The Hobby Metal Casting Guide To:: Foundry Practice

Gates & Risers
For the hobby metal caster.
The hobby metal casting

Guide To:
Foundry Practice.
Detailed illustrations
For the
Hobby Foundry Worker.
ebook
Compiled By:
The Home Foundry Publications
Australia.
Permission granted to use drawings and material
By: C.W. Ammen
Manitou Springs Colorado USA.
Copyright 1996.
C.W. Ammen is one of the great pioneers
of the backyard hobby foundry movement.
Gates & Risers reprint rights granted to myhomefoundry by C.W.Ammen.

Copyright 1996.
Gates & Risers

By studying and applying the principles of

gating and riser design shown in this ebook,
will help you to unravel the myths surrounding
the art of gating and risering.
Contents Page.
Gating & risering of metal castings. .................................................................3
The general rules for gates & riser...................................................................4
Gate ratio design..............................................................................................6
Spin Casting. ...................................................................................................7
Venting Green Sand Moulds. ...........................................................................8
Multiple Branch Gates......................................................................................9
Types of top gates. ........................................................................................10
Correct heights for cope & drag. ....................................................................11
Notched gates & risers for cast iron. ..............................................................12
Good riser design guide.................................................................................13
Styrofoam Blind Riser. ...................................................................................14
Correct shrink bob design. .............................................................................15
Horn gate Design. ..........................................................................................16
Chill Designs. .................................................................................................18
Chill application on wheel rim. .......................................................................19
Herring bone ingate design............................................................................20

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Gates & Risers

Gating & risering of metal castings.
Gates and risers is just one of the many operations & techniques required to
carry out metal casting successfully; it is also one of the areas that will give
hobby metal casters the most problems.
Nothing will kill a casting (or your enthusiasm for that matter) as quick as insufficient
feed metal from an incorrectly placed riser, or an ingate that delivers too little
metal to the mould cavity, leaving voids and an unfilled mould cavity.
On the other hand, a feeder or ingate that allows the metal to enter the mould
cavity at a great rush and volume will also create big problems for the
inexperienced metal caster.
The placement of gates and risers can be as complex as choosing where to
place multiple ingates for large castings, or choosing the ideal place for a
single ingate or riser on a single casting such as would be found in the home
hobby shop.
The gating & riser illustrations provided in this book will be of great value to
the novice or advanced metal caster alike, study the illustrations carefully.
These are gate & riser designs from a master foundry worker, principles
that were put to good use in many foundries C.W. Ammen managed over
a long period of time, in his long career in the foundry industry.
Compare the ideas and principles shown in this ebook with those that you are
currently using. If youre having problems with your castings, such as hot
tears, shrink cavities, and very bad porosity, then there is a good chance that
you will trace it back to the way you are feeding your castings.
The basic parts of a gating system is to allow the mould to be filled as rapidly
as possible with a minimum amount of turbulence, and to provide sufficient
hot metal to feed the casting during solidification to prevent shrinkage defects.
A given casting will solidify from the thinnest towards the heavy section. The
heavy section must be supplied with a riser or reservoir of hot metal, or it
would shrink as it gives up its liquid metal to feed the solidifying thin section. It
is essential to gate into the heavy section of the casting to provide it with feed
metal.
Always gate into the heaviest section of the casting to provide it with feed
metal. The metal entering the riser must be hot (the last metal to enter during
pouring) to promote feed metal based on directional solidification.
Very often, the amount of feeder metal left attached to the casting could very
well be about half the amount that was actually used to fill the mould cavity,
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Gates & Risers

this wont always be the case, but the point we are making is Do Not Skimp
on the feed metal for your castings.
The general rules for gates & riser.

1. You must have directional solidification from the light sections to the
heavy sections.
2. The pouring basin should be at least three times the diameter of your
sprue.
3. The sprue should be small enough in diameter so that it can be kept
choked during pouring.
4. The gating system should allow the metal to enter the mould fast but
without turbulence.
5. Use sufficient number of gates properly placed to prevent cold shuts
and miss runs.
6. Design the gating system in a manner to prevent the metal form
splashing through the gate.
7. Avoid any gate design that would spray the metal into the mould cavity
8. Gate through the risers if possible, but when doing so choke between
the riser and sprue.
9. Avoid gating against a core. Come in on a tangent so that the metal will
not splash against the core.
10. Avoid all sharp corners in the gating system (use large fillets).
11. Patch and clean out gates, give them the same attention that you give
the mould cavity.
12. Do not cut gates by hand, if possible, use mounted gates or set gates.
13. Use round down gates, cut with a tapered metal sprue cutter. When
using a gate stick it should be smooth so that the downgate sand will
be firmly rammed and smooth.
14. A piece of paper or tin should be placed over the pouring basin of
closed moulds until they are ready to pour.
There is no magic formula, or one single method that will provide perfect
feeds to all castings, the requirements of the high production foundry shop will
vary greatly to the backyard hobby worker pouring just a few sand moulds.
Hard earned experience is a great teacher when it comes to metal casting, if
you carry out a pour and find it is not successful, you will need to analyse or
review your methodsdont run away in despairlearn from your
mistakesrevise the set up, ask your self
Did I place the ingate or feeder at the heaviest section of the casting?
Does the casting require two ingates or more to deliver sufficient
metal?
Is the riser situated at the best spot on the casting IE, at the heaviest
section?
Is the runner bar or channel of sufficient area to allow the correct
quantity of metal to fill the mould cavities quickly with a minimum
amount of turbulence? (A runner bar is used to feed multiple ingates & castings)
Is the riser too short, a short riser will not provide enough hydrostatic
pressure on the casting?
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Gates & Risers

Is the riser neck too narrow, which will freeze too early and cut of the
feed metal supply before the casting has solidified?
These questions, and dozens more will present themselves every time that
you carry out moulding and metal casting, it is only through much experience
where you will come to a point which will enable you to asses a pattern, and
decide how you will feed and place risers for successful metal casting.
The following illustrations will help the hobby metal caster make an informed
decision regarding the correct method to gate and riser your castings.
This end of the
runner bar will
also act as a dirt
& dross catcher.
This method of
gating is normal
accepted practice
The illustrations here explain the

relationship between the runner
bar, ingates and the patterns.
The mould parting line passes
through the middle of the whole
set up. The runner bar should be
of a suitable size to carry enough
metal for the quantity of castings
to be fed.
Keep the length of the ingate as
short as possible within
practicality of the set up you are
using.
In some instances it is possible to choke the gates down at the entry point of
the pattern, which is achieved by making the neck of the gate narrower.
The reduction at this point also serves as a break off point when removing the
castings when the castings have cooled.
It is not unusual for the runner bar and gates to consume a considerable
amount of metal, if you only have a small capacity crucible, just be aware of
the total amount of metal you will use to pour the castings and runners etc.

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Gate ratio design.
The secret to your

casting will depend
on your ability to
grasp the meaning
of the
accompanying
illustration. The
important
information here is
the relationship
between the area in
the runner bar and
that of the gates
feeding the casting.
Notice that the
runner bar will hold
a total of 4 areas of metal; the gates represent a total of 3 areas. While the
sprue represents just one area.
Flow rate:
The relationship of pouring rate, height of sprue, area and diameter of the
sprue. Eg. A round sprue of " (20mm) diameter X 5" tall (125mm) will deliver
1 pound of molten metal per second.
A sprue the same size, only 15" tall will deliver 1- pounds per second.
A 2 " sprue X 5" tall, will deliver 5 pounds per second and at 15 " tall X 2"
dia, it will deliver 10 pounds per second.
The metal fed down the sprue will quickly fill the runner bar, which will then
start feeding the metal into the ingates and castings.
The molten metal in the runner bar should back up into the sprue, which
should be kept fully choked for the duration of the pour.
The smaller three areas of the gates will ensure that the hydrostatic pressure
in the pouring system should remain even and constant until the mould
cavities are full. The sprue & runner bar will then take over their intended
design purpose of feeding metal to the castings until the solidification stage, if
during this stage, the casting is starved of feed metal, the casting will show
the effects of hot tears, shrink cavities and cracking, and a high degree of
porosity. Any of these defects, will render your casting useless
The ingate design above shows how the metal travels down the sprue, then
enters the runner bar channel, the metal runs down the runner bar past the
gates and then backs up, and finally runs through the angled ingates and into
the castings.
Experimentation is the key to finding the correct feeding relationship between
the sprue, runners and gates; the info contained in this manual should help to
solve any problems you may encounter.
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Spin Casting.
Spin casting is one of the most useful

ways that many small high quality
parts, toys or medallions can be cast
at the same time. The biggest problem
for the home metal caster will be
building a suitable spin-casting rig. A
handy gadget fabricator could quite
easily cobble some parts together and
build a manually operated simple spincasting table, a solid table could be
mounted on a sturdy shaft and bearing, which would allow a
smooth operation. A cheap electric motor could also be used, it
would have to be geared down to a very slow RPM to make it
suitable, spin casting is well worth the time and effort and
investigating what can be achieved with this method.
This is a sectional view

through the actual sand
mould, notice that the
molten metal has to climb
up over some humps built
into the gates, this helps
to keep the sprue fully
choked during the pour,
and regulates the flow of
metal into the small
cavities.
A lot of spin casting is
done with low melting
point metals, the mould in
this case is made from a
high temperature resistant butyl rubber compound, but there is nothing to stop
you using green sand moulds to do the same thing, the only difference is
that you will have to remake your sand moulds after every pour, as you would
anyway with normal sand casting. An advantage would be achieved if several
sand moulds were made up at the same time, to enable the placement of
each mould on the spin table, enabling several pours to be done with the one
potful of metal.

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Venting Green Sand Moulds.
Venting of green
sand moulds is one
of the most
important steps to
carry out as you go
through the
moulding process.
The vent holes act
as relief valves for
the steam that
builds up in the
sand mould during
the pouring of the
hot molten metal.
Green
sand
is
tempered
with
about 6% of water when working with aluminium, the drier and less water you
can use; the less steam will be generated during the pour. Unfortunately you
have to use water to condition your sand, otherwise it wont hold together
when the mould is rammed.
The only alternative to counteracting the moisture in the sand is to vent the
mould thoroughly, dont spare the vent holes! you need as many as you can
get into the sand. Take care during the venting procedure, do not press the
vent wire into the sand so hard as to damage the soft timber pattern, just ease
the vent wire down until you feel it touch the pattern, and then withdraw and
repeat the process over & over until the whole sand mould has been vented.
There are no short cuts to achieve good quality metal castings, you must
follow the guidelines and proper procedure at all times, as tedious as this may
soundthe quality of castings produced will only be as good as the total
preparation put into the moulding/casting session from start to finish.
If you follow poor procedures, then you will be rewarded with poor castings,
and this is the reason why so may people who try metal casting give up on the
hobby, the simple reason is that they dont understand why theyre not
achieving the success they desire.
The technique of green sand casting is centuries old; take a look at some of
the brilliant castings displayed in museums, produced by ancient civilisations.
Producing quality castings should not be a real problem today not even for
the dedicated hobby foundry worker.
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Gates & Risers

Multiple Branch Gates.
Multiple branch
gates allow very
efficient feeding of
castings from a
runner and single
sprue, you may
need to refer back
to the design ratio
discussed in the
previous pages.
This side view of

the multiple gate
arrangement shows
the sprue taper,
and the relatively
large area of the
runner bar.
Note also the taper
applied
to
the
ingate, the narrow
section acts as the
choke to control the
rate of feed into the
casting. The metal
needs to be able to
enter the mould
cavity quickly but under a calm environment, if the metal is allowed to squirt
into the mould cavity the metal will create sand wash around delicate parts of
the mould, sand wash will leave the casting looking rough and with missing
detail.
The taper of the sprue allows the metal to back up during pouring and the
neck controls the rate of flow, it is called a choke.
Think of the gates merely as the plumbing system for delivering the molten
metal to the mould cavity or casting, you can use a variety of different designs
to arrive at the most suitable type of gating system for either single or multiple
castings.

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Gates & Risers

Types of top gates.
The
illustrations here show the

various types of drop gates that can
be used for metal casting.
The hobby caster may not be
interested in using any of these types
of gates.
The wedge gate has been used by
the writer, when pouring and casting
certain types of aluminium castings.
The decision to use one type of drop

gate over another will mainly come from your own experience during your
journey as a metal caster.
We spoke a little earlier
about straining metal while
pouring. A very simple, and
effective metal strainer can
be made by using coarse
stainless steel wool. The
type that is used in the
domestic kitchen is ideal for
the purpose.
The wool needs to pulled
apart a little so that is not a
tight weave; the metal has to
be able pass through it
without too much restriction.
Dont try this idea on a mould, which has taken you a long time to make up,
experiment on a trial mould, to determine how dense, or thin the strainer
needs to be, to work the way it should.
Commercial foundries use ceramic strainers placed in the down sprue to trap
dirt and other foreign matter, it is also well known that this treatment of metal
also improves the mechanical properties, especially the aluminium alloys.

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Gates & Risers

Correct heights for cope & drag.
The height of the cope and drag is very important; the following illustrations
will give you material to study so that you can implement the correct height for
moulds being constructed.
They need to be right for the type of casting being produced, you neither need
them to be too high which means using too much sand nor too low in which
case there will be insufficient hydrostatic pressure in the sprue to maintain
enough pressure on the casting during the pour and solidification.
The illustration here
clearly shows that the
height of the cope & drag
are far too low. The
casting is too close to the
bottom mould board and
the height of the cope is
too low.
Insufficient pressure will
result from such a low
sprue height.
The cope height shown in

this illustration is considered
to be of the correct height.
The casting will be poured
with a sprue considered to
be the right height and will
develop the correct feed
pressure.
This is the way to get around

not having mould boxes of
the correct height, by
building whats known as an
upset (just like another
smaller mould box built atop
the cope) this will give the
correct height for the cope
without having to build
another box. You could call
this a cheater.

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Gates & Risers

Notched gates & risers for cast iron.
The
following illustrations explain the way to apply notches in gates and

risers to enable easy removal from the casting after solidification.
This method is mainly used with cast iron, but could also be utilised with
aluminium castings when the need arises.
If the notches are designed correctly, the gates or risers will only require a
good tap with a suitable mallet or hammer to remove it.
Removing gates by this method is quicker than, say, using an angle grinder
with abrasive cutting disc attached.
The abrasive disc cutting produce excessive amounts of cast iron dust.
Study the illustrations above, they are really self-explanatory, and do not
require further explanation.
The neck core above is placed in this position which otherwise would be
impossible to notch with normal procedure, the neck core could be a dry sand
core ring, or baked sand core ring of a suitable size.
The size would need to be carefully calculated so as to not impede the flow of
feed metal back into the casting; otherwise shrinkage or hot tears may result.

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Gates & Risers

Good riser design guide.
Good riser design is important to achieve sound castings, if castings are

denied adequate feed metal during solidification, you can expect many faulty
castings as a result of this.
Experience is a good teacher when it comes to selecting a suitably designed
riser for a given casting or castings.
Apply the principles of good riser design shown in the image at the top left
hand corner.
Be aware of the problems shown in the other images. The riser design, if
correctly done will ensure that sound castings will be delivered.
As a hobby caster the ideas shown on these pages should be an excellent
guide to good gate & riser design.
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Gates & Risers

Styrofoam Blind Riser.
Blind Styrofoam risers enable feeders to be placed in sand moulds when it is

not possible to feed a casting by normal methods, the most important part of
the process is to have a stout tapered support pin (attached to the pattern)
which will allow the Styrofoam riser to lift away from the pattern and remain
captive in the sand mould.
Note also the vent MUST exit through the top of the sand mould to the
atmosphere, the putrid smell of vaporised Styrofoam is not a pleasant smell, it
is a good idea to pour near a doorway.
To make a styrofoam
riser, plain styrofoam
packing can be used to
good effect.
The shape can be
fashioned to resemble a
sphere but it is not
totally important, as long
as it is somewhere near
the shape shown here
the riser will work OK.
The mould has been

rammed, the cope
mould box has been
lifted of the drag, as the
cope is lifted the foam
riser is held captive in
the sand.
The pattern is removed
from the drag mould; the
cavity is gently blown
out to remove any
debris. The mould is
closed again. Make sure
the vent to the
atmosphere is clear.
The Styrofoam riser method is an easy way to solve feeding problems that
would otherwise be very difficult to achieve, the secret to the whole idea is to
make sure the foam riser will stay captive in the sand and not break away
while the moulds are parted to remove the pattern.
With some practice and careful work, the process should not give many
problems, in fact this is a good intro to actually using full styrene foam
patterns instead of normal wood patterns etcbut this process is another
story, we wont be covering the use of foam patterns here.

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Gates & Risers

Correct shrink bob design.
The
shrink bob allows the

placement of a sphere of molten
metal right at the ingate, this will
help to feed the casting along
with the sprue, the shrink bob will
remain liquid for longer than the
sprue, always place the shrink
bob upwards in the cope as this
promotes the feed metal towards
the casting.
The bob design is simply built

into the pattern on the ingate.
Make sure there are no dags or rough spots on or around the bob, to snag on
the mould sand when the cope is lifted from the drag.
The tilt mould choke is a quick

and easy technique to apply
when required.
It prevents any air being drawn
into the mould cavity; it can be
used when pouring brass,
bronze and aluminium.
Dont tilt the mould box
upwards too far, other wise the
head of metal may be above
the sprue head height.
You should by now have a further understanding of the importance of gates &
risers in your casting work, hopefully you will give a little more thought to the
gating and riser arrangements required for good casting practice.
As we have mentioned previously, it is only when you have had some trial and
error experience with metal casting, that you realize just how important this
department of moulding is. It is just not good enough to scratch a channel in
the sand from the sprue to the casting cavity and hope for the best.
It is possible to make an effort and set out a carefully designed gating and
riser system for your castingsno matter how simple they are.
The more practice you have with this work the better you will become at
judging what kind of gating, eg size, quantity and areas needed for a
particular single or multiple casting set up. The many examples shown in this
ebook will be of great benefit to you.

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Gates & Risers

Horn gate Design.
Foundry workers of days gone by always used the horn gate to feed a large
number of castings in green sand moulds. There is no reason why the hobby
foundry worker of today cannot apply the same techniques.
The horn gate allows infinite control over the speed at which the metal enters
the mould cavity, By looking at the horn gate design shown here, it is clear
that it is tapered from one end to the other, therefore the horn can be reversed
to allow a very calm non turbulent entry of molten metal to the mould cavity,
this is particularly useful when delicate parts of the sand mould are prone to
metal wash, such as during the casting of name plates & plaques with fine
letters and details etc.
The following illustrations will detail the design features of the horn gate, to
make one from wood will require a lot of patience and carving skill, an ideal
way would be to turn a taper on some flexible material, finish it very smoothly
and bend it and sand mould it, then pour an aluminium casting from it.
The casting would also require much hand finishing before you could use it.
This is the shape or design of the simple
horn-gate; the size will need to be chosen to
suit the casting jobs you have at hand.
There are no hard and fast rules as to how
you apply the design.
A horn gate could also be made by making a
core box designed to give a horn gate in the
shape of a U, the U would be a wide
shallow shape made up of two halves glued
together to form the horn gate, it would most
likely give as good a result as the traditional
horn gate.
Horn gate can be placed into mould

with small or large end to deliver
metal to the cavity. The wide end will
deliver non-turbulent molten metal to
sand mould.
The illustration above shows the drag upside down, it has been rammed with
the pattern and horn gate in place, and the next illustration will show the
mould has been turned right side up, ready to carry out the rest of the
operations.

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Gates & Risers

So here we are, at the last

illustration explaining about horn
gates, it has been said that horn
gates are the Most Useful Gate
a moulder can use, even if at the
moment you are not ready to start
using the horn gate feed to
castings, it will definitely be well
worth your while to start
experimenting with this gate
system. All you need is some
practice.
To draw the horn from the sand
mould, insert a pattern screw
remover into the end of the horn, it may require some light rapping first just to
make it loose enough to draw, it is drawn out in a circular motion, do not
deviate from this motion otherwise you may damage the sand mould and
have to repeat the moulding process all over again, that will be good practice
for you, but you may not be happy.
This horn gate design is an
alternative to the traditional
design used by all the old
moulders off days gone by.
There is still a reasonable
amount of work to do to make
this type of horn gate. A core
box is required to make the
two halves. Many of these
could be produced using the
Co2 method of core making.
Gating of your castings is not just a matter of cutting a random channel or

runner in the sand mould and trusting that will be adequate for the job, as you
have learnt so far, there is much more to getting the metal into the moulds
than meets the eye.
There are as many solutions to gating as there are different pattern designs,
just remember that whenever youre planing out your gates and runners that
you must always feed to the heaviest part of the casting, that goes for ingates
as well as sprues and risers.

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An excellent material for the hobby worker is craft wood, this can be easily cut
& sanded to prepare and make permanent gates on pattern boards. This
technique is explained in the metal casting made easy foundry ebook.
Chill Designs.
Chills are placed in certain positions in sand moulds to act as denseners i.e.
to make the metal cool much quicker than the metal which is surrounded by
the cool moulding sand. This chilling effect has the effect of tightening the
molecular structure of the metal. Chills can be used to control the rate of
solidification towards a particular area of the casting. Chills are also used to
create dense metal in castings to be used as pressure castings, eg hydraulic
slave cylinders etc.
The small selection of chills shown here will give you some idea of the
many different shapes & sizes that can be applied to metal casting there is no
one set of chill design, it depends entirely on what you want to achieve.
I know of one case where a small foundry was casting small aluminium
clutch slave cylinders, the first batch ever made were so porous that fluid
sprayed out through the walls of the Al cylinder when under pressure, this
problem was not discovered until the cylinders were fully machined and
tested.
Many problems had to be solved, the first was insufficient feed metal
(risers) the second was solved by using steel chills on the ends and along the
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barrel of the cylinder, chills made the metal as tight as a drum, & that was the
end of all the problems.
Chill application on wheel rim.
This illustration shows the

application of a ring chill, the
casting could be that of a
wheel, which needs to have
very hard chilled outer surface,
railroad wheel rolling stock is
treated in this manner to create
the hardwearing surface
required for railroad work.
If the hobby caster was to
employ this chilling method, a
special ring would need to be
made to fit around the pattern, on lifting the pattern from the mould, the chill
remains captive in the sand, when the molten metal is poured into the sand
mould, as it fills, the chill effect starts immediately.
When the casting is completely cooled, the chill ring is removed, its job being
complete.
Horse shoe ingates.
The horseshoe gate is an effective method of
feeding a casting that needs to be fed quickly,
but with out creating any turbulence, the
horseshoe gate is similar to a multiple branch
gate system as detailed earlier in the book.
Remember to carry out the method of
calculating the areas of the sprue and the
gates to ensure proper feeding.
The gates can also be necked down to
create the correct choke effect for the casting,
trial and error may need to be undertaken to
arrive at the best configuration. The home foundry worker may need to carry
out more trial and error than you may want to, but at times that is the only way
to figure out what will work best for you. Once you discover the correct
method, make sure you document the results and how it was achieved.
This is how you get repeatable results to use over & over.
Many workers do not document their hobby foundry work, if you dont
document your methods, you will have no idea where you went wrong, you
dont have to go over board about itjust make simple notes about your
various operations, and then when things go wrong you can sit down and

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analyse where you went wrongif there are no notes how are you going to do
this?
Herring bone ingate design.

Herringbone ingates are an ideal method of feeding multiple small castings
from a large runner bar. There are two ways to set up herringbone gates, the
first method is known as straight in, the other is the reverse
herringbone method, both work satisfactorily, it will come down to the
personal choice of the metal caster, both systems work OK.
This system is the most

commonly used gating
arrangement of the two
herringbone methods.
This is the reverse herringbone

method, which is also favoured
by many foundry workers. This
method forces the metal to back
up; less dirt will enter castings
using this method.
This ebook is going to end with a

discussion about placing the ingate in
the cope or the drag.
Usually it is preferred that it is placed in
the drag, this is accepted foundry
practice, but there is no rule set in
concrete that you must do this.
There will be times when you may have
to place the gate in the cope, there is
nothing wrong with that, but the
preferred method is to place them in the
drag part of the mould.

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Carry out some trial and error casting work to see what works best for you,
hobby casting as all about experimenting and learning the simple processes
that work well for you.
This ebook is not the last word on setting up gates and risers, there are many
other complex methods, which could be used, but the hobby caster would find
them too complex to implement.
Read over the material as many times as you need, to learn the methods
which will give you good results with your foundry, sand and working
methods.
We hope you have enjoyed reading and learning from this ebook.
If you need to contact us please use this email address
col@myhomefoundry.com
The web site URL is:
http://www.myhomefoundry.com
The home foundry publications
4058 Usshers Drive
Wangaratta
Victoria
Australia.
Other publications available.
The 3 - volume hobby metal casting ebook.
Almost 100 pages of How To hobby metal casting knowledge.

In the words of Jerry Twaddell.
I think you have an outstanding product for the beginner and intermediate caster.
Best, Jerry
Foundryman in Missouri, USA
Custom Castings by Twaddell

Copyright 1996.
21

The Hobby Metal Casting Guide To:: Foundry Practice

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Gates & Risers

For the hobby metal caster.