ExcellenceinMathematics

ReportfromtheMathsExcellenceGroup
Foreword
TheadoptionofCurriculumforExcellencerepresentsasignificantstepforwardforeducationin
Scotland.Butitisonlyastep,andthebiggestchallengeliesahead,becausethecurriculumthat
mattersisnotwhatisinthedocumentsitisinthelivedexperienceofchildrenandyoungpeople
inScottishschools.
Tooofteninthepast,curriculumreformhasbeenregardedasasimpleprocess.Itisnot,because
thecurriculumcomestolifeonlywheneachteacherfindsawayofmakingsenseofitinthe
contextofherorhisownclassroom.Implementinganewcurriculumisthereforenotaprocessof
givingnewinstructionstoteachers.Itinvolveseveryteacherincreatingnewknowledgeabout
howtoengagechildrenandyoungpeopleinnewactivities,newideasandnewkindsoflearning.
Itisfundamentallyacreativeprocess.
Thismeansthatteachers,workingtogetherinschools,willneedtoexplore,experiment,and
exchangeideasabouthowtomakeCurriculumforExcellenceworkforthem.Noamountofwell
meaningadvicebyexpertscanreplacethis.
Sowhyhavewewrittenthisreport?Becausewhilewecannotprovideaninstructionmanualora
roadmapforimplementingCurriculumforExcellence,webelievethatwecanhelpteachersavoid
someofthepotentialblindalleysanddeadends,andprovidesomepromptsthatmaystimulate
reflection.
Wehavedrawnonresearchevidencewhereappropriate,buttherearemanyareaswherethe
researchevidenceisinconclusive,orevencontradictory,andteacherswillneedtousetheir
professionaljudgmentindecidingwhatweighttoplaceontheevidenceinthisreport.
Thereismuchworktodo,butthebenefitsaresignificanttohelpchildrenandyoungpeoplein
Scotlandtounderstandandvaluethepowerofmathematics,toequipthemwiththeskillsto
contributeeffectivelyintheworldofworkandincivilsociety,butalso,andperhapsmost
importantly,toexercisegreatercontrolovertheirownlives.

DylanWiliam,Cochair,MathematicsExcellenceGroup

InmybusinesscareerIhaveseentherelevanceandapplicationofmathematicsskillsintwo
distinctareas:

asabusinessleaderinthefinancialsectorIhaveseentheimportanceofnumeracyforall
employeeswhoworkinourbusinesswhethertheyarecustomerservicestaff,specialist
financeoractuarialprofessionals,ITworkersorHRandtrainingstaff

throughmyworkinthefieldoffinancialcapabilityinschoolsandwithpeopleinlaterlifeI
haveseentheimportanceofnumeracyincopingwiththecountlessfinancialdecisionswe
makeeveryday.

Whetheritisbyowningamobilephoneforthefirsttime,orsavingforanewPCgame,orfootball
stripwiththenewstarsnameemblazonedonthebackdealingwithfinancialmatterscreatesan
opportunitytoengageallchildrenwithmathematicsinarelevantandexcitingway.

IcommendtheworkoftheExcellenceGroupinproducingsuchareadableandvaluablereport.It
willcontributeinarealwaytoimprovingthedevelopmentofmathematicsteachinginScotland.

OttoThoresen,ChiefExecutive,AEGONUK

ExcellenceinMathematics
Introduction
Tofacethechallengesofthe21stcentury,eachyoungpersonneedstohaveconfidence
inusingmathematicalskills,andScotlandneedsbothspecialistmathematiciansanda
highlynumeratepopulation.(BuildingtheCurriculum1)
Mathematicspermeatesallaspectsofmodernlife.Mathematicscontinuestogrowin
importanceintheworldofwork,butmathematicalcapabilityhasalsobecomeessentialfor
improvingonespersonallife.Fosteringexcellenceinmathematicsisthereforenotjustvital
toeverynationseconomicprosperity.Itisalsoessentialtocreatinganequitablesociety.
Numeracyisanimportantpartofmathematicalcapability,butmathematicsismorethan
justbecomingfamiliarandfluentwithnumbers.Mathematicalcapabilityincludes:

Usingandapplyingskillsintherealworld,includingtheappropriateuseofinformation
andcommunicationstechnology(ICT)

Beingopentonewideasandalternatives,andappreciativeoftheimportanceof
evidence,andcriticalreasoning

Beingcurious,imaginativeanddiligent

Thesectionsthatfollowinthisreportwilloffersomedetailsonandexemplarsofkey
elementsofexcellenceinmathematics,whichwillinclude:

Motivating,engagingandimaginativeuseofmathematicsacrosslearning,inlifeandin
work

Characteristicsofeffectivemathematicsteachingandlearningexperiences.

Aclearandfullunderstandingofessentialknowledgeandofprogressionwithinthe
developmentofskillsandconceptsinmathematics,includingkeynumeracyskillsand
techniques.

Effectiveassessmentasthebridgebetweenteachingandlearning

Maintenanceanddevelopmentbyeducatorsofessentialmathematicalknowledgeand
skills,andofappropriatepedagogicalskillsthroughplanned,highqualitycontinuous
professionaldevelopment(CPD)

Theimportanceofpartnerships,externalinsightsandsupport

Eachsectionconcludeswithsomequestionsforteachers,forleadersandforpolicymakersto
generatereflectionontheissuesraised.

Imaginativeuseofmathematicsacrosslearning,inlifeandwork
CurriculumforExcellencepromotesthedevelopmentofandsupportforNumeracyAcross
Learningastheresponsibilityofallteachers.Whereappropriate,thereshouldalsobe
opportunitiestoapplymathematicalconceptsandskillsinothercurriculumareasandparticularly
inscience,technologyandengineering(togetherwithmathematicstheseareoftencalledthe
STEMdisciplines).Successfullydoingsohighlightstheirsignificanceandrelevance,deepens
learningacrossthecurriculum,reinforcesthenumeracyandmathematicalconceptsandskills
learnedand,therefore,hasthepotentialtostrengthenthelearnersinterest,motivation,
engagementandachievement.Toensuredepth,youngpeoplemustbeabletoapplythekey
mathematicalskillsandunderstandingtheyhaveacquiredinnew,nonroutineandrelevant
contexts.Centraltothisisthedevelopmentofhigherorderthinkingskillsthatenablethelearner
toidentifywhichparticularmathematicaltechniquescanbeappropriatelyappliedinorderto
progresstowardsasolutiontoaproblem.Whenanewskillhasbeenacquired,adegreeof
repeatedpracticeandconsolidationmayberequiredintheshorttermbutitisvitalthatlearners
areprovidedwitharangeofrealisticopportunitiesandactivitieswithinwhichtoapplythenew
skillinbothfamiliarandunfamiliarcontexts.Forexample,wellplannedinterdisciplinaryactivities
thatextendmathematicalskillsandallowtheirapplicationinfresh,relevant,excitingand
increasinglycomplexcontextswillservetoengageandenthuselearners.

BiomassEating
Boiler,and
MTH
3-20b,MTH
TCH 3-20b,
3-06b, TCH
TCH 3-06b,
3-08b, TCH
MNU3-08b,
3-20aMNU 3-20a
Healthy
Living,
Collaboration between
between Mathematics
Mathematics,and
Geography
and Science
Collaboration
ICT

Thepupils
school
undertook
inter-disciplinary
activity,
centred on
the big
What
S1
work
in Maths an
in groups
to collect data
from surveying
a sample
ofquestion
pupils from
each
year
will the
impact
of
future
climate
change
be
on
the
schools
current
energy
group on what products they think should be on sale in the healthy tuck shop, use digital
management
system?, provided by their Biomass Boiler. The project could reflect
video technology to capture the views of a sample of pupils, raise their awareness of current
global issues
exploration
in a local
context
and would
that e
regulations
andthrough
guidelines
regarding healthy
tuck
shops (national
anddemonstrate
local) and undertak
some
numeracy
skills
are transferable
across
curricular
areas.
product
research
using the internet.
The
pupils work
in Computing using appropriate
handling software to store and organise the survey data and to prepare digital
data
Within mathematics, pupils used weather data from a local Met Office station, to plot a
presentations of their findings and recommendations. Each group delivers its presentation to
time series of average temperatures or rainfall against the energy output from the
h h l l
d h
il
hi h
()
h
h l HWB
boiler in order to try to identify any correlation between the data sets. In Science,
pupils visited the biomass boiler to find out more about it and they carried out a
practical investigation into the power output from woodchips and looked at the cost of

the energy. In Geography, pupils used weather graphs to discuss long-term trends, to
make individual predictions about future trends and to discuss the impact of future
trends on the energy cost for the school.

Throughout the activities, there was a focus on both numeracy skills and transferable

life skills such as investigation, analysis and evaluation. As well as collaborating

effectively
to integrate numeracy learning across learning, teachers worked hard to

ensure that concepts specific to the individual disciplines were also developed
effectively.

Inordertoprovidewellplanned,imaginativeandeffectiveinterdisciplinary
workingandcollaboration
Teachersshouldconsider:

Whenplanningactivities,whichfeaturesofinterdisciplinarylearningandcollaboration
theyareemphasizing,andhowthiswilladdvalueintermsofitsimpactonyoung
peopleslearning?

Dotheactivitiesprovidechildrenandyoungpeoplewithopportunitiestotalkabout
andexplaintheirmathematicalideasandunderstanding?

Howtheywillpromotethelearnersactiveparticipationandensurethatthelearning
providesappropriatechallengeandskillsprogression?

Whethertheactivitiesprovideopportunitiesforlearnerstoworkindependentlyand
withothers?

Inthecourseoftheactivities,areopportunitiestomakeclearreferencetokey
conceptsmaximised?

HavetheactivitiesbeendesignedtoprovideopportunitiesforgooduseofICTto
promoteunderstandingandtoenliventeaching?

Whatstepshavebeentakentoensurethattheactivitiesarereviewed,improvedand
sustained?

Schoolleadersshouldconsider:

Howtoensurethattherearestructuredandregularopportunitiesforkeystaffto
collaboratetoplanlearningopportunitiesacrosslearning,richinnumberand
mathematicalcontexts.

Howtodevelopasharedunderstandingandagreementamongallteachersofkey
numeracyconcepts,definitions,terminologiesandteachingmethodologies.Thisis
essentialtoensurethatlearnerscanmakethedesiredconnectionsintheir
mathematicallearningacrossthecurriculumareas.

Theimplicationsforschoolsystemsandresourcesofenablinghighquality
interdisciplinarylearningandcollaboration.

Policymakersshouldconsider:

Howcantheassessmentsystemsinplaceprovideclearincentivesforteachersand
leaderstogiveappropriateemphasistohighqualityinterdisciplinarylearningand
collaboration.

Themathematicallearningexperience
A recent report from Her Majestys Inspectors of Education, Learning Together: Mathematics,
suggestedthateffectivelearninginmathematicalactivitieshasthefollowingcharacteristics:
Goodpaceanddepthoflearning
Teachersneedtoplanmathematicaltasksandactivitiesthatmeettheneedsofalllearnerswell.
Keyfeaturesofwellpacedlessonsincludeaclearandsharedfocusonthepurposeandexpected
outcomes of learning, an optimum amount of time spent on active learning (rather than, for
example,workingthroughnumerouspagesinatextbook),highlevelsoflearnermotivation and
engagementinthinking.Effectiveteachingensuresalsothattherewillbenosignificantgapsin
learners knowledge or skills development. To achieve an appropriate pace, teachers need to
consider both the rate of learning and learners capacity to acquire new concepts. It should be
notedthatpaceisnotthesameasspeed.Paceinlessonsrequiresthatasmuchoftheavailable
timeinlessonsisspentwithlearnersmindsonslowerpaceoflearningbutwithagreaterfocus
on learners deeper understanding can increase achievement i . It is also important that artificial
ceilingsarenotplacedontheexpectationsoflearners:somelearnerssimplyneedabitmoretime
to understand fully important concepts and skills, or have them presented in a slightly different
way.
Challenge,enjoymentandpositiveattitudes
Teachersshouldaimtosettasksandactivitiesofincreasinglevelsofcomplexitythatcontinually
develop, reinforce and extend learners understanding. Appropriate challenges and embedded
problemswillhelplearnersmakeconnectionsbetweenaspectsofmathematicsandtotheirprior
mathematicalunderstanding.Activitiesshouldalsopromotehigherorderthinkingskillsincluding
analysis,reasoning,deduction,andcreativity(seeBloomsrevisedtaxonomy)andshouldrequire
learners to apply their knowledge and skills to solve relevant problems; bringing the real world
intothemathematicsclassroomshelpslearnerstomakeimportantconnectionssothattheycan
useandapplythemathematicstheylearnintheclassroomelsewhere ii .
Independentandcollaborativelearning
Independent learning requires learners to be confident enough to make smart choices, for
example, about the resources they use, how to approach tasks and in terms of monitoring and
evaluating their own progress. Effective collaborative learning challenges individuals to think
independentlyaswellastosharetheirthinking,toengageactivelyindiscussionandtodebateand
learnfromeachother.
ActiveLearning
One of the most important things learned about the human brain in the 20th century was that
learningisnotaprocessofpassivelyacquiringknowledgeweactivelyconstructourknowledge,
and themoreengagedwe arein activities, the morelikely they are to resultin lasting learning.
This does not mean that children and young people need to be physically active while learning.
Rather it means that teachers should provide opportunities for play and other activities which
require learners to engage cognitively with, and respond to their learning, to analyse and make
decisions, explain their thinking, and synthesise aspects of their existing skills. Providing
knowledge and skills without due reference to other connected aspects of mathematics or
relevant contexts and meaningful activities will limit learners mathematical development.
Learners should be encouraged to think deeply about mathematical ideas and concepts, to

develop and deepen their own understanding and to use their existing skills and knowledge in
differentcontexts,includingtheirapplicationinunfamiliarandnonroutineproblems.

Confidenceandsecurity
Itisimportantthatlearnersaresecureintheirmathematicalknowledgeandunderstanding.They
needtobeabletorecognisethemathematicsinarangeofcontextsandhavetheconfidenceto
applytheskills.Todothis,learnersneedagoodrangeofrichexperiences.Buttheyalsoneedto
understand that everyone can learn mathematics. Many adults (including parents) say that they
werenogoodatmaths.Manyadultsappeartobehappytoadmitthis,whileforothers,itisa
realsourceofanxiety.

InareportfortheScottishGovernment iii ,DianaCobendescribedhowmanyadultslookingbackat

their mathematical life histories shared similar experiences. Three themes were particularly
common:

Thebrickwallthepoint(usuallyinchildhood)atwhichmathematicsstoppedmakingsense;
forsomepeopleitwaslongdivision,forothersfractionsoralgebra,whileothersneverhitthe
brickwall.Forthosewhodid,theimpactwasoftentraumaticandlonglasting.
Thesignificantothersomeoneperceivedasamajorinfluenceonthepersonsmathslife
history.Theinfluencemightbepositiveornegative,pastorpresent.Significantothers
included,forexample,aparentwhotriedtohelpwithmathshomework;ateacherwhomade
thepersonfeelstupid;apartnerwhounderminedthepersonsconfidenceintheir
mathematicalabilities.
ThedoormarkedMathematics,lockedorunlocked,whichpeoplehavetogothroughto
enterorgetoninachosenlineofworkorstudy.

Forsome,theemotionalreactioncanbesoprofoundastoinducefeelingsofdreadthatinterfere
stronglywiththeconcentrationneededtocarryoutmathematicaltasks iv andtheassumptionthat
Icantdomathstakesover.Whilepracticecanbeimportantinaddressingthis,itisusuallymuch
moreproductivetoalleviateanxietyandtosupportthelearner,forexamplebyusingalternative
approaches, and making sure that learners do not feel unduly pressured to complete activities
quickly.HelpinglearnersshiftfromIcantdothistoIcantdothisyetbuildsconfidencethat
effortgeneratessuccessinmathematics,anditcanalsobehelpfultosupportparentsandcarers
so that they too can support learning. Teachers and tutors may well become the significant
others for a number of children and young people. Whether that significance is positive or
negativedependsentirelyontheteacherandtheirteachingmethods.Theymightbetheperson
whohelpstounlockthedoororwhogivesapupiltheconfidencetopassthroughit,forexample
by using alternative approaches, and making sure that learners do not feel unduly pressured to
completeactivitiesquickly.

Inordertogenerateengagingandeffectivelearningexperiencesfor
mathematics
Teachersshouldconsider:

Whichofthecurrentaspectsoftheirpracticearemosteffectiveinachievingthekindsof
mathematicalexperiencesdescribedinthissection?

Howcantheybuildonthesesuccessestoapplytheseapproachesinotherareasoftheir
practice?

Schoolleadersshouldconsider:

Whatkindsofsupportwillteachersneedindevelopingtheirpracticeinthewaydescribed
inthissection?

Howcanthebestbalancebestruckbetweenaccountabilityandsupporttoensurethat
teacherscontinuetomeettheneedsofthelearnerswhilealsotakingmeasuredriskson
improvingtheirpractice?

Policymakersshouldconsider:

Howcanwhatisknownabouteffectivepracticeinmathematicsteachingbemore
effectivelycommunicatedtopractitionersandleaders?

Characteristicsofeffectiveteachinginmathematics
The HMIe report Learning together: mathematics notes that effective teaching in mathematics
requires teachers to increase childrens ability to use mathematics to solve problems. However,
not all teachers identify appropriate and relevant contexts, instead relying too much on
commercially produced schemes. In order to achieve higher standards in mathematics and to
makeitmorerelevanttolearners,continuousprofessionaldevelopment(CPD)mustfeaturemore
strongly within schools and local learning communities, whereby staff can share good practice,
modeleffectiveteaching,coach/mentorandprovideCPDopportunitiesforcolleagues.

Connecting learning in numeracy and, where appropriate mathematics, with that in other
curriculum areas (particular those related to the STEM disciplines) through wellplanned
interdisciplinary learning will help ensure appropriate challenges and progression in skills
development within enriched, authentic contexts. Many concepts in mathematics are
interrelated, so knowing one helps you understand others. Learners need to be given
opportunitiestoexperimentwiththeconceptsthattheylearn,toapplythemtootherareas,to
reformulatethemanddescribethemtosomeoneelse.Anumberofstudiesofeffectiveteaching
ofmathematics v havefounditisimportanttoemphasiseconnections:

betweendifferentaspectsofmathematics,suchasconnectionsbetweenoperations(e.g.,
thatadditionistheinverseofsubtraction)and,connectionsbetweentopicssuchasshape,
8

number(andalgebra)suchasthosegeneratedbyinvestigatingthenumberoflinesneeded
tocreateamysticroseinsidethe5pointcirclebelow:
Number of lines = 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 10 (Why?)
Formula = n (n-1), where n = 5 points
x 5 x 4 = 10

Thisexamplecanalsobeusedtounderscoretheimportanceofgoingbeyondjustfinding
patternsandunderstandingthereasonsbehindthem,bylookingatthenumberofregions
createdwithinthecirclebytheadditionofextrapoints:

Numberofpoints
1
2
3
4
5
6

Numberofregions
1
2
4
8
16
?

Thepatternsuggeststhat6lineswillcreate32regionsbuttheanswerisactually31
regions.Thisexamplehighlightstheimportanceofsuchmathematicalconceptsastesting
conjecturesandproof.

betweendifferentrepresentationsofmathematics.Thiscouldincludemovingbetween
symbols,words,diagrams,objectsandgraphs;

withlearnersmethods.Thiscouldincludevaluingtheirmethods,beinginterestedintheir
thinkingandsharingtheirmethods.

Teaching approaches should consistently involve sharing the purpose of learning with children,
encouraging their engagement in tasks, in evaluation of their progress and achievement, and in
usinghighqualityfeedbacktoinformplanningofnextstepsinlearning.
Teachers should use a range of techniques to elicit students understanding. Questioning in
classroomsshouldhavetwomainaims:tocausethinking,andtoprovideevidenceaboutcurrent
achievementthatteacherscanusetoadapttheirteachingtobettermeettheneedsoflearners.
While openended questions are essential to effective teaching, carefullydesigned closed
questionscanbevaluabletoo.QuestionslikeCanatrianglehavetworightangles?areclearly
closed (there are two answers, and one of them is wrong!) but if students do not know the
answer,thensuchaquestioncanprovokevaluablediscussioninthemathematicsclassrooms.Itis
alsoworthnotingthatsometimes,itcanbemoreeffectivetomakestatementsratherthanasking
questions.ThequestionAreallsquaresrectangles?islikelytoeliciteitherabaldyesorno
whereas making the statement All squares are rectangles seems to encourage students to
provide reasons for their agreement or disagreement, and thus enrich the quality of classroom
dialogue.

Teachers should also listen interpretively, rather than evaluatively to learners responses. When
studentsanswerquestionsincorrectly,itisoftenpossible,byexploringthereasonsfortheanswer,
toestablishwhythestudentrespondedincorrectly.Ifalltheteacherdiscoversisthatthestudent
doesnotknowthecorrectanswer,theonlyrecoursefortheteacheristoteachthematerialagain.
Effective teaching also necessitates maximizing the opportunities for children to work
collaboratively.Interactingwithotherstoshareunderstanding,developandexplainthinking,and
toexploreanddemonstratelearningensuresthatlearnersareengagedandactiveinclassrooms.
In short, effective teaching places learners at the centre of their own learning, provides
opportunitiesforlearnerstomakechoicesaboutresources,methodologyandevaluationoftheir
progressandachievement,encouragesshared,highexpectationsinrespectofeffort,appropriate
progress for each learner and achievement, and will ensure that all learners feel valued and
supportedsufficientlytoseekhelpastheyneed.

Inordertosecureeffectiveteachingofmathematics
Teachersshouldconsider:

Whatarethekeyaspectsofthedevelopmentandprogressionofmathematicalskills
andconcepts?

Whatarethekeybuildingblocksinmathematicallearningandwheretogobacktoifa
childisstrugglingtogoforward?

Howcantheycontinuetomaintainanddeveloptheirmathematicalknowledgeand
teachingmethods?

Howcantheysustainhighlevelsofexpectationsoflearnerseffortandengagement,
progressandachievement,andthusmotivatelearnerstodoevenbetter?

Schoolleadersshouldconsider:

Howtheycancreateopportunitiesforteacherstosharetheirknowledgeandtolearn
foreachother.

Policymakersshouldconsider:

Whatsupportandincentivesareneededforteachersandleaderstocreatethekindsof
learningenvironmentsforteachersthatwillbenecessaryforthecontinual
improvementofpractice?

Essentialknowledgeforteachingmathematics
Mathematicsisasequentialsubject;thelearningachievedateachstageofdevelopmentofaskill
providesthefoundationforlearningatthenextstage.Eachstageofdevelopment,however,
benefitsfrombeingreinforcedthroughchallengingpractice,includingthroughcontextualised
problemsandapplicationsacrosslearning,inreallifeandintheworkplace.Therefore,aswellas

10

makingprogressthroughthestagesofamathematicalconceptorskill,alearnercanalsomake
progressintheircapacitytoapplythatskillinanappropriateway.
Somelearnersmakesmooth,evenprogressacrosstherangeofmathematicalskillsbeing
developedbutformost,thiswillnotbethecase.Manyencounterstumblingblocksthatappear
insuperable,butinretrospect,thelearnercannotunderstandwhatwassodifficult.Mostlearners
havemoreaptitudeinsomeskillsthaninothers,andthevastmajorityoflearnersprogressinfits
andstartsratherthansmoothly(theLeverhulmeNumeracyResearchProgrammefoundthatonly
10%ofprimaryschoolchildrenmadesteadyprogressoverafouryearperiodtheother90%had
atleastonesixmonthperiodwheretheymadenoprogress,orwentbackwardsintheirlearning
ofmathematics).
Teachersofnumeracyandotheraspectsofmathematicsmustbeconfidentintheirunderstanding
andcompetentintheirapplicationofkeyconceptsandskillsandhowtheycaninterconnect.Key
elementsofessentialconceptsandskills,someofwhichprovidechallengesinteaching,include:

Knowledgeandunderstandingofnumber,thenumbersystemanditsoperations.Itis
vitalthatchildrenfromtheearlieststagesofmathematicallearningdevelopasound
senseofcountingandaclearunderstandingofhownumbersrelatetosize,quantity
andorder.Asenseofnumber,hasbeendefinedasanintuitiveunderstandingof
numbers,theirmagnitude,relationships,andhowtheyareaffectedbyoperations. vi
Havingawelldevelopedsenseofnumberallowsanindividualtomanipulatenumbers,
comprehendtheconnectionsbetweenoperations,decipherwrittenproblemsand
tacklecalculationsthathaveanumberofsteps.Thiscanbeachallengingaspectof
mathematicstoteachanditcannotbeachievedbylearnersdoingpagesofwritten
sums.Thefreedomtoplayaroundwithnumberswithoutworryingaboutexact
answersisonewaytotacklethis.MarvinMinskyoneoftheleadingcognitive
psychologistsofthelasthalfcenturysuggeststhatoneofthekeyproblemsisthat
mathematicsteachingfocusestoomuchonpreventingmistakesandtoolittleon
promotinginventivenessinlearners vii

Welldevelopedskillsincalculatingmentally.Developingagoodrangeofflexible
strategiesforcalculatingmentallyenhanceslearnersprogressandachievementin
mathematics.Somecommonlyusedalgorithmslikedecompositionforsubtraction
provechallengingformanylearnerstomaster.Byensuringthatlearnersbecome
adeptatusingsuchskillsascountingonorbackfrom,teacherscanprovidethemwith
alternative,morestraightforwardstrategieswhichareoftenmoresuccessful.Teachers
shouldalsoencouragelearnerstounderstandanduseinverseprocessestosimplifya
problem.Subtracting29from42ismuchmoredifficultifdecompositionisusedwhen
comparedwithcountingon(i.e.,workingoutwhatneedstobeaddedto29toget
42).Simplerepresentationssuchastheemptynumberlineorusingarekenrek
(developedbytheFreudenthalInstituteintheNetherlands)canalsogreatlyassist
learnerstocalculateeffectively.

11

therekenrek

Understandandusinginverseprocessestosimplifyaproblem.Formanylearners,
calculating324canbedaunting,butismuchsimplifiedonappreciatingthe
relationshipbetween324and8x4.Inmanycountries,wherelevelsofnumeracyare
high,teachingmentalcalculationformsthebasisofearlylearninginnumberwhichis
complementedbytheintroductionofformalalgorithmsatappropriatestages.
Learnerswillmakebetterprogressintheirmathematicsiftheycanmanipulate
appropriatenumberfactsaccuratelyandspeedilyandapplythemwithinrealsituations
involvingegmoney,measureandtime,whichwillhelpthembecomemoreconfident
individuals.Whilstitisimportantthatlearnersareabletorecallandapplyfacts
speedilyandaccurately,itshouldbenotedthatskillslearnedinrotefashionwill
atrophywhereasskillsacquiredwithdeeperconceptualunderstandingwillbemore
easilyreacquired,asandwhennecessary.

Skillsinestimatingappropriatequantities.Estimationissomethingthatlearnersoften
finddifficult.Thismaybeasaresultofanoveremphasisongettingtherightanswer
butofcourse,beingabletodecideifananswerisapproximatelycorrectisvitaleven
whereaccuracyisimportant.Teachersneedtodevelopintheirstudentsnotjustthe
skillofestimating,butalsotheabilitytodecidehowaccurateananswerneedstobe,
foragivencontext.

Recognising,workingwith,extending,andjustifyingpatternsbasedonattributesand
numbers.Childrenandyoungpeopleareoftenfascinatedbypatterns,including
numberpatterns.Akeyskillthatunderpinsmathematicalandnumericaldevelopment
istheabilitytospotapattern,tocontinueandextendthepattern,todiscoverarule
governingit,andtoprovideamathematicaljustificationofwhythepatterndoes,
indeed,continueinthewaydescribed.Theabilitytospotnumberpatternsisenhanced
bytheknowledgeofthemostcommonlyencounteredpatternsinmathematics,such
asthesquarenumbers,thetrianglenumbersandtheFibonaccisequence.

Asoundgraspoftheconceptofplacevalue.Understandingplacevalueisabsolutely
essentialtoafirmgraspofnumber.Initialdevelopmentbasedonthecontextofmoney
enableslearnerstorelateplacevaluetoothercontexts.Theuseofappropriate
concreteresourceswillhelplearnerstopictureplacevalueinactionandimprove
theirunderstanding.Oneparticularlypowerfulwayofdoingthisisbyusingtheideaof
bundlesof10sticks,andbundlesofbundles,asinthefollowingrepresentationofthe
number234:

12

TheappropriateuseofICT(e.g.interactivewhiteboards)canprovideadynamiccontextfor
learningtogetherwithhelpfulimagery,whichcanenhancethelearningexperienceandaid
longertermunderstanding.

Aconfidenceinusingappropriatemathematicallanguageandnotation.Thelanguageof
mathematicscanbeconfusingtolearners.Forexample,thetermssubtract,minus,take
awayanddifferencebetweenallrelatetothesameprocessbutmanylearnersdonoteasily
relateallthesetermstothatprocess.Childrenneedtobeintroducedfromearlystagestoand
gainconfidenceinusingmathematicallanguage,tocontinuetodevelopthatlanguage
appropriatelythroughouttheirlearningandtouseitconfidentlywhenexplainingtheirthinking
andanswerstoothers.Therearecommonlyusedtermsthathaveaparticularmeaningin
mathematicslessonsthatlearnersneedtorecogniseandunderstandsuchastheproductof
twonumbers,themeanofasetofdataandthederivativeofafunction;

Theapplicationofkeymathematicalpropertiesandrelationships.Suchpropertiesincludethe
commutative,associativeanddistributiveproperties,andtheconceptofvariable,an
understandingofwhichprovideforaneffectiveprogressionfromspecificnumberworkinto
moregeneralisednumberandtheskillsofalgebra;forexample,thecommutativepropertyfor
addition,exemplifiedby3+5=5+3,latergeneralisestox+y=y+x.Arobustunderstanding
oftheconceptofinverserelationshipswillsupporteffectivecalculatingstrategies.Asnoted
above,theproblems8x4and324areinterconnected,andarerelatedtoof32.Familiarity
with,andpracticeof,thesekindsofreexpressionswillprovidearoutetowardsrobust
understandingofmoreabstractrelationships,suchasalgebraicinversefunctions.Initiallythe
inverseprocessesmetare:
additionwithsubtraction
multiplicationwithdivision.
Anunderstandingoftheinversenatureoftheseprocessesisthefoundationforsolving
equationsanditalsohighlightsinverserelationshipsthroughoutmathematicallearningsuchas

squareswithsquareroots

removingbracketswithfactorisation

enlargementwithreduction

exponentialfunctionswithlogarithmicfunctions

13

 Understandingandapplyingtheconcepts,notationandrelatedoperationalskillsoffractions,
decimalfractionsandpercentages(andtheirinterrelationships)andtobeabletoapplythese
skillsinlearning,lifeandtheworkplace.Teacherscanassistlearnersunderstandingofthese
conceptsbyensuringthattheyaregivenarangeofrepresentationsoffractionsfromthe
outset.Forexample,fractionscanbeshownnotonlyshowingfractionsassegmentsofapizza
orcakeoraspartshadingsofanareabutalsoaspointsonthenumberline.Teachersneed
alsotoemphasisetherelationshipbetweenfractions,divisionandratio.Apopularresource,
ThinkingThroughMathematics,recommendsthateducatorsattempttocreateconnections
betweentopicsaslearnersoftenfinditdifficulttogeneraliseandtransfertheirlearningto
othertopicsandcontexts viii .Effectiveteachersbuildbridgesbetweenideas. ix

Successfulprogressionfromspecificnumberstogeneralisedalgebraicthinking.Learnersneed
toprogressfromcompetencewithnumberprocessesandassociatedinverseoperationstothe
useofletters(orsymbols)insimpleformulaeandinsimplemathematicalexpressionsto
representavariable,whereanyoneofavarietyofnumberscanbeused.Thisisthestepping
9
stonetomathematicalmodellingusingrelationshipssuchasF= /5C+32(converting
temperaturefromCentigradetoFahrenheit)andanalysis,usuallyinvolvingthesolvingof
equations.Teachersneedtobeawareoftheconfusionthatcanarisewhendifference
disciplinesusethesamesymbolfordifferentquantities.Forexample,itiscommontousethe
lettersforspeedinthemathematicsclassroom,whereasinthephysicsclassroom,itisoften
usedtodenotedistance.Raisingsuchmatterswithstudentsaspotentialdifficultiesincreases
thelikelihoodthatstudentscheckthemeaningofasymbolratherthanassumingitmeansthe
samethinginallcontexts.

Anabilitytoclassifyandrelate2Dshapesand3Dobjectsusingtheirkeyproperties.
Programmesinmathematicsoftenhighlightrecognitionofcommonshapesandobjectsbutdo
notalwaysplacesufficientemphasisontheirproperties.Itisvitalthatlearnersunderstandthe
importanceofinvestigatingappropriatelysuchpropertiesasedges,faces,vertices,angles,
symmetry,areaandvolume.Encouragelearnerstoplaywithshapesandobjectsbybuilding
anddrawingthem,comparingthem(similarandcongruentshapes),foldingthem(symmetry)
andturningthem(angle).Workingwithgeometricalshapes(suchasthesquareandthecircle)
tounderstandtheirbasicfeaturesisnecessarybeforeanyindepthstudyoftheirpropertiescan
bemeaningful.Thisleadsinturntoanalysisof,andcalculationswithin,complexmathematical
diagrams,usuallyinvolvinganglesforwhichthegroundworkdoneoverearlierstagesof
developmentwillnowalsocomeintoplay.

Beingabletosolveawiderangeofproblems,originatingfromreallifeorfromwithin
mathematicslearningorfromscenariosencounteredacrossthecurriculumareas.Aslearners
progressthroughtheirmathematicsprogramme,suchproblemswillgrowincomplexityand
levelsofinterpretationandwillmatureinrelationtothecontextsinvolved.Solvingproblemsis
anidealenvironmentinwhichchildrenandyoungpeoplecanapplythemathematicstheyare
learning.InprimaryschoolsinSingapore,forexample,astructuredapproachistakento
developingskillsinsolvingwordproblems,basedonthenumberofstepsinvolvedinsolving
theproblemandeffectivebarmodelling,shownbelow,isusedtoprovidelearnerswitha
visualrepresentationofaproblemtobesolved.

14

Learnerscanapplythissimplepictorialmodeltoawiderangeofmathematicalproblems.

Inorderthatthoseinvolvedintheteachingofmathematicshavetheknowledge
theyneed
Teachersshouldconsider:

Whatspecifictopicspresentparticulardifficultiesforstudents,andhowcantheyfind
timetoworkwithotherpractitionerstoidentify,andsolve,commonproblems?

Schoolleadersshouldconsider:

Whethertheexistingtimeavailableforadministrationandprofessionaldevelopment
withintheschoolcanbeuseddifferentlyinordertoenableteacherstosharepractice
andplancollaboratively?

Policymakersshouldconsider:

Howcantheprogressionbetweentheinitialpreparationofteachersandtheir
continuingprofessionaldevelopmentbealignedtoensurethatteachersdevelop,both
inpreserviceandinservicetraining,theknowledgetheyneedtomaximizelearning?

Assessmentasthebridgebetweenteachingandlearning
Learnersdonotlearnwhatweteach.Ortoputitmorecarefully,itisnotpossibletopredictwith
anycertaintywhatlearnerswilllearnasaresultofanyparticularsequenceofclassroomactivities.
Thatiswhythemosteffectiveteachersspendaconsiderableamountoftimefindingoutwhat
studentshavelearnedbeforetheyattempttoteachanythingelse.Andthat,inturn,iswhy
assessmentisattheheartofeffectiveteaching.

15

Ofcourse,thereisaroleforassessmentconductedattheendofasequenceofclassroom
activities,sothattheteachercanrecordwhatthestudentshavelearned.However,thiskindof
assessmentattheendofthelearningprocessrarelyinfluenceswhathappensnext.For
assessmenttobeatitsmostpowerful,theassessmentmusttakeplacebeforetheendofthe
learning,sothattheinformationfromtheassessmentcanbeusedtoadjusttheclassroom
activitiestobettermeetstudentlearningneeds.
Thisroleofassessmentissometimescalledformativeassessment,sincetheassessmentforms
thedirectionoffuturelearning.Howoften,andinwhatwaytheassessmentisconducted,isfar
lessimportantthantheideathattheassessmentshouldbeusedtohelptheteachermakebetter
decisionsaboutwhatdonextthanheorshewouldhavebeenabletomakewithouttheevidence
fromtheassessment.Herearesomeexamples.
1. Ateacherplansathreeweekunitonfractionsanddecimals.Sincetheclassspendsanhouron
mathematicseveryday,shehasfifteenhourstospendontheunit.However,sheplanstocover
allthematerialintheunitoverthefirsttwelvedays.Onthethirteenthday,thestudentsinthe
classdoatestonwhattheyhavebeenlearning.Theteachercollectsinthestudentstest
papers,butdoesnotmarkthem.Instead,shereadsthestudentspapers,andonthebasisof
whatshesees,sheplanswhatsheisgoingtodowiththeclassondaysfourteenandfifteen.

2. Ateacherhasbeenteachingstudentsaboutlinesofsymmetry,andtenminutesbeforetheend
ofthelesson,shedisplaysthefollowingimagesontheboard:

ShecallsoutAandeachstudentintheclasshastovotebyholdinguptherightnumberof
fingerstoshowhowmanylinesofsymmetryshapeAhas,andthendoesthesameforB,C,D,E
andF.Asthestudentsvote,shedoesnttrytorememberhoweachstudentresponds.Instead
shefocusesonjusttwothings:

Arethereanyitemsthatasignificantproportionoftheclassanswerincorrectly,and
whichsheneedstoreteachwiththewholeclass?

Whichtwoorthreestudentswouldbenefitfromindividualattention?

SheseesthatmanystudentsindicatethattheythinkthatshapeDhasjustthreelinesof
symmetry,andthatshapeEhasnolinesofsymmetryeventhoughitis,infact,arhombus.She
pointsouttotheclassthatDhassixlinesofsymmetry,threethroughthecorners,andthree

16

throughthemidpointsoftheedgesandremindstheclasstolookforlinesofsymmetrythat
arenothorizontal,vertical,orat45.Inbothofthesecases,sherealizesthattheincorrect
answersmaynotnecessarilyindicatepoormathematicalunderstanding.Afterall,inthecaseof
shapeD,holdingupjustthreefingerscouldbearesultofstudentsthinkingthatonlyonehand
wouldbenecessary,andasaresultofthedistortionofthedataprojector,theimageofshapeE
mightnotactuallybetherhombusshapeintended.Nevertheless,sheiswellawarethatin
teaching,itisbettertoassumestudentsdonotknowsomethingwheninfacttheydothanto
assumethatthedoknowsomething,wheninfact,theydont.
3. AteacherhasbeenteachinggraphsketchingtoanS5class.Theyappeartounderstandthe
importantideas,butjusttobesure,sheaskseverystudentintheclasstosketch,ontheirmini
whiteboards,thegraphofyequalsoneoveroneplusxsquared.Thestudentsholduptheir
responses,andsheseesthattheyallareabletodothis.Shemovesontothenextchapter.

Inthefirsttwoofthesecases,theassessmentwascarefullyplanned,butinthethirditwasdone
onthefly.Inthefirstofthesecases,thelengthofthecyclewasthreeweeks,whileinthethird,
itwastwominutes.Thecommonfeatureisthatineachcase,theteachercollectedhighquality
informationaboutstudentachievementinordertomakeadecisionaboutwhattodonext.
ManyteachersinScotlandwillbynowbeconvincedofthebenefitsofusingformativeassessment
intheirclassrooms,otherswillhavereadtheliterature,attendedinservicedays,possiblyeven
experimentedalittle,butarestilldoubtfulofitsvalue.
TheMathematicsExcellenceGroupadvocatesstronglytheplanningofquestionsintolesson
preparation.Suchquestionshavebeencalledhingequestions.Theideaisthattheteacherplans
everylessonwithahinge;apointinthelessonwhentheteachercancheckonstudent
understanding,andthendecidewhattodonext.Hingequestionsaretypicallydesignedtotest
learnersunderstandingofoneimportantconceptinalessononethatiscriticalforpupilsto
comprehendbeforetheteachermovesoninthelesson.However,sinceitismeanttobeaquick
checkonlearning,ratherthanalearningactivityinitself,eachstudentshouldrespondtothe
questionwithintwominutes(andpreferablyless)andtheteachermustbeabletocollectand
interprettheresponsesfromallstudentsin30seconds,whetherbyfingervoting,classroom
clickers,miniwhiteboards,orsomeothersystem.

Inordertoensurethatassessmentisusedtosupportlearning,aswellas
measureit
Teachersshouldconsider:

Whatspecifictechniquestheycanbegintousetoimprovethequalityofevidencethey
generateforthedecisiontheyneedtomakeduringteaching.

Schoolleadersshouldconsider:

Howcanseniorleadersmonitorandevaluatethedevelopmentofteachersassessment
skills,andsharegoodpracticeacrosstheschool?

17

Policymakersshouldconsider:

Howcantheassessmentsgeneratedbyteachersindifferentschoolsbeevaluatedand
shared,toreducetheextenttowhicheveryteacherorschoolhastoreinventthe
wheel?

Continuousprofessionaldevelopment(CPD)
Nomatterhowwellitisdesigned,initialpreparationcannotpossiblymeetallteachers
professionallearningneeds.Careerlongprofessionallearningisnot,therefore,anicetohave
butanessentialpartofprofessionalpractice,bothtoimproveoutcomesforlearners,andto
improveteacherretention.Atpresent,themajorityofsitebasedprofessionaldevelopment
activitiesincludepeercoaching,mentoring,modelling,observingandprovidingfeedbackto
others.ItismostlikelytobeenhancedinalastingwaywhenCPDpolicyandpracticeallowfor
richerlearningexperiencesthanareusuallyofferedinshortcoursesbasedonadevelopmental
modelofskillsacquisition.
ContemporarythinkingonCPDindicatesthatitismosteffectivewhenitisalignedwithexisting
schoolculture,isledbypeers,iscollaborativeandissustainedformorethanonetermand
ideallyformorethanayear.AreviewofexperimentalstudiesfoundthatoneoffCPDsessions
andprogrammesoflessthan14hoursintotalshowednostatisticallysignificanteffectonstudent
learning,whileprogrammeswithbetween30and100contacthoursoversixto12months
showedasignificantpositiveeffectonstudentoutcomes.Theauthorsconcludedthatsustained
andintensiveprofessionallearningforteachersisrelatedtostudentachievementgains x .
OtherreviewsofresearchhavealsoprovidedstrongevidencefortheeffectsofCPD.Onereview xi
identifiedfoursetsoffactorsthatappearedtobeparticularlyimportantforprofessional
developmenttobeeffective.First,teachersneedtohavesomecontrolovertheirprofessional
development,sothatitcouldmeetthechangingneedsofteachersastheygainedexperience.
Second,theprofessionaldevelopmentmustbefocusedontheoutcomesforlearners
professionaldevelopmentthatisnot,atleastinsomeway,designedtoimproveoutcomesfor
learnersisselfindulgent.Third,effectiveprofessionallearningrequiredthesupportofsenior
leaderswithintheschool.Fourth,professionallearningisconsiderablyenhancedbyexternal
supportandnetworking,withotherschools,withlocalauthorities,andwithhighereducation
institutions.Anotherreview xii lookedsystematicallyandindetailatthecontentsofCPD
programmesthatincreasedstudentachievement.Whilethetimescales,patternsofmeetings,and
theamountofsupportvaried,therewereanumberofcommonfeatures:

theCPDbuiltonwhatteachersknewandcoulddoalready,withanemphasison
individuallearning

teacherswereencouragedandguidedinsupportingeachother

therewassomeexternalinput,intermsofboththeoryandpractice,forexampleby
sharingexperiencesfromotherschoolsandteachers,orfromresearchstudies

therewasashiftintheownershipofthereformfromthoseprovidingtheexternal
stimulustotheteachersthemselves.

18

Althoughnoneofthethreereviewsdiscussedabovefocusedspecificallyontheteachingof
mathematics,itwouldappearthatpositiveoutcomesforthelearnerandteacherwillresultfroma
longertermcommitmenttothedevelopmentofteachersskillsthroughouttheircareers.There
mustalsobeanalignmentbetweentheprofessionalneedsandschoolandnationaldevelopments
sothatthereisagreaterawarenessofhowtoidentifytrainingneeds,inturnleadingtomore
tailoredandeffectiveCPDprovision.CPDismosteffectivewhenitinvolvesacycleofreflection
anddiscussionbetweenpractitionersandtheoutcomesareintegratedintoclassroompractice.
SupportforCPDisavailablefromlocal,peercoachesandmentors,fromEducationAuthority
providersandfromnationalproviderssuchasLearning&TeachingScotland,Tapestry,theScottish
MathematicalCouncilandthroughCPDFind.

InordertobenefitfromwellplannedCPDwhichwillprovidedevelopmentin
bothsubjectbasedknowledgeandteachingskills
Teachersshouldconsider:

whattheirpersonalCPDneedsare.

howtheseneedscanbestbemetthroughasustainedprogrammeofdevelopment.

howtheycanmaintainanddeveloptheirmathematicalknowledgeandpedagogical
skillsastheircareerdevelops.

Schoolleadersshouldconsider:

howbesttoensurethatthedevelopmentneedsofstaffareidentified.

howtheseneedsalignwithschoolandnationaldevelopments.

howbesttoengagethestaffinplanningaprogrammethatwillallowtheseneedstobe
met,usinglocal,peersupportandotherproviders.

theimplicationsfortheschoolofdecisionstakenrelatingtoCPDprovision.

Policymakersshouldconsider:

whatkindsofnationalframeworkswillbemosteffectiveinensuringthatteachersreceive
usefulandappropriateprofessionaldevelopmentthroughouttheircareers.

Externalinsights,partnershipsandsupport
When the impact and relevance of modern education is discussed in the national media the
provocativequestion"whatisthepointofstudyingmathematics?"isoftenraised.CarlFriedrich
Gauss, who was labelled the "Prince of Mathematicians", himself described mathematics as the
"QueenoftheSciences",reflectingitsfundamentalroleunderpinningahugerangeoffieldsinthe
physical, biological and social sciences, as well as engineering, communications, transport,

19

commerce, economics and medicine. In addition, even the most esoteric aspects of pure
mathematicsmayfindtheirinfluenceasexemplarsofpreciseandlogicalthinkinginfieldssuch
aslaw,ethicsandphilosophy.Inviewofitsinfluenceonsomanyaspectsofourmodernsociety
therelevanceofstudyingmathematicswouldseembeyonddoubt.How,then,canmathematics
teachersinScottishschoolsbestharnesstheremarkablewidersocietalimpactoftheirsubjectto
enthuse and inspire students? An excellent range of external resources and agencies exists to
help.
Science Connects (www.scienceconnects.org.uk) seeks to promote and coordinate outreach in
STEM subjects, linking schools with local University and industry contacts, who are trained as
STEMAmbassadors.ScienceConnectsalsoprovideslearningresourcesandregularnewsupdates
for schools, highlighting opportunities for involvement in practical STEM activities. Schools can
thus access in a variety of ways the knowledge and enthusiasm of experts who are employing
mathematicsintheirstudies,theirresearchortheircareers.Linkswithschoolscanrangefroma
singlevisit lecture or workshop, led e.g. by one or more graduate students, to an extended
collaboration.InthelattercaseseveralScottishuniversitiesofferaSchoolsAmbassadorcourse
totheirseniorundergraduates:hereastudentspendsafewmonthsworkingcloselywithasingle
teacherorclass,helpingtodeliveraseriesoflessonsonaparticulartopic.Inarelatedinitiative,
STEMED Scotland has recently launched Connecting it up, a project aiming specifically to
integratesupportforCurriculumforExcellenceacrossSTEMdisciplines.Thisprojectisdeveloping
learningprogressionsthatunitetheSTEMsubjectsaroundbigideasinscienceandmathematics
recognizing that these can be taught more effectively through crossdisciplinary collaboration
andreinforcement.TheimportanceofmathematicstotheScienceswashighlightedbytheDeans
ofSciencewhostatedthat,Usingthese(mathematical)skillsinthecourseofsciencestudyshould
significantly enhance the science itself, whilst also reinforcing progress in mathematics. Key
mathematical skills which are important within STEM disciplines include scale, proportion,
measurement, data handling and probability, geometry and graphs, handling equations and
algebra, manipulating units as well as a facility with the concepts of justification and proof. At
moreadvancedlevelssuchskillsastrigonometry,coordinategeometry,vectorsandcalculusare
key.TheinclusionofmathematicswithintheScottishScienceBaccalaureateitalsowelcomedand
by building strong mathematical skills in the CfE Broad General Education and into the Senior
Phase,thiswouldalsoenhanceachievementintheSTEMdisciplines.
Scottish industry can also directly provide strong exemplars of the farreaching influence of
mathematicsanditsimportanceforfuturecareerprospects;thesemaybeparticularlyeffectiveif
theyaredrawnfromwithinthelocalcommunity.CBIScotlandandlocalChambersofCommerce
canassistteacherswithestablishingcontacts.Anumberofourlargerbusinessesandcompanies
forexampleinengineering,electronics,ITandthefinancialsectoralreadyhavestaffdedicated
to schools liaison and outreach, but for Scotlands many SMEs the opportunity for establishing
schoolslinksmaybeseenasnolessimportantandmutuallybeneficial.
In the wider media the recent growth of highprofile science programming on television,
particularlyontheBBC,hasincludedexcellentexamplesinpureandappliedmathematics:The
StoryofMaths;TheBeautyofDiagrams;BeautifulEquations;TheJoyofStats;TheSecret
LifeofChaos;WondersoftheSolarSystem.Theseprogrammesareaccessibleandentertaining
whileofferingdeepinsightsintotheinfluenceandwonderofmathematics,andarepresentedby
passionate communicators who stand as powerful role models for aspiring mathematicians and
scientists.

20

Inordertomaximisethepotentialbenefitstobegainedfromeffectiveexternal
contacts,partnershipsandsupport
Teachersshouldconsider:

howtobestutiliseavailableexternalcontacts,partnersandsupporttohelpmake
learningmorerelevantandengaging,andtoenablelearnerstomakeconnectionsto
therealworldbyapplyingtheirmathematicallearning.

Schoolleadersshouldconsider:

howbesttofacilitateandsustainsuchexternallinksandpartnershipssothattheywill
flourishandimpactpositivelyonlearning.

Policymakersshouldconsider:

inwhatwaystheycanbestpromoteandfurtherdevelopopportunitiesforeffective
partnershipsworkinge.g.throughlocalandnationalclubs,eventsandcompetitions.

References

i
Wiliam,D.,Lee,C.,Harrison,C.,&Black,P.J.(2004).Teachersdevelopingassessmentfor
learning:impactonstudentachievement.AssessmentinEducation:PrinciplesPolicyand
Practice,11(1),4965.
ii

Boaler,J.(1997).Experiencingschoolmathematics:teachingstyles,sexandsetting.Buckingham,
UK:OpenUniversityPress.

iii

Coben,D.(2005).Adultnumeracy:shiftingthefocus:areportandrecommendationsonadult
numeracyinScotland.Edinburgh,UK:ScottishGovernment.

iv

Sheffield,D.,&Hunt,T.(2006/2007).Howdoesanxietyinfluencemathsperformanceandwhat
canwedoaboutit?MSORConnections,6(4),1923.

See,forexample:Askew,M.,Brown,M.L.,Johnson,D.C.,Rhodes,V.,&Wiliam,D.(1998).
Effectiveteachersofnumeracyinprimaryschools.PrimaryPractice(15),46.Coben,D.(2005).
Adultnumeracy:shiftingthefocus:areportandrecommendationsonadultnumeracyin
Scotland.Edinburgh,UK:ScottishGovernment.

vi

DefinitionfromLearningNCaccessedonlineon5/1/11at
http://www.learnnc.org/reference/number+senseSeealsoUnderstandingaChilds
DevelopmentofNumberSenseathttp://www.illuminations.nctm.org/Reflections_preK2.html

vii

http://wiki.laptop.org/go/What_makes_Mathematics_hard_to_learn%3F

21


viii
Swain,J.,&Swan,M.(2007).Thinkingthroughmathematics:researchreport.London,UK:
NationalResearchandDevelopmentCentreforAdultLiteracyandNumeracy.Availablefrom
https://www.ncetm.org.uk/public/files/254415/research_report.pdf
ix

Askew,M.,Brown,M.L.,Rhodes,V.,Johnson,D.C.,&Wiliam,D.(1997).Effectiveteachersof
numeracy:finalreport.London,UK:King'sCollegeLondonSchoolofEducation.

DarlingHammond,L.,Wei,R.C.,Andree,A.,Richardson,N.,&Orphanos,S.(2009).Astatus
reportonteacherdevelopmentintheUnitedStatesandabroad.Dallas,TX:NationalStaff
DevelopmentCouncil.

xi

Bolam,R.,&Weindling,D.(2006).Synthesisofresearchandevaluationprojectsconcernedwith
capacitybuildingthroughteachersprofessionaldevelopment:finalreport.London,UK:General
TeachingCouncilforEngland.Availablefrom
http://www.gtce.org.uk/133031/133036/133039/133112/full_report

xii

Cordingley,P.,Bell,M.,Isham,C.,Evans,D.andFirth,A.(2007)WhatdospecialistsdoinCPD
programmesforwhichthereisevidenceofpositiveoutcomesforpupilsandteachers?
TechnicalReport.ResearchEvidenceinEducationLibrary.London:EPPICentre,SocialScience
ResearchUnit,InstituteofEducation,UniversityofLondon.Availablefrom:
http://www.eppi.ioe.ac.uk/cms/Default.aspx?tabid=2275

22