Trumpet Guild (December 1985): 1921 .
Weast, Robert, and Ardell Hake. A Definitive Analysis o f Mouthpiece Pressure. The
Brass World 1 (1965): 38-43.
Interviews
Bernard, Rene, eleven-year student o f Donald Reinhardt. Interview by author, 16 April
1991, Olathe, Kansas.
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
David Ray Turnbull was bom in Chanutte, Kansas, on March 12,1961. His
secondary education took place at Grand Island Senior High School in Grand Island,
Nebraska. In May o f 1983, he graduated from Hastings College with a B.M. in Education;
his student teaching was through the Cooperative Urban Teacher Education Program at
Rockhurst College in Kansas City, Missouri. In May o f 1986, he received a M.M. in
Trumpet Performance from Arizona State University in Tempe, Arizona. Turnbull also
served as a Graduate Assistant in Trumpet at Arizona State University while studying for
a D.M.A. in Trumpet Performance. He was a Visiting Professor o f Music at The
University o f Kansas during the 1987-88 school year. He stayed on as an Assistant
Professor through 1992. In 1992, he played second trumpet with The Kansas City
Symphony. In 1993, he performed with the Royal Brass Ensemble at Huis ten Bosch near
Nagasaki, Japan. He then went on, from 1994 through 1996, to serve as a temporary
Assistant Professor o f Music at Washington State University in Pullman, Washington. He
now serves as an Assistant Professor o f Music (Trumpet) at Washington State University.

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AN ANALYSIS, CLARIFICATION, AND REVALUATION OF

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UMI Number: 3001298

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AN ANALYSIS, CLARIFICATION, AND REVALUATION OF

has been approved

Dean, Graduate College^ \

The present study provides a solution to these problems by providing detailed

Rationale for the Study....................................................................

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE.................................................

Use o f Photography to Study Brass Embouchures.......................

Use o f Electromyography to Study Brass Embouchures..............

The Instrumentalist: Brass Anthology............................................

Central and Lateral Incisors Related to Embouchure....................

Summary o f Literature Review.......................................................

PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE DIFFERENT EMBOUCHURE TYPES

Types I and IA .................................................................................

Types II and HA...............................................................................

Types HI, IIIA and LLJLB...................................................................

Types IV and IVA...............................

Upstream and Downstream Embouchures......................................

Oddity o f Type IV and IVA Embouchures.....................................

Tracking and Mouthpiece Placement..............................................

L Front View o f a Type I Dental Structure (Even B ite).........................................

2. Right View o f a Type I Dental Structure (Even Bite).........................................

3. Left View o f a Type I Dental Structure (Even B ite)............................................

View of a Type I Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors).....................................

View of a Type I Dental Structure (Mandible Incisors)......................................

View o f the Mouthpiece Placement o f a Downstream, Type I Embouchure

View o f a Type I Embouchure Playing C4 (Concert B-flat 3)...........................

8. View o f a Type I Embouchure Playing C5 (Concert B-flat 4 )............................

9. View of a Type I Embouchure Playing C6 (Concert B-flat 5)............................

10. Front View of a Type LA. Dental Structure (Even B ite)......................................

11. Right View of a Type LA Dental Structure (Even B ite)......................................

12. Left View of a Type LA Dental Structure (Even B ite)........................................

View of a Type LA Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors).................................

View of a Type LA Dental Structure (Mandible Incisors)..................................

View o f the Mouthpiece Placement of an Upstream, Type IA Embouchure

View of a Type LA Embouchure Playing C 4 ......................................................

View of a Type LA Embouchure Playing C 5......................................................

View of a Type LA Embouchure Playing C 6......................................................

Front View o f a Type LI Dental Structure (Underbite).......................................

Right View of a Type II Dental Structure (Underbite)......................................

21. Left View o f a Type II Dental Structure (Underbite)..........................................

View o f a Type II Dental Structure (MaxillaryIncisors).....................................

View o f a Type II Dental Structure (Mandible Incisors)....................................

View o f the Mouthpiece Placement o f an Upstream, TypeII Embouchure

View o f a Type II Embouchure Playing C 4.........................................................

View of a Type II Embouchure Playing C 5.........................................................

View of a Type II Embouchure Playing C 6.........................................................

Front View o f a Type DA Dental Structure (Underbite)....................................

Right View o f a Type HA. Dental Structure (Underbite)....................................

Left View o f a Type HA. Dental Structure (Underbite)......................................

View of a Type DA Dental Structure (Maxillary Incisors)................................

View of a Type DA Dental Structure (Mandible Incisors).................................

View of the Mouthpiece Placement of an Upstream, TypeDA Embouchure....

View of a Type DA Embouchure Playing C 4 .....................................................