Remark 3.1.4. As a vector space over k, k[X1, . . .

,Xn] has basis consisting of the

monomials Xr1
1 . . .Xrn
n.
The degree of Xr1
1 . . .Xrn
n is
P
ri. (There are finitely many monomials of a given degree). We can write
any h 2 k[X1, . . . ,Xn] uniquely as h =
P
hd, where hd is homogeneous of degree d, i.e. all the monomials
occuring in it are of degree d. The action of GLn(k) preserves homogeneous
polynomials of given degree
and hence h 2 k[X1, . . . ,Xn]G iff all hd 2 k[X1, . . . ,Xn]G.
3.1.1 Explaination of Main Result
Let k be a field. A k-algebra is a ring R equipped with a ring homomorphism k ! R.
This means R is a ring with k-vector space compatibility, i.e. the addition and
multiplication is
k-bilinear.
This also means that R is a ring with k a subring (Only case left is R is zero ring).
3.1.2 Basic Examples
k[X1, . . . ,Xn] and subrings of it containing k (e.g. all rings of invariants).
A k-algebra R is finitely generated iff 9r1, . . . , rk 2 R such that any a 2 R can be written a
=
f(r1, . . . , rk) for some f 2 k[Xi], i.e. there exists a surjective ring homomorphism
k ! k[X1, . . . ,Xn] ! R
extending k.
Theorem 3.1.5. Let G _ GLn(k) be a finite group of matrices over a field of characteristic 0.
Then
k[X1, . . . ,Xn]G is finitely generated.
3.2 Symmetric Functions
The symmetric group Sn acts on V = kn by permuting the coefficients
0
B@
x1
...
xn
1
CA
7!
0
B@
x_(1)
...
x_(n)
1
CA
The corresponding matrix has a 1 in (i_(i)) place, 0’s otherwise.
_ acts on f(X1, . . . ,Xn) 2 k[X1, . . . ,Xn], _.f = f(X_(i)).
Define the elementary symmetric functions e1, . . . , en by
Yn
i=1
(t − Xi) = tn − e1tn−1 + e2tn−2 + . . . + (−1)nen
or better, e0 = 1 and e1, . . . , en has the generating function
E(t) =
Yn
i=1
(1 + Xit) =
Xn
i=0
eiti
For example, in [X, Y,Z], e0 = 1, e1 = X + Y + Z, e2 = XY + XZ + Y Z and

OTHER PART .

way).
Examples 1.3.2. 1. SX the group of all permutations of X acts on X (Sn = S{1,2,...,n}).
2. The symmetry group of (geometric/algebraic) structures acts on “components”.
Symm(triangle)
acts on 3-element set of “edge diagonals”. Symm(cube) acts on 8 verticies and on 4
diagonals;
acts on 12 edges and so on 6 edge diagonals; acts on 6 faces and so on 3 face-diagonals;
acts on 2
inscribed tetrahedrons.
3. GLn(Fp) and SLn(Fp) act on Fnp
.
4. Cayley multiplication actions: G acts on G by multiplication (g, x) 7! gx. Similarly G acts
on
G/H by multiplication; (g,xH) 7! gxH.
5. Conjugacy actions: G acts on G by conjugation: (g, x) 7! gxg−1. Similarly G acts
on subsets/
subgroups by conjugation: (g,A) 7! gAg−1.
Theorem 1.3.3. Suppose G acts on X. Then there is an induced homomorphism _
: G ! SX defined
by _(g)(x) = g.x. Conversely, given _ : G ! SX, g.x = _(g)(x) defines an action.
Proof. ()) _(g−1)._(g)(x) = g−1.g.x = x similarly _(g)._(g−1)(x) = x so _(g) is a
bijection (permutation
of X) with inverse _(g−1). So (_(g))−1 = _(g−1). For g, h 2 G, _(gh−1)(x) = (gh−1)(x)
=
g(h−1x) = _(g)(_(h−1)(x)) = _(g) _ _(h)−1(x) by above. So _(gh−1) = _(g)_(h)−1, so _
is a homomorphism.
(() e.x = _(e)(x) = eSX(x) = x, g.(h.x) = _(g)._(h)(x) = _(gh)(x) = (gh).x so this is
an action.
Examples 1.3.4. 1. Have _ : S4 ! S3.
2. There are homomorphisms Symm(Cube)! S8, S4, S12, S6, S3, S2.
A typical application of this is: If H _ G then G acts on G/H, non-trivally, and so
there is a
non-trivial G ! SG/H.
Hence we have the token conclusion: There is no simple group of order 80.
Sylow’s theorem (coming
up later) implies there exists subgroup H _ G of order 16. So there exists a non-
trivial homomorphism
G ! S5, but 80 6| 120, so not injective. So has a non-trivial kernel, hence a non-
trivial normal subgroup,
so G cannot be simple (by definition).
Definition 1.3.5. An action G × X ! X is faithful iff g.x = h.x for all x 2 X implies g
= h.
Equivalently, iff (g.x = x 8x 2 X ) g = e), iff ker(G
_−!
SX) =
1. In this case, we can regard G
as a
group of permutations of X.
Example 1.3.6. The Cayley action of G on G: (g, x) 7! gx, as gx = hx 8x 2 G ) ge = he ) g
= h.
Theorem 1.3.7. Cayley
Any group is isomorphic to a permutation group. G _=subgroup of SG.
The conjugacy action of G on G, (g, x) 7! gxg−1 gives _ : G ! SG where ker _ = {g : gxg−1 =
x 8x 2 G} = {g : gx = xg 8x 2 G} The centre Z = Z(G) = {g 2 G : gx = xg 8x 2 G} is the
group of
elements commuting with all elements of G. Z(G)_G. The conjugacy action is faithful

f(r1, . . . , rk) for some f 2 k[Xi], i.e. there

Remark 3.1.4. As a vector space over k, exists a surjective ring homomorphism
k[X1, . . . ,Xn] has basis consisting of the k ! k[X1, . . . ,Xn] ! R
monomials Xr1 extending k.
1 . . .Xrn Theorem 3.1.5. Let G _ GLn(k) be a finite
n. group of matrices over a field of
The degree of Xr1 characteristic 0. Then
1 . . .Xrn k[X1, . . . ,Xn]G is finitely generated.
n is
3.2 Symmetric Functions
P
The symmetric group Sn acts on V = kn
ri. (There are finitely many
by permuting the coefficients
monomials of a given degree). We
0
can write
B@
any h 2 k[X1, . . . ,Xn] uniquely as h
x1
=
...
P
xn
hd, where hd is homogeneous of
1
degree d, i.e. all the monomials
CA
occuring in it are of degree d. The
7!
action of GLn(k) preserves
0
homogeneous polynomials of given
B@
degree
x_(1)
and hence h 2 k[X1, . . . ,Xn]G iff all hd 2
...
k[X1, . . . ,Xn]G.
x_(n)
3.1.1 Explaination of Main Result 1
Let k be a field. A k-algebra is a ring R CA
equipped with a ring homomorphism k ! The corresponding matrix has a 1 in
R. (i_(i)) place, 0’s otherwise.
This means R is a ring with k-vector _ acts on f(X1, . . . ,Xn) 2 k[X1, . . . ,Xn], _.f
space compatibility, i.e. the addition and = f(X_(i)).
multiplication is Define the elementary symmetric
k-bilinear. functions e1, . . . , en by
This also means that R is a ring with k a Yn
subring (Only case left is R is zero ring). i=1
3.1.2 Basic Examples (t − Xi) = tn − e1tn−1 + e2tn−2 + . . . +
k[X1, . . . ,Xn] and subrings of it (−1)nen
containing k (e.g. all rings of invariants). or better, e0 = 1 and e1, . . . , en has the
A k-algebra R is finitely generated iff 9r1, generating function
. . . , rk 2 R such that any a 2 R can be E(t) =
written a = Yn
i=1
(1 + Xit) =
Xn
i=0
eiti
For example, in [X, Y,Z], e0 = 1, e1 = X +
Y + Z, e2 = XY + XZ + Y Z and
OTHER PART .
way).
Examples 1.3.2. 1. SX the group of all
permutations of X acts on X (Sn =
S{1,2,...,n}).
2. The symmetry group of
(geometric/algebraic) structures acts on
“components”. Symm(triangle)
acts on 3-element set of “edge
diagonals”. Symm(cube) acts on 8
verticies and on 4 diagonals;
acts on 12 edges and so on 6 edge
diagonals; acts on 6 faces and so on 3
face-diagonals; acts on 2
inscribed tetrahedrons.
3. GLn(Fp) and SLn(Fp) act on Fnp
. Equivalently, iff (g.x = x 8x 2 X ) g =
4. Cayley multiplication actions: G acts
on G by multiplication (g, x) 7! gx.
Similarly G acts on
G/H by multiplication; (g,xH) 7! gxH.
5. Conjugacy actions: G acts on G by
conjugation: (g, x) 7! gxg−1.
Similarly G acts on subsets/
subgroups by conjugation: (g,A) 7!
gAg−1.
Theorem 1.3.3. Suppose G acts on X.
Then there is an induced
homomorphism _ : G ! SX defined
by _(g)(x) = g.x. Conversely, given _
: G ! SX, g.x = _(g)(x) defines an
action.
Proof. ()) _(g−1)._(g)(x) = g−1.g.x = x
similarly _(g)._(g−1)(x) = x so _(g) is
a bijection (permutation
of X) with inverse _(g−1). So (_(g))−1
= _(g−1). For g, h 2 G, _(gh−1)(x) =
(gh−1)(x) =
Remark 3.1.4. As a
vector space over k,
k[X1, . . . ,Xn] has basis
consisting of the
monomials Xr1
1 . . .Xrn
g(h−1x) = _(g)(_(h−1)(x)) = _(g) _
_(h)−1(x) by above. So _(gh−1) =
_(g)_(h)−1, so _ is a homomorphism.
(() e.x = _(e)(x) = eSX(x) = x, g.(h.x)
= _(g)._(h)(x) = _(gh)(x) = (gh).x so
this is an action.
Examples 1.3.4. 1. Have _ : S4 ! S3.
2. There are homomorphisms
Symm(Cube)! S8, S4, S12, S6, S3, S2.
A typical application of this is: If H _
G then G acts on G/H, non-trivally,
and so there is a
non-trivial G ! SG/H.
Hence we have the token
conclusion: There is no simple group
of order 80. Sylow’s theorem
(coming
up later) implies there exists
subgroup H _ G of order 16. So there
exists a non-trivial homomorphism
G ! S5, but 80 6| 120, so not
injective. So has a non-trivial kernel,
hence a non-trivial normal
subgroup,
so G cannot be simple (by
definition).
Definition 1.3.5. An action G × X ! X
is faithful iff g.x = h.x for all x 2 X
implies g = h.
e), iff ker(G
_ −!
SX) =
1. In this case, we can regard G
as a
group of permutations of X.
Example 1.3.6. The Cayley action of G on
G: (g, x) 7! gx, as gx = hx 8x 2 G ) ge =
he ) g = h.
Theorem 1.3.7. Cayley
Any group is isomorphic to a permutation
group. G _=subgroup of SG.
The conjugacy action of G on G, (g, x) 7!
gxg−1 gives _ : G ! SG where ker _ = {g :
gxg−1 =
x 8x 2 G} = {g : gx = xg 8x 2 G} The
centre Z = Z(G) = {g 2 G : gx = xg 8x 2
G} is the group of
elements commuting with all elements of
G. Z(G)_G. The conjugacy action is
faithful
n .
The degree of Xr1
1 . . .Xrn
n is
P
ri. (There are finitely
many monomials of a
given degree). We can
write
any h 2 k[X1, . . . ,Xn]
uniquely as h =
P coefficients
hd, where hd is
homogeneous of
degree d, i.e. all the
monomials
occuring in it are of
degree d. The action
of GLn(k) preserves
homogeneous
polynomials of given
degree
and hence h 2 k[X1, . . .
,Xn]G iff all hd 2 k[X1, . . .
,Xn]G.
3.1.1 Explaination of
Main Result
Let k be a field. A k-
algebra is a ring R
equipped with a ring
homomorphism k ! R.
This means R is a ring
with k-vector space
compatibility, i.e. the
addition and
multiplication is
k-bilinear.
This also means that R is
a ring with k a subring
(Only case left is R is
zero ring).
3.1.2 Basic
Examples
k[X1, . . . ,Xn] and
subrings of it containing
k (e.g. all rings of
invariants).
A k-algebra R is finitely
generated iff 9r1, . . . , rk
2 R such that any a 2 R
can be written a =
f(r1, . . . , rk) for some f 2
k[Xi], i.e. there exists a
surjective ring
homomorphism
k ! k[X1, . . . ,Xn] ! R
extending k.
Theorem 3.1.5. Let G _
GLn(k) be a finite group
of matrices over a field
of characteristic 0. Then
k[X1, . . . ,Xn]G is finitely
generated.
3.2 Symmetric of X acts on X (Sn =
S{1,2,...,n}).
Functions 2. The symmetry group
The symmetric group Sn of (geometric/algebraic)
acts on V = kn by structures acts on
permuting the “components”.
Symm(triangle)
0 acts on 3-element set of
B@ “edge diagonals”.
x1 Symm(cube) acts on 8
... verticies and on 4
xn diagonals;
1 acts on 12 edges and so
CA on 6 edge diagonals;
7! acts on 6 faces and so
0 on 3 face-diagonals; acts
B@ on 2
x_(1) inscribed tetrahedrons.
... 3. GLn(Fp) and SLn(Fp) act
x_(n) on Fnp
1 .
CA 4. Cayley multiplication
The corresponding actions: G acts on G by
matrix has a 1 in (i_(i)) multiplication (g, x) 7!
place, 0’s otherwise. gx. Similarly G acts on
_ acts on f(X1, . . . ,Xn) 2 G/H by multiplication;
k[X1, . . . ,Xn], _.f = (g,xH) 7! gxH.
f(X_(i)). 5. Conjugacy actions: G
Define the elementary acts on G by
symmetric functions e1, . conjugation: (g, x) 7!
. . , en by gxg−1. Similarly G acts
Yn on subsets/
i=1
subgroups by
(t − Xi) = tn − e1tn−1 + conjugation: (g,A) 7!
e2tn−2 + . . . + (−1)nen
gAg−1.
or better, e0 = 1 and e1, . Theorem 1.3.3.
. . , en has the generating Suppose G acts on X.
function Then there is an
E(t) = induced
Yn homomorphism _ : G !
i=1
SX defined
(1 + Xit) =
by _(g)(x) = g.x.
Xn
i=0 Conversely, given _ : G
eiti ! SX, g.x = _(g)(x)
For example, in [X, Y,Z], defines an action.
e0 = 1, e1 = X + Y + Z, Proof. ()) _(g−1)._(g)(x)
e2 = XY + XZ + Y Z and = g−1.g.x = x similarly
_(g)._(g−1)(x) = x so
_(g) is a bijection
(permutation
of X) with inverse
_(g−1). So (_(g))−1 =
OTHER PART . _(g−1). For g, h 2 G,
_(gh−1)(x) = (gh−1)(x)
=
g(h−1x) =
way). _(g)(_(h−1)(x)) = _(g) _
Examples 1.3.2. 1. SX the _(h)−1(x) by above. So
group of all permutations _(gh−1) = _(g)_(h)−1,
so _ is a
homomorphism.
(() e.x = _(e)(x) =
eSX(x) = x, g.(h.x) =
_(g)._(h)(x) = _(gh)(x)
= (gh).x so this is an
action.
Examples 1.3.4. 1.
Have _ : S4 ! S3.
2. There are
homomorphisms
Symm(Cube)! S8, S4,
S12, S6, S3, S2.
A typical application
of this is: If H _ G then
G acts on G/H, non-
trivally, and so there
is a
non-trivial G ! SG/H.
Hence we have the
token conclusion:
There is no simple
group of order 80.
Sylow’s theorem
(coming
up later) implies there
exists subgroup H _ G
of order 16. So there
exists a non-trivial
homomorphism
G ! S5, but 80 6| 120,
so not injective. So
has a non-trivial
kernel, hence a non-
trivial normal
subgroup,
so G cannot be simple
(by definition).
Definition 1.3.5. An
action G × X ! X is
faithful iff g.x = h.x
for all x 2 X implies g
= h.
Equivalently, iff (g.x =
x 8x 2 X ) g = e), iff
ker(G
_ −!
SX) =
1. In this case, we can
regard G
as a
group of permutations of
X.
Example 1.3.6. The
Cayley action of G on G:
(g, x) 7! gx, as gx = hx
8x 2 G ) ge = he ) g = h.
Theorem 1.3.7. Cayley
Any group is isomorphic
to a permutation group.
G _=subgroup of SG.
The conjugacy action of
G on G, (g, x) 7! gxg−1
gives _ : G ! SG where ker
_ = {g : gxg−1 =
x 8x 2 G} = {g : gx = xg
8x 2 G} The centre Z =
Z(G) = {g 2 G : gx = xg
8x 2 G} is the group of
elements commuting
with all elements of G.
Z(G)_G. The conjugacy
action is faithful

Remark 3.1.4. As a vector space over k, k[X1, . . . ,Xn] has basis consisting of the
monomials Xr1
1 . . .Xrn
n.
The degree of Xr1
1 . . .Xrn
n is
P
ri. (There are finitely many monomials of a given degree). We can write
any h 2 k[X1, . . . ,Xn] uniquely as h =
P
hd, where hd is homogeneous of degree d, i.e. all the monomials
occuring in it are of degree d. The action of GLn(k) preserves homogeneous
polynomials of given degree
and hence h 2 k[X1, . . . ,Xn]G iff all hd 2 k[X1, . . . ,Xn]G.
3.1.1 Explaination of Main Result
Let k be a field. A k-algebra is a ring R equipped with a ring homomorphism k ! R.
This means R is a ring with k-vector space compatibility, i.e. the addition and
multiplication is
k-bilinear.
This also means that R is a ring with k a subring (Only case left is R is zero ring).
3.1.2 Basic Examples
k[X1, . . . ,Xn] and subrings of it containing k (e.g. all rings of invariants).
A k-algebra R is finitely generated iff 9r1, . . . , rk 2 R such that any a 2 R can be written a
=
f(r1, . . . , rk) for some f 2 k[Xi], i.e. there exists a surjective ring homomorphism
k ! k[X1, . . . ,Xn] ! R
extending k.
Theorem 3.1.5. Let G _ GLn(k) be a finite group of matrices over a field of characteristic 0.
Then
k[X1, . . . ,Xn]G is finitely generated.
3.2 Symmetric Functions
The symmetric group Sn acts on V = kn by permuting the coefficients
0
B@
x1
...
xn
1
CA
7!
0
B@
x_(1)
...
x_(n)
1
CA
The corresponding matrix has a 1 in (i_(i)) place, 0’s otherwise.
_ acts on f(X1, . . . ,Xn) 2 k[X1, . . . ,Xn], _.f = f(X_(i)).
Define the elementary symmetric functions e1, . . . , en by
Yn
i=1
(t − Xi) = tn − e1tn−1 + e2tn−2 + . . . + (−1)nen
or better, e0 = 1 and e1, . . . , en has the generating function
E(t) =
Yn
i=1
(1 + Xit) =
Xn
i=0
eiti
For example, in [X, Y,Z], e0 = 1, e1 = X + Y + Z, e2 = XY + XZ + Y Z and

OTHER PART .

way).
Examples 1.3.2. 1. SX the group of all permutations of X acts on X (Sn = S{1,2,...,n}).
2. The symmetry group of (geometric/algebraic) structures acts on “components”.
Symm(triangle)
acts on 3-element set of “edge diagonals”. Symm(cube) acts on 8 verticies and on 4
diagonals;
acts on 12 edges and so on 6 edge diagonals; acts on 6 faces and so on 3 face-diagonals;
acts on 2
inscribed tetrahedrons.
3. GLn(Fp) and SLn(Fp) act on Fnp
.
4. Cayley multiplication actions: G acts on G by multiplication (g, x) 7! gx. Similarly G acts
on
G/H by multiplication; (g,xH) 7! gxH.
5. Conjugacy actions: G acts on G by conjugation: (g, x) 7! gxg−1. Similarly G acts
on subsets/
subgroups by conjugation: (g,A) 7! gAg−1.
Theorem 1.3.3. Suppose G acts on X. Then there is an induced homomorphism _
: G ! SX defined
by _(g)(x) = g.x. Conversely, given _ : G ! SX, g.x = _(g)(x) defines an action.
Proof. ()) _(g−1)._(g)(x) = g−1.g.x = x similarly _(g)._(g−1)(x) = x so _(g) is a
bijection (permutation
of X) with inverse _(g−1). So (_(g))−1 = _(g−1). For g, h 2 G, _(gh−1)(x) = (gh−1)(x)
=
g(h−1x) = _(g)(_(h−1)(x)) = _(g) _ _(h)−1(x) by above. So _(gh−1) = _(g)_(h)−1, so _
is a homomorphism.
(() e.x = _(e)(x) = eSX(x) = x, g.(h.x) = _(g)._(h)(x) = _(gh)(x) = (gh).x so this is
an action.
Examples 1.3.4. 1. Have _ : S4 ! S3.
2. There are homomorphisms Symm(Cube)! S8, S4, S12, S6, S3, S2.
A typical application of this is: If H _ G then G acts on G/H, non-trivally, and so
there is a
non-trivial G ! SG/H.
Hence we have the token conclusion: There is no simple group of order 80.
Sylow’s theorem (coming
up later) implies there exists subgroup H _ G of order 16. So there exists a non-
trivial homomorphism
G ! S5, but 80 6| 120, so not injective. So has a non-trivial kernel, hence a non-
trivial normal subgroup,
so G cannot be simple (by definition).
Definition 1.3.5. An action G × X ! X is faithful iff g.x = h.x for all x 2 X implies g
= h.
Equivalently, iff (g.x = x 8x 2 X ) g = e), iff ker(G
_ −!
SX) =
1. In this case, we can regard G
as a
group of permutations of X.
Example 1.3.6. The Cayley action of G on G: (g, x) 7! gx, as gx = hx 8x 2 G ) ge = he ) g
= h.
Theorem 1.3.7. Cayley
Any group is isomorphic to a permutation group. G _=subgroup of SG.
The conjugacy action of G on G, (g, x) 7! gxg−1 gives _ : G ! SG where ker _ = {g : gxg−1 =
x 8x 2 G} = {g : gx = xg 8x 2 G} The centre Z = Z(G) = {g 2 G : gx = xg 8x 2 G} is the
group of
elements commuting with all elements of G. Z(G)_G. The conjugacy action is faithful
Remark 3.1.4. As a vector space over k, B@
k[X1, . . . ,Xn] has basis consisting of the x_(1)
monomials Xr1 ...
1 . . .Xrn x_(n)
n. 1
The degree of Xr1 CA
1 . . .Xrn The corresponding matrix has a 1 in
n is (i_(i)) place, 0’s otherwise.
P _ acts on f(X1, . . . ,Xn) 2 k[X1, . . . ,Xn], _.f
ri. (There are finitely many = f(X_(i)).
monomials of a given degree). We Define the elementary symmetric
can write functions e1, . . . , en by
any h 2 k[X1, . . . ,Xn] uniquely as h Yn
= i=1

P (t − Xi) = tn − e1tn−1 + e2tn−2 + . . . +

hd, where hd is homogeneous of
degree d, i.e. all the monomials
occuring in it are of degree d. The
action of GLn(k) preserves
homogeneous polynomials of given
degree
and hence h 2 k[X1, . . . ,Xn]G iff all hd 2
k[X1, . . . ,Xn]G.
3.1.1 Explaination of Main Result
Let k be a field. A k-algebra is a ring R
equipped with a ring homomorphism k !
R.
This means R is a ring with k-vector
space compatibility, i.e. the addition and
multiplication is
k-bilinear.
This also means that R is a ring with k a
subring (Only case left is R is zero ring).
3.1.2 Basic Examples
k[X1, . . . ,Xn] and subrings of it
containing k (e.g. all rings of invariants).
A k-algebra R is finitely generated iff 9r1,
. . . , rk 2 R such that any a 2 R can be
written a =
f(r1, . . . , rk) for some f 2 k[Xi], i.e. there
exists a surjective ring homomorphism
k ! k[X1, . . . ,Xn] ! R
extending k.
Theorem 3.1.5. Let G _ GLn(k) be a finite
group of matrices over a field of
characteristic 0. Then
k[X1, . . . ,Xn]G is finitely generated.
3.2 Symmetric Functions
The symmetric group Sn acts on V = kn
by permuting the coefficients
0 4. Cayley multiplication actions: G acts
B@
x1
...
xn
1 conjugation: (g, x) 7! gxg−1.
CA
7!
0 gAg−1.
(−1)nen
or better, e0 = 1 and e1, . . . , en has the
generating function
E(t) =
Yn
i=1
(1 + Xit) =
Xn
i=0
eiti
For example, in [X, Y,Z], e0 = 1, e1 = X +
Y + Z, e2 = XY + XZ + Y Z and
OTHER PART .
way).
Examples 1.3.2. 1. SX the group of all
permutations of X acts on X (Sn =
S{1,2,...,n}).
2. The symmetry group of
(geometric/algebraic) structures acts on
“components”. Symm(triangle)
acts on 3-element set of “edge
diagonals”. Symm(cube) acts on 8
verticies and on 4 diagonals;
acts on 12 edges and so on 6 edge
diagonals; acts on 6 faces and so on 3
face-diagonals; acts on 2
inscribed tetrahedrons.
3. GLn(Fp) and SLn(Fp) act on Fnp
.
on G by multiplication (g, x) 7! gx.
Similarly G acts on
G/H by multiplication; (g,xH) 7! gxH.
5. Conjugacy actions: G acts on G by
Similarly G acts on subsets/
subgroups by conjugation: (g,A) 7!
Theorem 1.3.3. Suppose G acts on X.
Then there is an induced
homomorphism _ : G ! SX defined
by _(g)(x) = g.x. Conversely, given _
: G ! SX, g.x = _(g)(x) defines an
action.
Proof. ()) _(g−1)._(g)(x) = g−1.g.x = x
similarly _(g)._(g−1)(x) = x so _(g) is
a bijection (permutation
of X) with inverse _(g−1). So (_(g))−1
= _(g−1). For g, h 2 G, _(gh−1)(x) =
(gh−1)(x) =
g(h−1x) = _(g)(_(h−1)(x)) = _(g) _
_(h)−1(x) by above. So _(gh−1) =
_(g)_(h)−1, so _ is a homomorphism.
(() e.x = _(e)(x) = eSX(x) = x, g.(h.x)
= _(g)._(h)(x) = _(gh)(x) = (gh).x so
this is an action.
Examples 1.3.4. 1. Have _ : S4 ! S3.
2. There are homomorphisms
Symm(Cube)! S8, S4, S12, S6, S3, S2.
A typical application of this is: If H _
G then G acts on G/H, non-trivally,
and so there is a
non-trivial G ! SG/H.
Hence we have the token
conclusion: There is no simple group
of order 80. Sylow’s theorem
(coming
up later) implies there exists
subgroup H _ G of order 16. So there
exists a non-trivial homomorphism
G ! S5, but 80 6| 120, so not
injective. So has a non-trivial kernel,
hence a non-trivial normal
subgroup,
so G cannot be simple (by
definition).
Definition 1.3.5. An action G × X ! X
is faithful iff g.x = h.x for all x 2 X
implies g = h.
Equivalently, iff (g.x = x 8x 2 X ) g =
e), iff ker(G
_ −!
SX) =
1. In this case, we can regard G
as a
group of permutations of X.
Example 1.3.6. The Cayley action of G on
G: (g, x) 7! gx, as gx = hx 8x 2 G ) ge =
he ) g = h.
Theorem 1.3.7. Cayley
Any group is isomorphic to a permutation
group. G _=subgroup of SG.
The conjugacy action of G on G, (g, x) 7!
gxg−1 gives _ : G ! SG where ker _ = {g :
gxg−1 =
x 8x 2 G} = {g : gx = xg 8x 2 G} The
centre Z = Z(G) = {g 2 G : gx = xg 8x 2
G} is the group of
elements commuting with all elements of
G. Z(G)_G. The conjugacy action is
faithful

hd, where hd is This also means that R is

Remark 3.1.4. As a
vector space over k,
k[X1, . . . ,Xn] has basis
consisting of the
monomials Xr1
1 . . .Xrn
n.
The degree of Xr1
1 . . .Xrn
n is
P
ri. (There are finitely
many monomials of a
given degree). We can
write
any h 2 k[X1, . . . ,Xn]
uniquely as h =
P
homogeneous of
degree d, i.e. all the
monomials
occuring in it are of
degree d. The action
of GLn(k) preserves
homogeneous
polynomials of given
degree
and hence h 2 k[X1, . . .
,Xn]G iff all hd 2 k[X1, . . .
,Xn]G.
3.1.1 Explaination of
Main Result
Let k be a field. A k-
algebra is a ring R
equipped with a ring
homomorphism k ! R.
This means R is a ring
with k-vector space
compatibility, i.e. the
addition and
multiplication is
k-bilinear.
a ring with k a subring
(Only case left is R is
zero ring).
3.1.2 Basic
Examples
k[X1, . . . ,Xn] and
subrings of it containing
k (e.g. all rings of
invariants).
A k-algebra R is finitely
generated iff 9r1, . . . , rk
2 R such that any a 2 R
can be written a =
f(r1, . . . , rk) for some f 2
k[Xi], i.e. there exists a
surjective ring
homomorphism
k ! k[X1, . . . ,Xn] ! R
extending k.
Theorem 3.1.5. Let G _
GLn(k) be a finite group
of matrices over a field
of characteristic 0. Then
k[X1, . . . ,Xn]G is finitely Examples 1.3.2. 1. SX the _(gh−1) = _(g)_(h)−1,
generated. group of all permutations so _ is a
3.2 Symmetric of X acts on X (Sn = homomorphism.
S{1,2,...,n}). (() e.x = _(e)(x) =
Functions 2. The symmetry group eSX(x) = x, g.(h.x) =
The symmetric group Sn of (geometric/algebraic) _(g)._(h)(x) = _(gh)(x)
acts on V = kn by structures acts on = (gh).x so this is an
permuting the “components”. action.
coefficients Symm(triangle) Examples 1.3.4. 1.
0 acts on 3-element set of Have _ : S4 ! S3.
B@ “edge diagonals”. 2. There are
x1 Symm(cube) acts on 8 homomorphisms
... verticies and on 4 Symm(Cube)! S8, S4,
xn diagonals; S12, S6, S3, S2.
1 acts on 12 edges and so A typical application
CA on 6 edge diagonals; of this is: If H _ G then
7! acts on 6 faces and so G acts on G/H, non-
0 on 3 face-diagonals; acts trivally, and so there
B@ on 2 is a
x_(1) inscribed tetrahedrons. non-trivial G ! SG/H.
... 3. GLn(Fp) and SLn(Fp) act Hence we have the
x_(n) on Fnp token conclusion:
1 . There is no simple
CA 4. Cayley multiplication group of order 80.
The corresponding actions: G acts on G by Sylow’s theorem
matrix has a 1 in (i_(i)) multiplication (g, x) 7! (coming
place, 0’s otherwise. gx. Similarly G acts on up later) implies there
_ acts on f(X1, . . . ,Xn) 2 G/H by multiplication; exists subgroup H _ G
k[X1, . . . ,Xn], _.f = (g,xH) 7! gxH. of order 16. So there
f(X_(i)). 5. Conjugacy actions: G exists a non-trivial
Define the elementary acts on G by homomorphism
symmetric functions e1, . conjugation: (g, x) 7! G ! S5, but 80 6| 120,
. . , en by gxg−1. Similarly G acts so not injective. So
Yn on subsets/ has a non-trivial
i=1
subgroups by kernel, hence a non-
(t − Xi) = tn − e1tn−1 + conjugation: (g,A) 7! trivial normal
e2tn−2 + . . . + (−1)nen gAg−1. subgroup,
or better, e0 = 1 and e1, . Theorem 1.3.3. so G cannot be simple
. . , en has the generating Suppose G acts on X. (by definition).
function Then there is an Definition 1.3.5. An
E(t) = induced action G × X ! X is
Yn homomorphism _ : G ! faithful iff g.x = h.x
i=1
(1 + Xit) = SX defined for all x 2 X implies g
Xn by _(g)(x) = g.x. = h.
i=0 Conversely, given _ : G Equivalently, iff (g.x =
eiti ! SX, g.x = _(g)(x) x 8x 2 X ) g = e), iff
For example, in [X, Y,Z], defines an action. ker(G
e0 = 1, e1 = X + Y + Z, Proof. ()) _(g−1)._(g)(x) _ −!
e2 = XY + XZ + Y Z and = g−1.g.x = x similarly SX) =
_(g)._(g−1)(x) = x so 1. In this case, we can
_(g) is a bijection regard G
(permutation as a
of X) with inverse group of permutations of
_(g−1). So (_(g))−1 = X.
OTHER PART . _(g−1). For g, h 2 G, Example 1.3.6. The
_(gh−1)(x) = (gh−1)(x) Cayley action of G on G:
= (g, x) 7! gx, as gx = hx
g(h−1x) = 8x 2 G ) ge = he ) g = h.
way). _(g)(_(h−1)(x)) = _(g) _ Theorem 1.3.7. Cayley
_(h)−1(x) by above. So
Any group is isomorphic gives _ : G ! SG where ker elements commuting
to a permutation group. _ = {g : gxg−1 = with all elements of G.
G _=subgroup of SG. x 8x 2 G} = {g : gx = xg Z(G)_G. The conjugacy
The conjugacy action of 8x 2 G} The centre Z = action is faithful
G on G, (g, x) 7! gxg−1 Z(G) = {g 2 G : gx = xg
8x 2 G} is the group of