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...
Norman Lockyer
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YORK,
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CHICAGO.
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ELEMENT
ASTRONO
ACCOMPANIED WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS,
A COLORED REPRESENTATION OF THE 80LAR, STELLAR,
AND NEBULAR SPECTRA,
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE.
J.
NORMAN LOCKYEE,
44
NATURE," ETC
AMERICAN EDITION,
UEFI8ED
NEW YORK
CINCINNATI
TI1B
UNITED STATES.
CHICAGO
Digitized by
Entered, according
to
Act of Congress,
by D. AprxETON
Washington.
&
Digitized by
PREFACE.
These Elementary Lessons
in
in the
who
new
is
but
Stars,
the result of
much
with the
it is
in a
separate chapter.
It
may
my
objectionable, as
is
minimum
it is
it
re-
right, therefore,
on the
facts, to
and to supply
facts,
sion.
It
has been
my
Spectrum-analysis and
and
most
re-
its results
Now that
low
price, it is to
its
168943
PKEFACE.
my
De La Rue, and
ren
cal Society,
many
am
Royal Astronomi-
with
who have
II.
Godfray,
kindly supplied
me
friends, especially to
Mr.
of the illustrations.
also
press.
J.
It
N. L.
usefulness of
adapting
it
treatise,
by specially
With
this view,
new
illustrations,
it
in
He
on
and
ject
and
It
They
is
hoped that
this
treatise,
many of which
embodying
subject,
as
it
does the
book on the
and that
it
is
its
distinguished au-
may
New
Digitized by
CONTENTS
INTROD UCTION.
.......
CHAPTER
THE
I.
ftTARA.
pp. 36-48
ters,
CHAPTER
II.
NERIJI..*.
Nebulae under the Telescope. Irregular Nebulae. Ring and Elliptical Nebula?.
Spiral Nebulas. Planetary Nebulae. Nebulae surrounding Sfare.-Brightness
of the Nebulae. Variable Nebulae. Distribution of the Nebulae. Physical
Conttitution of the Nebulae. The Nebular Hypotbeni-,
pp. 48-54
CHAPTER
ITT
the arx.
The Snn'e Disk. Its Distance and Diameter. Volume and Mass.Rotation of
the Sun. The Plane of the Ecliptic Inclination of the 8un's Axis Time
of Rotation. Telescopic Appearance of the Sun.Sun spots.- -Faenhe.
Corrugations. Willow-leaves.
Punctulations. Red-flames and Promi
nences. Explanation of the Appearances on the Disk. The Sun, a Variable
Star. Elements In the Sun. Benign Influences of the Sun. Future of the
Sm>.
.........
CHAPTER
pp. 55-70
IV.
CONTENTS.
Vulcan. Motions and Orbits of the Planets.The Satellites.Distances of the Planet* from the San.Comparative Size of the Planets. Dis tances and Revolutions of the Satellites.Volumes, Masses, and Densities of
the Planets.
pp. 70-31
Planet,
CHAPTER
V.
run KARTH.
Shape of the Earth.The 8ensible Horizon Poles and Eqnator. Proofs of the
Earth's Rotation. Foncault's Experiment. The Gyroscope. Imaginary
Lines on the Earth's Sqrface. Latiinde and Longitnde. ZoueB. Polar and
Equatorial Diameter. Motions of the Earth. Velocity of the Earth's Motions. Inclination of the Earth's Axis.Succession of Day and .Night.
Length of the Longest Day in Different Latitudes.The Change of Seasons.
Difference of Time and Longitude. How to determine .Longitnde at
Sea.
PP- 81-101
Structure of the Earth. The Earth's Crnst.Stratified and Igneous Rocks. The
Interior of the Earth.Density of the Earth's Crust.The Flattening at the
Poles explained. The Earth's Atmosphere. Winds, how produced. Belts
of Calms and Winds. Clouds, Rain, Snow, Hall.Chemical Elemeots
Composition of the Air. Original Condition of the
of the Earth.
Earth
pp. 101113
CHAPTER
VI
TUH MQQN.
Its Period of Revolai ion. LiSize of the Moon. Its Distance from the Earth
orations. Nodes. The Moon's Orbit. Earth-shine.The Moon's Light.
Telescopic Appearance of the Moon. Lunar Craters. The Crater Copernicus. Walled Plaues and Rillea. Absence of Water and Atmosphere. Rota pp. 113-134
tion of the Moon. Phases of the Moon,
CHAPTER Vn.
KCUPRRSi
Explanation of Eclipses. Total and Partial Eclipses of the Moon.Total. An nular, and Partial Eclipses of the Sun. Extent of a Partial Eclipse, how
measured Recurrence of Eclipses. The Saros. Phenomena attending a
Total Eclipse of the Sun The Corona. Bally's Beads. Luminous Prominences. Number of Eclipses. Memorable Eclipses. Effects of Eclipses on
the Uneducated.
pp. 1&-18S
CHAPTER
VTTT.
.......
Fie
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
IX.
Bode'fl
Evidences
CHAPTER X
CO MKTS.
CHAPTER XI.
METEORS AND METEORITES.
Number of Meteors. The Zodiacal Light its Shape, and Theory as to Its
cause The JNovember Meteoric Showers.Orbits of the Meteors. Cause
of the Luminous Appearance of Meteors.Their Size and Distance from
the Earth. Meteoric Showers of August and April.Detonating Meteors.
Meteorites. Showers of Agrolltes.-Composition and Structure of Meteor;
ltc
pp. 164-173
CHAPTER
APPARENT MOVEMENTS OF
XII.
TtlK
KOTtTRS.
UMAIMKL3L
CHAPTER
XIIT.
CONTENTS.
8olar Day, Mean Solar Day, and Civil Day. Sidereal Time.The Week
of the iJays
The Month, Lnnar, Tropical, Sidereal. Anomalistic!
and (Jalendar. The Year, Sidereal, Solar, and AnomalisticThe
calendar - Old and New Style Change in the Length of the Solar Year.
cnange of Aphelion and Perihelion,
pp. 214-236.
Names
NcKllcai,
"...
CHAPTER
ASTRONOMICA L
XIV.
N8TR TT M RtTTfl.
The Telescope. Its Invention.Its ConBtmctlon. Its Illuminating and Magni fylng Power. Eye-pieces.me Largest Refractor.Lord Rome's Reflector
Eqnatorial Telescopes. Measnrement of Angles.The Altazimuth"The
TranBit-circle. Methods of determining the Time of Transit over a Wir<>.
Determination of Positions with the Eqnatorial. Star-catalognce. Corrections to he applied to Observations. Parallax. Changes in Positions al ready determined. Precession of the Equinoxes. Secular Variation of
the Obliquity of the Ecliptic Celestial Latitude and Longitude, how de^
termined
pp. 235-265.
Determination of Time, Latitude, and Longitude.Determination of Distances.
*'he Moon's Parallax. Determination of the Distance of Mars. The Sun's
Parallax Old and New Value. Parallax of the Stars. Bcssel's Method of
determining the Distances of the Stars. Table of the Parallax and Distances
of some of the Nearest Stars. Mode of determining the Size of the Heavenly
Bodies
pp. 256^268T
CHAPTER
XV.
THE SPECTRUM.
Qradnal Formation of a 8pectrom. Frannhofer's Lines. Experiments with the
Spectroscope. Kirchhoflrs Discovery. Explanation of Frannhofer's Lines.
Spectra of the Stars, Nebulae, Moon, and Planets. Explanation of the Fron tispiece. The Star Spectroscope. Celestial Photography,
.
pp. 263-271.
CHAPTER
XVI.
Rotation,
........
APPENDIX. Tables,
ALPHABETICAL INDEX,
pp. 283-288.
pp. 294-299.
pp. 300-312
ELEMENTS OF ASTRONOMY.
INTRODUCTION.
General
1.
Astronomy
is
Vieto.
bodies.
The Heavenly
cloudless,
all
sides
who
we
see
and
it
this
men
first
thousands of
stars,
changed.
is
In place of
warm
the Earth
and
this
body we
call
all
we
doubt their being still there, we have only to take a candle from a dark room into the sunshine to understand how
1.
what
What
is
is
Astronomy?
2.
Digitized by
INTRODUCTION,
10
is
There
4.
attention.
are,
The moon
and now as a
full
shines at night,
Moon, sometimes,
now
as a crescent
some
difference
stars."
6.
move
as
much from
stars in their
planets.
by.
What has become of the stare ? 4. What other body do we see at night ? What
changes does the Moon undergo, and why ? 5. On a closer examination of the
heavens, what may we see? 6. What bodies sometimes suddenly appear? 7.
What other heavenly bodies are mentioned ? Describe the nebula?. 8 What le
Digitized by
THE STARS.
11
view of
all
would appear to us
if
we
could
The
one.
telescope
We
space.
may
it
we
pears so
because
much
it is
We all
larger
why
rest is
it
ap-
simply
know how
how
stars.
Sun,
if
that
as the
a fact
brighter.
the feet with respect to the motion and distances of the stars ? What does the
telescope teach us respecting the stars? With what may we regard space as
peopled f 0. What is our Sun ? Why does it appear larger and brighter thaD
Digitized by
INTRODUCTION.
12
10.
Now, why do
They
They
Sun shine?
fiercely
may
We
first
Our Earth
the sky,
we know
that
its light is
sunshine second-hand
it
is
but a looking-
We have now got thus far planets are dark or nonluminous bodies travelling round the Sun, which is a
bright body bright because it is white-hot ; and the Sun
is a star, one of the stars which together form our universe ; the reason that it appears larger and brighter than
:
It
to
we
enough
What
telescopes
the other stare ? Illustrate this. 10. Why do the stars and the Sun shine? 11.
What are the planets ? What important difference is there between the planets
and the San? Whence do the planets get their light, and heat? Sum up what
we have thus far learned. Are the other stare attended by planets ? 12. What
Digitized by
is it ?
13
Earth
Earth what the Earth is to the Sun. Like the
Earth and planets, it is a dark body, and this is the reason it does not always appear round as the Sun does. We
it is
is,
it
to the
Moon we have
it
that
is lit
up by the Sun.
In the
accompany the
We have, then, to
sum up again
motion
(3) Satellites
(l)
(2)
The Sun, a
star,
Planets revolving
but
in
we
are
Further Pacts.
gas.
but
the Moon ? Of what order of bodies is* It a specimen ? 13. How do the nebula?
and comets differ from the stars and planets ? Why do they shine ? 14. What
have astronomers fonnd with respect to the comparative nize of the Snn. Earth,
and Moon I What, with respect to the distance of the Moon and Sun from the
is
Digitized by
INTRODUCTION.
14
Sun
Moon
travels
only
Thus the greater size of the Sun is balanced, so to speak, by its greater distance; the result
being that the large distant Sun looks about the same size
as the small near Moon.
240,000 miles.
15.
We
already see
how enormous
the same
way
we attempt
to measure
In spite, however, of this immensity, the methods employed by astronomers are so sure that the distances, sizes,
weights, and motions, of the nearer bodies, are now well
known. We can, indeed, predict the place that the Moon
the most difficult one to deal with will occupy ten
years hence, with more accuracy than we can observe its
mankind.
1
7.
Usefulness of Astronomy.
Let
us
first
see
what
it
our
it a book
Almanac," prepared three or four
Earth
is
Digitized by
USES OF ASTRONOMY.
years in advance
by government
15
astronomers.
In this
book, the places the Moon, Sun, stars, and planets, will
occupy
and
travellers require to
find their
tries to find
It is
map
its surface.
vofiog,
Such, then,
is
The establishment of
Digitized by
INTKODUCTION.
16
was
field
of
human
vision almost
beyond
it
the
curacy
More than
this science
own
records), a tribunal
omy, to which
their wise
b.
additions.
and that the Moon shone with reflected light. His pupil
Anaximander conceived the bold idea of a plurality of
little
worlds that is, that the planets are inhabited.
later, Pythag'oras is said to have advanced the opinion
that the Earth and other planets revolve round the Sun.
it is
b. c
is
was taught
the distance
insignificant in comparison
known to them ? 20. What nations were the first to make any material progress
in astronomy ? What did the Chaldeans discover ? What did the Egyptians investigate ? What evidence is there that the Chinese paid great attention to astronomy in early times ? 21. Whence did the Greeks obtain their knowledge
of astronomy?
by rythagoras?
What was
Digitized by
17
with that of the stars. Among other famous Greek astronomers were Eratos'thenes, who devised an accurate method
of measuring the circumference of the Earth, and Hipparchus,
who made
a catalogue of
all
his horizon.
who
flour-
He
general acceptance.
tal,
through the transparent crystal. The revolucumbrous system round the Earth from east to
west, once in twenty-four hours, he thought would account for the succession of day and night, and the various
phenomena of the heavens.
22. During the Dark Ages, Astronomy was cultivated
chiefly by the Arabians, who made no advance as regards
theory, but were diligent observers, and devised some improvements in instruments and methods of calculation.
still
visible
tion of this
Even
little
progress was
made
He ventured to
Prussian priest, about 350 years ago.
reject the system of Ptolemy, which then generally prevailed;
nican system,
what
now very
at first bitterly
is
called from
irreli-
Digitized by
INTRODUCTION.
18
gious.
Earth
is
science.
Mathematical Definitions.
Certain mathematical terms used in Astronomy must
be understood.
Line is a magnitude conceived as having length
24.
without breadth or thickness.
25. A Straight Line is one that has the same direction
Fio.
1.
Fio.
throughout.
B
-
It
between two
is
points.
AB and CD
are
straight lines.
2.
is
a line
ef.
at all points, as
An Angle
is
1.
two
which they meet
same distance
A B and CD in Figure
The
point at
An
angle
is
named from
the letter at
its
vertex, if but
universe advanced ? What are Its three fundamental points ? 23. By what two
philosophers was Copernicus succeeded, and what discoveries did they make ?
24. Whnt is a Line?
25. What is a Straight Line?
What is a Curved Line?
26. What Is an Angle?
IIow is an angle named? 27. When are two lines said
Digitized by
MATHEMATICAL DEFINITIONS.
19
one angle
letters
"
The
tinguished as
I KL or L KL
"
another in such a
as to
make
the
are
and
The angles
angles
way
N
N P
NOP
each other.
fig.
An
5.
/
T
s
28.
/R
An
v
Obtuse Angle
one that
is
Acute Angle
a right angle, as
Surface
is
is
one that
is
R S T.
is less
than
R S V.
joins
A Concave Surface is
in,
as the inside
of an egg-shell.
29.
Plane Figure
is
a plane bounded
by a
line or
lines.
to be perpendicular to each other ? What are the angles formed by lines that are
perpendicular to each other called ? What is an Obtuse Angle ? What is an
Acute Angle ? 28. What is a Surface ? What is a Plane ? What is a Convex
Surface? What is a Concave Surface ? 29. What is a Plane Figure ? 30. Wha*
Digitized by
INTRODUCTION.
20
30.
Triangle
by
bounded
three
is
plane
straight
figure
lines,
as
XYZ.
A Circle
31.
Fig.
is
by a
7.
is
equally distant
The Circumference
bounds
line that
circumference
is
it.
circumference;
2?,
is
the
part of the
called an Arc.
represents a circle;
BE C B the
of a circle
Any
Fig. 7
the centre,
is
B D, D E
etc.,
are
arcs.
number
A Radius
DE
in Fig. 7.
of diameters,
of a circle
is
1.
equal,
Every
has an
circle
equal.
as A B, A 22J A G, A E, in
Every circle has an infinite number of radii, all
and each just half its diameter.
A Tangent is a straight line that
all
either
Fig.
as
it
at
AB
in
8.
32.
circle
parts, called
The circumference
may be
Degrees (marked
).
of
every
a Triangle?
What
is
81.
What
an Arc? What
. Into what
may the
Digitized by
MATHEMATICAL DEFINITIONS.
33.
Semicircle
and a Sextant
34.
An
is
21
Quadrant one-fourth,
one-half, a
one-sixth, of a circle.
angle
is
and
is
GDE
in Fig. 8),
35.
9.
An
Ellipse
is
a curve
of these distances
is
sum
in each case
A B G an ellipse
AD+ AE
D and 2? are
BB +BE=GD + G E
the same.
is
its foci.
An
at
ellipse
may be
the length of the thread, and then drawing a line around these points
with a pencil placed against the thread, and kept stretched out as far as
The process
Fig. 10
Mod*
is
shown
in Fig. 10.
AN ELLIPSE.
of
The thread here represents the sum of the distances from each point
of the ellipse to the foci, and remains the same while the ellipse is
described.
Draw an ellipse according to these directions.
The Centre of an
midway between
A Diameter is a line
and terminating
at each
end
in
in the ellipse
as
G H, IJ.
33.
is
Digitized by
1NTK0D LOTION.
22
of an
el-
G H.
is
its
Eccentricity of an
el-
shortest diameter, as
The
IJ.
by
Hence
In Fig. 11,
if
DJF
is
to
major axis, as 2 to
be |, or .66+.
36.
Solid
is
3,
ellipse
the distance
F[ half the
and thickness.
37.
Sphere
is
a solid bounded
by a curved
surface
is
called the
within,
centre.
end
and terminating
its
at each
in its surface.
The Axis
sphere
which
is
it
of
revolving
The Poles
are
In
and
also the
axis,
if
sphere
the
and
and
is
a diameter
What
is a Diameter?
What is the Major Axis? The Minor Axis'? What is
meant by the Eccentricity of an ellipse ? 36. What is a Solid ? 37. What is a
8phere? What is a Hemisphere ? What is a Diameter of a sphere ? What is
What
38.
What
is
a Great
Digitized by
ff
MATHEMATICAL DEFINITIONS.
23
as Great
HB
CD
The Circumference
of
great
its
sphere
of a sphere
is
ly distant
is
The Equator
circles.
is
poles, as
one
of a
equal-
G If in
Fig. 12.
39.
but
Spheroid
is
from a sphere.
Oblate Spheroid
little
An
is
a sphere
flat-
CHAPTER
THE
I.
STARS.
when we
strikes us
very much
/Stars.
first
is,
thing that
brightness.
in
Magnitudes, so that
Circle
What
is
a Small Circle
Equator of a 8phere
late Spheroid ?
40.
What
if
we speak
the
first
80.
What
What
is
when we look
at the stars f
The
Pro-
Ae
re-
Digitized by
THE STAKS.
24
we
If
number
is
largely in-
The
feeble to
in brightness
and the
classification is
stars thus
continued
down
to
the twelfth, fourteenth, sixteenth, and even higher magnitudes, according to the
power of the
telescope.
tude
down
With
to the
Comparative Brightness.
star of the 6th magnias we have seen, the faintest visible to the naked
is,
eye.
estimated as follows
6th magnitude,
5th
"
3d magnitude,
"
2d
4th
1st
12
25
"
100
Even
star to us,
324
6,480,000,000,000
the
The
first
its class.
magnitude, 20
about as follows
of the second, 65
of
of the third,
gards brightness, how are the stare visible to the naked eye divided f How many
are there ? How many can be seen at once ? What are Telescopic Stare ? How
are they divided ? How many stare are there, including those of the 14th magnitude ? 41. What is the comparative brightness of the stare of the first six magnitudes ? How does the brightness of Sirius compare with the average brightness
of its class ? How does the Sun compare in brightness with a star of the 6th
magnitude ? 42. State the number of stare of each of the first six magnitudes.
Digitized by
25
It is
same
the rest,
we can
distance,
only say
difference in brilliancy is
as regards
is
distance.
44.
The
that to state
of
them
that
Now,
requires three
that,
is
traverse.
fifteen
We may say
and so on,
is
thirty-five
To what are the different degrees of brightness In the stars due? 44. Give
an idea of the distances of the stars, as measured by the velocity of light
43.
Digitized by
26
THE STAB8.
would
it
be beyond our most delicate measureThe Moon, which travels very slowly across the
light, so small as to
ment.
them
some of
is
equal portions.
This belt
Way
the Milky
is
two nearly
(see Celestial
Charts at the end of the volume) ; and the smallest telescope shows that it is composed of stars so faint, and
apparently so near together, that the eye can perceive
only a dim continuous glimmer.
as the
Milton alludes to
it
Whose
Among
is
and pavement
gold,
Way
In England
stare.
11
Circle of Milk.
Some of
dust
it
call
it
it
Jacob's Ladder.
Different opinions prevailed
Aristotle thought
set
on
fire
in
it
was the
among the
ancients as to
Theophrastus believed
the sky.
what
it
to
it
as a dense celestial
parting hemispheres.
that the Galaxy
distant stars
is
was.
be the soldering
represented
it
fire,
Diodo'rus
clefts
of
nothing more or
it
less
as a
is
of star*.
What is paid of the size or diameters of the stars ? What happens when the
Moon eclipses one of them f 46. What is the Milky Way? In what terms does
Milton allude to it ? What did the Greeks call the Milky Way f The Chinese
and Arabians ? How did some of the American Indians regard it f What did it
4fi.
Digitized by
27
them
its
named from
The
general structure.
and
They
to observe them.
ula
Major
presents,
telescope.
we
The
but, if
we
we have
Way.
number
as
the Milky Way. 47. Describe the Magellanic Clouds. Into what does the telescope resolve them ? 48. How do we find the largest stars distributed ? How.
Digitized by
THE STARS.
28
49.
Adding
this fact to
our universe.
the shape of
It is clear that it is
their distance,
arises,
tances.
Way,
infinite dis-
1,1
are
much sooner
reached than in
the direction of
Way
the Milky
We
itself.
gather,
fore,
there-
that
the
thickness of our
universe
is
compared
its
I^^^H^^M^HHH^^^^^MH^^^B
Fio. 16.Supposed
length
breadth
shape
is
small
with
and
that
its
not
spherical,
rather that of a
And
as the
Milky
the smaller ones? 49. What may be inferred respecting the shape of our universe? 60. What does the Milky Way trace for us ? What does the absence of
faint stirs in the parts of the sky remote from the Milky Way show? What is
Digitized by
Way divides
into
two
we
29
its
lengthwise, as
two
its
if
To account for the appearances presented, we must regard our solar system as lying nearly at the centre of this
mass of stars, and near the region at which it begins to
divide
the Milky
Way
somewhat
to the north
On
owing to our
from the
and our great Sun rep-
its
The
Constellations.
We
may be
53.
referred to.
The
stars, then,
classified into
inferred from the fact that the Milky Way divided into
Where mast we regard our solar system as lying? 51.
teach us respecting the boundaries of the Milky Way 1
What does
53.
How
the telescope
Digitized by
THE STARS
30
that constellation, as
shown
in Fig. 17.
is
better to present, in the Celestial Charts at the close of this volume, the
lines,
Some
of the most
marked
constellations probably
Dow
early
Digitized by
THE CONSTELLATIONS.
tus (270
b.
who
a),
31
About 150
Rhodes
Tycho Brahe, a Danish astronomer,
added two
and
to
55.
and
Latin
We
Celestial Charts at
down
in order
on the heavy
Ram.
Libra,
the Balance.
Scorpio,
the Scorpion.
A'ries,
the
Taurus,
the Bull
Gem'ini,
Cancer,
the Crab.
Leo,
the Lion.
Aquarius,
Virgo,
the Water-bearer.
the Fishes.
The order of
remembered,
if
the names
may
And
56.
The Northern
16th centnry ?
ent number?
too,
tails.
What
is
added In modern times ? What is the presmeant by the Zodiacal Constellations? From what
Digitized by
THE STARS.
32
visible
The
principal
Hemisphere)
Ursa Major,
Ursa Minor,
Draco,
the Dragon.
Cepheus,
Cepheus.
Boo'tes,
Bootes.
Coro'na Borea'lis,
Hercules,
Hercules,
Lyra,
Cygnus,
the Lyre,
Cassiope'a,
the Swan.
Perseus,
Perseus.
Auriga,
the Wagoner.
Ophiuchus,
the Serpent-bearer.
Serjyens,
the Serpent.
Sagitta,
the Arrow.
A'quila,
the Eagle.
Delphi'nus,
the Dolphin.
Equuleus,
Winged
Peg'asus,
the
Androm'eda,
Triangulum,
Camelopardolus,
Canes Venat'ici,
Andromeda.
Coma
Cor
et
the Camelopard.
the Hunting Dogs.
Berenice's Hair.
Anser,
Car'oli,
Horse.
the Triangle.
Berenices,
Vulpec'ula
57.
the
Fox and
the Goose.
Charles's Heart.
principal con-
Digitized by
SOUTHERN CONSTELLATIONS.
the Whale.
Cetus,
(Jri
Orion.
on,
JUma anus,
Lepus,
the Hare.
Cants Major,
Canw Minor,
^Ir^ro Navis,
Hydra,
the snake.
the
,
Dog.
T\
"ill
the Cup.
Corvu8,
s~i
the Crow.
Centauries,
the Centaur.
Lupus,
Coro'na Austra'lis,
the VV
Piscis Australis,
olt.
Monoc'eros,
the Unicorn.
Columba Noachi,
Noah's Dove.
58.
Names
of the Stars.
among
The
each particular
star.
(jrreat
Crater,
portioned out
to
33
now
in use, is to
arrange
ness,
Thus, Alpha
(a)
Lyres
(/3)
Ursm
adhered
to,
and consequently
it
The
letters of the
are as follows
_
their names,
-V
Digitized by
THE STARS.
34
a,
Alpha.
Iota.
p,
Rho.
P,
Beta.
K,
Kappa.
<r,
Sigma,
y,
Gamma.
A,
Tau.
Delta,
p,
Lambda,
Mu.
r,
(J,
u,
Upsilon.
e,
Epsilon.
Nu.
Phi.
C,
Zeta.
f,
Xi.
X,
Chi.
Eta.
o,
Omicron.
Theta.
IT,
PL
w,
Omega.
0,
(,
v,
is
60.
is
Some
exhausted, the
is
way
alphabet
and
Roman
still
called
by the
The
constellations
and
them
in
down
as
we
actually see
but
is
placed,
the outside.
If,
we
is
two
shown on
its
from
stars apit
be
on a
will
it
globe.
62. Stars of the First
stars in the heavens, or first-magnitude stars, are as folthe Oreck alphabet is exhausted, what are need in naming the stars? 60. What
other names have eome of the brightest stare f Give examples. 61. How are
the stars laid down in star-maps ? How, on globes ? Name the twenty brightest
Digitized by
MOTIONS OF
T1IE STARS.
35
Taurus
Beta,
Centauru.s
Centaurus.
Alpha,
Crux.
Bootes.
An tares,
Scorpio.
Aquila,
Sinus,
in
Canis Maior
Oano'pus,
14
Argo
41pha,
Arcturus,
II
It
(<
Vldeh'aran
Navisj.
Orion.
Altair,
Capella,
Auriga.
Spica,
ii
Virgo.
Vega,
Lyra.
Fomalhaut,
(t
Piscis Au8l
Canis Minor.
Beta,
>
Crux.
Orion.
Pollux,
(i
Gemini.
Rigei,
Pro'cyon,
"
Betclgeuse
M
(
Achernar,
Regulus,
EridanuB.
Motions of
63.
Proper Motion.
the Stars.
Leo.
stars
and
in
and con-
motion
Proper Motion,
is
Thus Arcturus
is
it.
system
Here, then,
tant lights.
close up,
them
We
we
we
posi-
gas-lit street,
and those
so the stars
in front of us
is
approaching are
and state what constellation each is iu. 63. What is meant hy the Proper
Motion of the stare? At what rate is Arcturus travelling? 64. What additional
we for a gradual change in the positions of the stars ? IIow is this
illustrated in the case of a gas-Ut street ? 65. From what motions are the Proper
stare,
cause have
Digitized by
THE STABS.
36
we
them increases.
Apparent Motion. The real motions of the stars
as we have seen, their proper motions and the
65.
called,
scope,
An
Stars,
reveals
tele-
to
mb^^^^^bi
Fio. is
-orbit or a
Stab
Sun,
by
is difficult,
are
among
their
own
at
light, as
first,
to realize such
it
astronomy.
A beautiful
Lyra
will at once
The
tele-
Digitized by
37
show
it
known
is itself
double
Here, then,
hence
it
we have
by
considered
them
tween
while
pairs, considered as
the
two
two
single
may be
It
roundly
stated
plete
years
revolution
that time
double
in
2,000
may
systems
Fio.
revolve
by the
Of the
Lyra.
Tob
glass.
scope.
the
Double-double
Constellation
of great power.
million of years.
that
19.
Star in
multiple stars,
more
Ononis
interesting.
is
What
appears
luminous point,
is
shown by
Fig. 20.Thk
More than
Multiple Star,
6 Orionis.
shown
in Fig. 20.
now known,
in
Digitized by
THE STABS.
38
.
may have
Years.
Zeta
Eta
()
(rj)
Hercults,
36
Corona Borealis, 43
.
...
Zeta () Cancri,
Alpha (a) Centauri,
Omega
69.
(w) Leonis,
Gamma
(y)
Borealis,
60 Delta
75 Beta
82
(6)
((3)
Gamma
Coronm
....
Cygni,
Cygni,
(y) Leonis,
100
178
500
1200
common
Earth.
70.
When
is
known, we
seem
two
it is
stars has a
as one.
Digitized by
Variable stars.
39
Variable Stars.
Variations in Brightness.The stars are not only
71.
cer-
and the
greatest
The
times.
the star
73.
is
least
interval
brightest
is
Change of Magnitude,
from
to
r\
R
R
Argils,
Cephei,
Cassiopece,.
0 Ceti,
c
...
...
Cancri,
3 Persei,
11
lower than 14
01 2
lower than 11
...
.
...
...
Period of
Variation.
10^
.
The fourth
...
.
46 years.
"
73
435
331f
days.
"
10
2^
"
"
star in the
of the smaller of the two stare in 61 Cygnif 71. What is meant by Variable
8tars? When the increase and decrease have been sadden, what have variables
been called? 72. By what is the variation. in brightness measured? What is
meant by the Period of Variation ? 73. How many variable stars are there,
whose periods are known ? Mention one or two, with their change of magnitude
Digitized by
THE STARS.
40
first
For the
becomes invis-
its light
decreases
till it
small power.
pears,
and
in
It so
same phases.
its
maximum
have
been discovered in its period of variation, but these irregularities are themselves periodical.
Among the variables, Beta (ff) Persei, or
75. Algol
Algol, is perhaps the most interesting, as its period is
short, and it never becomes invisible to the naked eye. It
shines as a star of the second magnitude for two days
thirteen hours and a half^ and then suddenly loses its light,
and in three hours and a half falls to the fourth magnitude
brightness, to repeat the
Irregularities
its
it
and
in
another period
in less
than three
days.
Now,
it,
it
indeed, that
is
not a
it
little
was
so
and 1264 something similar was observed in the same region of the sky (in Cassiopea) in which this star appeared.
If, then, we assume that we have here a variable star of
long period, which is very bright at its maximum and
fades out of view at its minimum, we may expect a reappearance of the star about the year 1885.
and period of variation. 74. Givo an account of Mira. 75. Describe the changes
of Algol. Point to Mira and Algol on the Celestial Charts. 76. Which are the
most noticeable of the New, or Temporary. Stan? ? Give an account of the one
Digitized by
We
now come
new
41
star
On
the 14th
it
de-
ness was for some time at the rate of about half a magnitude a day, but toward the end of May it was less rapid.
There is good reason to believe that this increased bril-
liancy
Cause of Variation.
77.
The
1.
face
is
all
its
axis
parts
that
its sur-
it
is
planets,
He
is
its
brightness, especially in
Hence he
sup-
Digitized by
THE STARS.
42
it
at a small distance
is
then for
very near.
it
be
will
what we have
in
temporary
stars.
Colored Stars.
are a
ing table
Red
Blue
Green
Yellow
White
Arctu'rus.
79.
It
is
in
we
(1)
Thus,
The
triple
star
Gamma
is;
(y)
we have
ruddy purple.
What
some of
What
what
is
the color of
some?
Mention
Digitized by
COLORED STARS.
43
What wondrous
planets
in
lit
clearest
at times
variously-colored
80.
stars
it gradually faded to a
read that Sirius was fiery-red
pure white, and is now a decided green. Capella was
;
now
it
is
a pale blue.
striking.
may add
that generally,
and we
decreases,
The
variations
which the
we can
stars
undergo
in bright-
movement and
The Photosphere.We
known
will
now
pass on to
what
In the
Digitized by
THE STABS
44
is
an
We
also,
stars.
83.
we know any
Yes, a
light ?
Vega
Pollux
and
For instance
Sirius
among
little.
iron, are
among
We
shall
Digitiz;
45
detailed
how
it
it
produces color.
absorbs
all
is
green because
it is
a sort of
colors.
Now, the
only
if
the
blood-red at noonday.
in
we
Star Groups
85.
and
Clusters.
Having now
their
vidual stars,
bility,
and structure,
stars
in
86.
we saw
the
first
beginnings
is
exhibited in
How
Digitized by
THE
46
Pleiades (which
may
STARS.
The
may
also
be mentioned.
closely
packed together.
That
though much
are revealed
Many
fainter
by the
stupendous,
telescope.
Assemblages of
87.
by reason
1.
to the
naked
Star-clusters,
2.
eye.
invisible
subdivided
Ordinary
into
These are
and
Clusters
Globular Clusters.
Clusters and nebula? are designated
by
their
number
in the catalogues
different astronomers.
The most
About 5,400
Of the Ordinary
88.
Figs.
The Globular
by those
start* ?
In what groups
in
lie
nated
88.
Digitized by
47
STAR CLUSTERS.
I.
In Libra
2.
In Hercniefl.
5.
In Aqua ri us.
3.
In Capricornua.
6.
In
4.
In Serpent
Gemini
Digitized by
VjO
STAB-CLUSTERS.
48
we must regard
as other
and are
most powerful telescopes
There is a
fail to reveal their real shape and boundaries.
gradual fading away at the edge, the last traces of which
universes, are at such immeasurable distances,
The Dumb-Bell
ter, in
Cluster, in Vulpecula,
is
all
the
visible star-clusters
which,
if this
90. In
some of these
is
so rapid as to
make
it
.i
CHAPTER
II.
NEBULJE.
Clusters.
90.
of
Digitized by
NEBtTLiE.
49
was known, were found to be star-clussome of them of very remarkable forms, so distant
that the smaller telescopes, powerful though they were,
had failed to resolve them into distinct stars. Now, this is
what has happened ever since the discovery of telescopes.
Hence it was thought by some that all the so-called nebnebulae nothing
tert?,
ulae
One
modern
conjectured
by some astronomers
ago
some of
namely, that
and that
our telescopes.
and the
This discovery
is
is
due to something
power of
insufficient
not yet been time to sort out the real from the apparent
nebulae.
ulae
all
to accept as neb-
stare.
Classifi-
93.
Nebu-
cation.
lae
may be
di-
regular
he.
2.
and
Elliptical
Nebulae.
ral
Ir-
1.
NebuRing
or
3.
Spi-
Whirl-
pool Nebulae.
4.
Planetary Nebulae.
5.
Nebulae
surrounding
Pig. 21.Great
Nebula of Obion.
stars.
made, as more powerful telescopes were nsed? What inference was drawn
from this ? 92. What has since been discovered respecting some of the nebulie
Name them. 94. To which
93. Inio how many classes may nebulae be divided ?
Digitized by
NEBULAE.
50
94. Irregular
Nebula.
Some of the
irregular nebula;
Among
these
is
sur-
One
part of
its
account
Two
it
bright-
appears, in a
it
On
fish.
hemisphere
one
surrounds Eta
is
(77)
in the constellation
Argils.
The
Ring and
Elliptical
Nebula.
ring-nebula;
The
looked at sideways.
finest
ring-nebula
in
the
stellation
ra,
is
con-
not
Lyfar
John
by
Sir
Her-
1),
of these classes does the great nebala of Orion belong? Describe this nebula.
What name has been given to it. and why? What irregular nebulae are visible
95. Why are the Ring and Elliptical Nebulae
in the southern hemisphere?
classed together? Which is the finest ring-nebula? Describe it, as seen by Sir
John Ilerschel. As seen through Lord Rosfe's telescope. Where is there a fine
Digitized by
SPIKAL NEBULA.
ring into luminous points (see Fig.
22,
No.
2),
lines in the
Near the
Gamma
(y)
Andromeda}
is
a fine
51
Nebula
lipse.
near y Andromeda.
96. Spiral
ulae.
The
Neb-
spiral or
whirlpool
nebulae
are represented
./
by
nary telescope
presents
-v'
it
the
ap-
pearance
of
two
globular
clusters,
a considerable
varying in brightness,
Fio. 84.Spiral
Nebula
in
Canes Vknatici.
and
being
elliptical
Digitized by
NEBULAE.
52
which indicate the action of stupendous forces of a kind unknown in our own universe.
These
97. Planetary Nebulae.
were so called by Sir John HerscheL
in Messier's catalogue),
98.
We
Fio.
come
parently like
all
The
nebulous
stars.
appendage
nor
Iota
(1)
Orionis, Epsilon
(e)
Orionis, 8
Canum
Mb>
Like
Star,
Oriords.
the
telescopes
Thus,
it
Reflector, the
in
tele-
Now,
off
as light re-
quires 120 years to reach us from such a star, the tele97. From whom did the planetary nebulae receive their name, and why?
What is their form? Where does one occur? 98. What is the last class of
nebuhe? Describe the nebulous stars. Mention four of this class. 99. How
do the nebulae compare with each other in brightness ? How has their magnitude
In a manner been determined ? niustrate this in the case of Lord Roese's tele*
occur?
Digitized by
Variable nebula.
5>3
would take
An
light sixty
it
has been
to great varia-
tions.
it
which
in
May,
its
brightness.
Another nebula,
Distribution
of the
Nebula.
In
ever,
is
out.
The
nebulous
Ait.
48 the
was pointed
its
Milky Way,
Virgo being so
own
They
Way
rich in
Digitized by
NEBULjE.
54
it is
is
the richest.
102.
come to the
question,
true nebula is
What
is
a nebula ?
We now
The answer
is
gas,
Nebulous Fluid
When,
in space.
therefore,
light in a nebula,
some nebulas
selves gaseous
at least,
It
is
kept
its
light in a nebnla,
Digitized by
CHAPTER
IIL
THE SUN.
Sun. We shall now consider the star nearest
The
104.
55
0 or .
The Sun's DiskThe Disk of a heavenly body is
face, as it appears projected on the sky.
The Sun's
following signs
105.
its
disk
a perfect luminous
is
that
its
The Sun's
we know
Hence, as
circle.
that the
we
110),
size,
conclude
according to the
it,
If the
mean
1st,
represented
by
100,
its
its
least 94.
106. Relative Brilliancy
and
Size.
The
brilliancy of
it
is difficult
at first to look
us
soon dispelled
is less
when we
This
so great
any way
difficulty,
however,
consider that
it
its
distance from
Removed
is
as in
upon
star,
Alpha
from us,
our Sun would be a star of the second magnitude and,
(a) Centauri.
is
Btars,
How
does the light of the Sun compare with that of the stars?
difference explained ?
How
if
removed
How
to the
is
this
mean dhv
Digitized by
THE SUN.
5tf
it
would be just
visible to the
sixth magnitude.
These
miles.
of the distances of
fail
to convey
its
is
or, in
852,584 miles.
If the
Sun were
fill
three-fourths of the
it
require
If
we
years.
represent the
feet in
by a
tance of the let-magnitude stars? How does the Sun compare In size with
Sirins? 107. How far is the San from the Earth? Give some idea of this distance, by telling how long it would take to travel it by rail. 108. What is the
length of the Son's diameter? Give an idea of this distance. How may we
represent the Sun, the Earth, and the nearest fixed star? 109. What is the dif
Digitized by
by saying
57
Sun
Sun
is
is
over
But
as
down
is
That
is,
o.
Rotation,
The Sun,
like the
we
its surface,
was
dis-
about which
spots always
this rotation
make
opposite direction.
June.
September.
December.
March.
Fio. 27.
Ecliptic.
It is
important that
Terence between volume and maw? How does the Sun compare with the Earth
In Tolnme? How, in mass? 110. What has been found, by observing the spots
ou the Sun ? What appearances do these spots present ? 111. What is meant by
Digitized by
THE SUN.
58
we make
We
its
path
is
level
that
is
It
know
we may imagine
it as floating round the Sun on a boundwhich both Sun and Earth are half immersed.
see further on that this level called the Plane
less ocean, in
We
shall
of the Ecliptic
same way
as
is
we commonly
We say, for
midway
be-
Sun's rotation.
As
59
as distinguished
been thoroughly
difference in the
assigned to the
eight days.
We
are
still,
for, if it is
a solid mass,
it
can of course
telling.
if
14.
our Earth,
We have
it
gleaned so
many
facts, at
we
light
and fostering
is
stupendous distances
heat,
Por what doe* this proper motion account? How do the nun-spots differ, as
regards their proper motion ? What is the exact time of the Sun's rotation t
114. What keeps ub from knowing more about the physical constitntion of the
Sun ? What caution is given, with respect to looking at the Sun ? 115. What
are the first things that strike us, on looking at the Sun through a powerful
Digitized by
THE SUN.
60
away
and
even though
that,
we employ
we can
miles.
To look
at the
a very dangerous
Sun through a
affair.
is
so doing, and the student should not use even the smallest telescope with-
5.
Sun-spots.
6.
The
spots float, as
it
were, in what, as
is
we have
is
called the
half-tones
The white
surface
is
represent the
central portions,
sphere,
and these
different
shades
represent
different
depths.
1
18.
How
116.
here
117.
spots ?
Digitized by
SUN-SPOTS,
^-
1.
61
The spot
8.
view).
2.
Digitized by
THE
62
SUN.
9.
Faculae.
it is
es-
quite easy,
ridges
and
net- work.
ways
into
Fig. 28.Sun-spots
a Photograph.
chances.
119.
What are
Faculae?
What
120.
is said
How
Digitized by
DISK.
63
of
mottled
deed,
by the
coarsely
is
and,
the
in-
mottled
appearance requires
cal
visible.
it
Viewed
through a large
tel-
seems to be made
up principally of luminous masses,
by
called
Sir Wil-
by other ob-
servers
The term
penumbra.
wMoio-leaves has been appropriately applied to appearances sometimes observed in the penumbrae of spots.
They
not covered with spots ? Of what does It seem to be made up, when viewed
through a large telescope? 121. What is meant by willow-leaves? 122. What is
It is
Digitized by
THE
64
SUN.
ally in the
same
spot, the
of the
penumbra
straw.
122.
we conclude
fire
is
Disk.
Let
Digitized by
is
made up
clouds are
of a cloudy nature.
sphere
The
and
photo-
is
vapors
35
of
photosphere.
It seems, also, that not
only
is
phere
is
a highly-absorptive one.
because
see faculoe
there
the clouds.
The
faculae are
them
to be elongated
down
by
own sky
them
are length-
short duration.
of spots visible
minimum
Digitized by
THE
66
maximum
and a
other time.
The
period,
interval
SUN.
It is also
known
when
some
in
is
its
greatest oscillations
Aurora, and
therefore, to
Sodium.
Zinc.
Gold, probable.
Iron.
Calcium.
Cobalt, doubtful.
Magnesium.
Chromium.
Strontium, ditto.
Barium.
Nickel.
Cadmium,
Copper.
Hydrogen, probable.
Potassium,
ditto.
ditto.
yet
unknown
sub-
the size and dnration of the sun-spots? As regards the periods of their occurrence? What conclusion is drawn respecting the Sun? With what does the
occurrence of solar spots seem to he connected? 126. Mention some of the
elements known to exist in the Sun. Of what does the solar atmosphere consist?
litized
by
67
pared
And
its
first,
as to its light.
merely
but that
is
know its
that no
us therefore
that
its
compare
we know
It is clear, at once,
let
made
intensely hot
by a flame
How many
30.
heat in
Earth
is
so small
away from
is
directions;
it,
it is
128.
129.
is
so far
get?
and
in fact,
How
does the brightness of toe Sun compare with that of a calcium light?
Give some idea of the Sun's heat. 130. How much of this does the Earth
How much do all the planets together receive? What would be the effect
Digitized by
THE
68
we
SUN.
j,Tjnf,iws,jnnf
P art f
&
and
heat.
vegetable world.
of the whole heat or the Sun, collected on a mas* of ice as large as the Earth?
What is the
131. What else, besides liffht and h*at, do we owe to the Snn ?
effect of this chemical force ? 132. Show how the heavy work of the world
Di
Of what
69
On
Does
grass.
the Sun
and man
is
is
but a
little
by
the
Sun.
Sun inhabited?
134. Is the
This
is
a question more
the incandescence
think,
is
If the
confined to
its
its
outer envelope
its
intense light
many
protected from
and
of heat, there
135.
photosphere, as
itself is
is
is
at the
nothing to prevent
It cannot, if it
man
know
there
through
has stored up
its
all its
come a time
its
mass,
black
133.
Sun inhabited
ball,
134.
13ft
Digitized by
70
left
to supply the
36.
some of the
stars
still
we
see that,
stars differ
of heaven.
CHAPTER
IV.
bol'i-des,
or
Reasoning by analogy from the Sun, what may we suppose with respect to the
tars?
137. What different bodies do we find in the Solar System f
138. How many
Digitized by
OF
WHAT COMPOSED.
71
of which break
upon us from all parts of space, and then, passing round
our Sun, rush back again while others are so little erratic
that they may be looked upon as members of the solar
shooting-stars.
in
household.
us,
is
Planets,
named
etc.,
by the
signs
Mercury,
Venus,
5.
Jupiter,
2.
6.
Saturn,
3.
Earth,
7.
Uranus,
4.
Mars,
8.
Neptune,
1.
Jl
ter,
The Zodiacal Light, a ring of apparently nebulous matthe exact nature and position of which in the system
39.
signs
by which
An
explanation of the
may
189.
Digitized by
72
mounted by a spear-head
(<$).
is
de-
rived from a capital zeta (Z), the initial of his Greek name,
Zeus.
Saturn, the
with which he
mows down
known by
his trident
).
Of
As we
shall see in
are distinguished.
140.
Which of
the planets
were known
to the ancients f
has
tle
it
had?
Interest-
Digitized by
unknown
planet respectively
by the two
made
Search was
73
by the
Cambridge
calculations
Adams ; but no planet was recognized. In the following September, Le Verrier wrote to the Berlin observers, acquainting them with the results of his investigations,
of Mr.
142.
in
1801
added to the
list in
1802
Juno, in 1804
Vesta, in 1807
Suspected Planet.
principal
ninthquite small is
between Mercury and the Sun, only
pected to
exist,
susthir-
its
disk in 1859.
to
it.
of such a planet
rier
is
suspected
it is
not proved.
it
Le Verby
not improbable,
Ing facts connected with the discovery of Neptune. 142. Which four of the
steroids were first discovered, and when? 143. What is said respecting a
ninth planet, whose existence is suspected ? What appearances that have been
observed may have been transits of Vulcan ? What seems to make the existence
Digitized by
74
Let us begin
144. Motions and Orbits of the Planets.
by getting some general notions of the planetary motions
and orbits. In the first place, all the planets travel round
the Sun in the same direction ; and that direction, looking
down upon the system from the northern side of it, is
from
rection to that in
di-
Sec-
than others.
The
we suppose
edgeways. The
straight line
orbit looked at
orbits of
axt>
The
little
in
may be supposed
to
lie
in that plane.
is
very
With
Digitized by
down
75
of floating on
volving in
it
or re-
it.
in
mind
Sod
Mercury,
in miles.
35,393,000
D.
H.
M.
87
23
15
48
Venus,
66,131,000
224
16
Earth,
91,430,000
365
Mars,
139,312,000
686
23
31
Jupiter,
475,693,000
4332
14
Saturn,
872,135,000
10759
16
Uranus,
1,753,851,000
30686
17
21
Neptune,
2,746,271,000
60126
17
20
149.
The apparent
size of
its dis-
orbits of the comets inclined, as regards the plane of the ecliptic ? 146. What
are Moons ? What planets have moons, and how many has each ? 147. What
other motion besides that in their orbits have the planets ? In what direction
do the satellites revolve ? 148. How far is the nearest planet from the Sun ? How
tor is the farthest planet ? What is the length of Mercury's year? Of Jupiter's
Digitized by
76
size,
as seen
from
nearest to
it.
It is well to
remember
amount of
light
ets receive.
150.
The
equatorial
Diameter in Miles.
Mercury,.
....
....
Venus,
Earth,
in Miles.
2,962 Jupiter,.
85,390
....
Uranus, ....
7,510 Saturn,
71,904
7,926
33,024
4,920 Neptune,
Mars,
36,620
of the
Earth and Sun, and of the distance
between them let us now complete the picture, with the
aid of Sir John Herschers familiar illustration. Taking a
globe two feet in diameter to represent the San, Mercury
151.
comparative
size of the
;
in
a circle
diameter
four-fifths of a
and a half
mile
in diameter.
To
149. On what does the apparent size of an object depend ?
which planet does the Snn look largest? To which, smallest? What does the
Of Neptune's ?
?
160. Which planet has the greatWhich, the smallest? How does the Earth's diameter compare
with that of Venus ? With that of Jupiter ? 151. Give Sir John Herschers illusion of the comparative sizes and distances of the planets. What does Fig. 83
est diameter?
SIZE OF
THE SUN'S
DISK.
muM
77
tub
}'ljlnets.
Digitized by
78
the
Sun and
of the Sun.
sented
planets.
The
The black
the Sun,
upper
line.
satellites
152. Distances
Digitized by
THE SATELLITES.
The
79
requires about
leaving
we have
satellites
three bodies
satellites of Jupiter,
the
the
Among
the
of
II.
and
III.
and
given in
satellites are
of the Appendix.
far
away
as another, without
When
of either.
of
all
the rest from the Sun, and therefore from the Earth.
sizes
know
the distance of a
dimensions.
154.
accompanied by
hereafter;
its size
we can
be shown
satellites
or volume,
it
its
we
is
weight,
can com-
composed
were known firstthe relative distances of the planets from the Sun, or fhftlr
When the distance of the Earth from the Sun was determined, what followed ? What were next determined ? 154. In what case can we
at once determine the weight of a planet ?
If we know its size, what can we
absolute distances?
Digitized by
80
with those
we
own
first also
Earth.
this, let
if
is
this table.
then do ? 155. Illustrate the meaning of the word density by comparing platinum
with hydrogen. 156. How does the density of the Earth compare with that of
water? Comparing the other planets with the Earth as regards density, what
do we And f 157. Which planet is about 900 times as heavy as the Earth f How
Digitized by
81
Mercury,
Venus,
85
79
92
Earth,
100
100
100
124
Mars,
14
12
96
Jupiter,
138,743
30,000
22
12
Saturn,
74,689
9,000
Uranus,
7,236
1,300
18
Neptune,
9,866
1,700
17
158.
Summing up
To
sum
it
composed of
planets,
satellites,
the planets, both large and small, revolving round the Sun
same
round the
have learned the mean distances of the
planets from the Sun, and have compared the distances
and times of revolution of some of the satellites. We
have also seen that the volumes, masses, and densities
of the planets have been determined. There is still much
more to be learned, about both the system generally, and
the planets particularly; but it will be best first to inin the
planets.
quire
We
somewhat minutely
into the
we
movements and
CHAPTER
159.
because
fore study
it
best
which we should be
does Jupiter compare
density
150.
V.
We
it
so
now
struc-
dwell.
stars,
there-
let us
familiar, as a
Earth ?
Which
158. Sum up what we have thus far stated respecting the Solar System.
?
What hody do we first consider, as a specimen of the planets? KKX
THE EARTH.
82
is
round.
So the
sailor,
when he
in
the
e hape
of the Earth
What
proofs have
we
is
round
Digitized by
we
largest things
surface
As
first.
the top, as
is
88
it
it
is,
were, of a flattened
dome
inter-
rest
The
Sensible Horizon.
On
all
sides of us
from a
little
small
but
we
see
circle
from a
higher
if
hill,
we go
the more
however retaining
Pio.
84.
If
we
observe
Horizons
is
it
is
in
fact, the
its circular
form.
Now,
the sphere
is
What
is
is
a sphere, or nearly
?
What proof
so.
Digitized by
THE EARTH.
84
162. Poles, etc.
The
it
Earth
is
rotates or
when
it is
spinning
a mathematical
We
owe
to the
Earth.
1
64.
The
first
weight, suspended
the sensible horizon afford ? 163. What is meant by the North and the South
Pole of the Earth ? By the Equator ? By the Polar Diameter ? By the EquaDiameter ? Which of these two diameters is the longer ? 163. To whom
are we indebted for having made the Earth's rotation on its axis visible to the
eye ? 164. Give an account of the first experiment. Where and how might such
torial
Digitized by
85
same direction with regard to the support and the surrounding objects.
Foucault's pendulum was suspended from the dome of
the Pantheon in Paris, and a fine point at the bottom of
the weight was made to leave a mark in sand at each
The marks
swing.
successively
made
in the
sand showed
As
with the
it
directions meet.
165.
that,
axis,
come
indeed, to maintain
slight obstacles.
If,
it is
made
it
is
a pendulum be made to serve as a clock ? How would the dial appear to more
at the north pole ? How, at the south pole ? How, at the equator ? 165. On
what fact is the second experiment based ? 166. What instrument does it em-
Digitized by
THE EARTH.
86
would be no
however long
the wheel might continue to turn but if the Earth moves
and the axis remains at rest, there should be some difference.
Experiment proves that there is a difference, and
just such a difference as is accounted for by the Earth's
rest, there
axis,
In fact,
rotation.
if
we
remain at
will
it
star,
while
it
rest
varies
the Earth.
it is
is
its axis,
made.
is
is
into holes
made
in pivots
C C,
which
BB
',
which
is
furnished
holes
ploy?
made
How
Gyro-
BB
ring perpendicular to
C C.
is
The knife-edges
rest
Describe the
Digitized by
At A'
is
A A', which
is
suspended by a
may be avoided
moving
rings.
first
The
the ring
axis
as
the
is
C C may be made
A A\ and
and the
fine
87
by
proper positions.
on the Earth
will
its
position
be the polar
be observed.
Imaginary Lines on
Earth's Surface. If we
167.
the
we
is
not
it.
circles paral-
lels;
and large
circles, called
passing
Meridians,
through
The
to
be in north latitude /
latitude.
meridian,
it is
said
As
if
its
But
something
is
90.
some
What la done to the instrument when the experi167. What circles do we find on a terrestrial globe ? What
What is Latitnde ? What is the difference between North
and South Latitude? What is the greatest latitnde a place can have ? 169. What
else besides latitude is needed to define the position of a place ? What is Longi-
ment
Is
ia
performed
thpir object?
168.
Digitized by
THE EARTH.
88
England
is
situated
exact position.
ured,
is
called Longitude.
is
first
merid-
As
meridian, so meas-
with
first
Zones.
170.
trial
globe
latitude
the terres-
find parallels of
and meridians of
tude laid
Besides
On
we
down
these,
longi-
10 or 15 apart.
23 from
the
Polar Circles,
and Zones,
At
it.
The
tropics
and
one
Zones
shown
torrid,
zones, as
in Fig. 38.
171. Polar
is
What meridian
is
What
is
the
difference between East and West Longitude ? What is the greatest longitude a
place can have? 170. What are found 23% degrees from the equator? What
circles lie 23% decrees from the poles ? Into what do the tropics and polar cir-
How
wide
is
Digitized by
posite one.
162)
is
89
Feet
Mean
Equatorial Diameter,
Polar Diameter,
is
is
Miles.
41,848,380
7,92 5|$f
...
41,708,710
7,899|$#
This difference
Their
but small
yet
it
26^
miles.
it is
found that the equatorial circumference is not a perbut an ellipse, the difference between the major
fect circle,
Pio. 89.Cibcle
and
Ellipses.
eccentricities.
F,
O H,
a circle.
C, foci of
L M.
//,
Z>,
L J/,
ellipses of different
E, foci of /./.
meant by the Polar Diameter of the Earth ? The Equatorial Diameter ? How do
they compare in length f What. then, is the form of the Earth ? 172. Why is the expression mean equatorial diameter used ? 173. What produces the succrcnion of day
is
Digitized by
THE EAHTH.
90
east of
Greenwich to 165
37'
west
is
it.
The
56m.
move round
An
ellipse
was defined
L M in
may have
Fig. 39
so
little
in Art. 35
its
foci
or, if
It
its
shape depends on
may
be a decided oval,
it
eccentricity as to be indistinguishable
time of
its
Greek words
off,
When
nearest to
said to be in perihelion
(from the
is
near,
and
Earth
is
The
rjliog, the
and
Sun)
rikioq, the
when
farthest
Sun).
when the
orbit
is
The Earth
is
by
the
represented on a
is
per-
The Earth
1st,
is
in perihelion at
about July
1st,
This
What oilier motion has the Earth? 174. What is the shape of all
the planetary orhitu ? How may ellipses differ? What kind of ellipses are the
planetary orhits?
175. How is the Sun situated, as re^rds these ellipses?
When is a planet said to he in perihelion, and when in aphelion*? 178. What is
the difference in the Earth's distance from the Sun at these two points? At
what time of the year is the Earth in perihelion, and at what in aphelion?
nd night?
Digitized by
Sun
near-
the
to
intensifies
southern sum-
and
mer,
ac-
that
fact
temperature of
this
season
is
higher in Aus-
and
tralia
responding
the
of
lat-
north
itudes
About
tor.
Fio. 40
Thk
Earth's Orbit.
P erihclion
equa-
<
S, the
Sun
P, the Earth
h aphelion,
the
Adam,
the
ter;
hotter than
it
now is
quire with
2:3),
colder.
Let us now
in-
performed.
As
it is
we go from
Hence, there
is
is
northern
The
all,
and
What
Digitized by
THE EARTH.
the regions about
them very
little.
78.
The velocity
of the Earth in
is
when
its
the Earth
then strongest.
more
orbit
is
constantly
Its
average rate
is
Two
is
in perihelion, as
to determine the
philos-
amount of
us that
it
would
suffice to
it
moving
are unconscious of
is
that
we have
melt
to vapor.
never known
any other condition, and that the whole bulk of the Earth
and every object on and around it, including the atmosphere and clouds, participate in the motion.
180.
we spoke
Now
refer to
We
in
181.
Sun,
The
is
two completely
We have, then,
one performed
distinct motions
in a day,
is
Digitized by
year.
To
and nigJU ;
to the latter,
we owe
182. Succession of
93
we owe
the succession
in a
of day
inclination of
the seasons.
Earth
in its Orbit at
Day and
Night.
Sun
Different Seasons.
Fig. 41
represents
at its centre.
It also
Earth
Now,
if
we
is
we
toward
planet
it
is in
the rotation of
to shade,
owe
to each
183.
What does
to sunshine.
Fig. 41 represent
How is
it
that
we get
the sac
Digitized by
THE EARTH.
94
it
We
answer, by
In the
place, the
first
all
What
At
happen?
(it
will
will
be most con-
we
we
right), we
however, as
to
.left
will
axis, until,
Earth's rotation
fact,
does not
set.
in
the figure,
portion
all
the circle
is
we do
we
cannot
noonday.
There
will
now be ho
understanding how
one day of six months
difficulty in
cession or day and night ? 183. Explain the inequality of the days and nights,
and the changes that occnr in this respect as the Earth advances in her orbit
Digitized by
95
our long
12
65
Hours.
0 (Equa*o~)
41
24
49
54
31
58
27
...
.
...
...
185.
Honrs.
66
21
66
32
16
67
23
17
69
51
18
73
40
19
78
11
20
84
21
90
0 (Pole)
15
23
Months.
3
4
5
to which
medium tempera-
for
the more
more heat
proved by the
How long
This
is
186.
On what do
Digitized by
THE EARTH.
96
zenith
that
Fiq. 42.Explanation or
On
the
left
we have
is
summer
solstice,
when
inclined
when
to the
at the
inclined
is
that this line forms a larger angle with the line leading to
the Sun
that
is,
at
do
at the
summer,
solstice.
the
Hence
in
zones depend? IIow is this proved? 187. With Fig. 42, show that the San
attains different heights at different seasons. IIow is the Earth's axis inclined
Digitize
is
97
in
summer
it
is
nearly overhead.
The
pupil should
now make
Sun
he will
from
Sun
itself is seen at the same distance from the point overhead
in spring and autumn.
Hence the temperature is nearly
the same, though Nature apparently works very differently at these two seasons in one we have seed-time, in
find that the axis is not then inclined either to or
the
Fig.
88.
at the equinoxes?
What do
Fijjf.
Digitized by
98
THE EARTH.
the Sun.
(Noon
at London).
and 46 represent
Digitized by
DIFFERENCE OF TIME.
99
S
> 1Q.45.
The
(Noon
the
at
and
London on
is
It
191. Difference of
round once
is
How
One degree of
do these
different places?
In
as
fact,
longitude, therefore,
makes a
differ-
What
4
*
Digitized by
THE EARTH.
100
Fio.
46. The Eabth, as been fbom the 6cn at the Vernal Equinox
(Noon at London).
difference of longitude
between
is
the
more
being
the
time of London being later, because, being east of New York, the Sun
comes sooner to its meridian. When, therefore, it is noon at New York,
it is
56 minutes past 4
When
it is
at Philadelphia
p.
m.
at
London.
it is
p.
m.
Their difference
will
By
this
time
make? Why
Inter
(as,
sea.
is
at its high-
is this
When
London; what in their difference of longitude? The difference of longitude between Snn Francisco and Philadelphia being about 46^*, when it is noon at
Philadelphia what time in it at San Francisco ? How do navigators determine
101
set.
or physical constitution.
we know
to the climate
way
The
first
is,
Was
it is
at present?
millions of years,
193.
is
still
is
Class
I.
all
of them,
Class
IT.
Igneous Rocks.
re
/
Digitized by
THE EARTH.
102
is
as follows
(
(Upper
Cainozoic, or Tertiary
Upper
Upper
Palaeozoic, or
Crag.
Eocene.
Cretaceous,
Lower
Alluvium.
] Drift.
Lower
Mesozoic, or Secondary
Oolite.
] Lias.
(
Trias.
Permian.
<
Carboniferous.
Devonian.
Silurian.
Primary
Lower
J
(
Cambrian.
Laurentian.
present
the
time; M.|
all
contain the
Hfcw.
1
>w
li
'
and shell-fish,
in great abundance
indeed, some of the
beds are composed
'pffii|;J?
almost
mfM
tiles,
entirely
the remains of
of
ani-
mal life.
Such remains, being
dug out
r
jg
Fl
of the stratified rocks in order, beginning with the latest. 195. How is it proved
that these rocks have been deposited by water f What other name has been
given to the stratified or sedimentary rocks f Why ? What are Fossils ? 196,
Digitized by
STRATIFIED ROOKS.
fossilia, dug).
103
of which
we have spoken
curved.
horizontal.
Had
this not
How
stratified rocks, if
each
member
complete
of the series
in
one
locality
arrangement of the
What would he
?
What do we
What advantage
results
from
stratified
this tilting ?
197.
How
Digitized by
THE EARTH.
104
one
is
If
we
mentary rocks, we come to a kernel of rock, the constituents of which it is impossible to determine.
It may, however, be supposed to be analogous to the older rocks of
the granitic series, and to have been part of the original
molten sphere, which must have been both hot and luminous, in the same way that molten iron is both hot and
luminous. Doubtless there was a time when the surface
of our Earth was as hot and luminous as the surfaces of
the
The
are
still.
Interior of the
Earth.Now, suppose we
We
is
have
at a high
have the whole series of stratified rocks been disturbed ? What may be taken as
an example of the Igneous Rocks ? How are the igneous rocks distinguishable
from the sedimentary? If we could strip the Earth of the sedimentary rocks,
what should we come to? What was once doubtless the case respecting the
Earth's surface
198.
What
is
What
Digitized by
down.
105
its
would be impossible
it
for
in
in
some
is
canoes
that
for
we have
it is
that
is,
212 of Fahr-
enheit's thermometer.
among
we
Mount Erebus in
are
the
we descend
50
We
feet.
shall therefore
have a
temperature of
Fahr.
Miles.
boiling water
red-hot iron
melted glass
M ,
of about
at a depth
r
.
"
2
,
18
which everything we
are acquainted with
would be
in
....
of fusion
200. If this
be
so,
28
a state
28 miles in thickness
that
is
evidences have we of the interior heat ? 199. What la the rate of increase of
temperature, as we descend below the Earth's surface ? At what depth would
we have the temperature of boiling water ? The temperature of red-hot iron?
What temperature would wo have at the depth of 18 miles ? At the depth of 28
miles? 300. What follows, with respect to the thickness of the crust? What
Digitized by
THE EARTH
106
the radius
But
so that
it is
this question is
may be
surface to centre.
201. Density of the Earth's
Earth's crust
is
CrustThe
density of the
made up
of
much
surface,
The Flattening
202.
common
at the
metallic compounds.
It
was
by the Earth's
rotation.
If
we
shown
in
Fig.
50,
so that the
make
it
very
it
an
revolve
rapidly,
will
oval
assume
form,
bulging out at
Fiq.
those parts which are farthest from the axis, the motion
opposite opinion is held by some? 201. How does the density of the Earth's
crost compare with that of the whole planet? How is this accounted for? 202.
How is the flattening at the Earth's poles accounted for? Illustrate this with
Digitized by
Thus the
tales told
205.
atmosphere, which
may
to the
This height
but there
of
is
some kind
206.
clouds,
in
is
The atmosphere
and
it is
Although
in
greatest regularitv.
tion
on
its
The
is
the
pheric disturbances.
What
208.
made with
oil ?
264.
Digitized by
THE EARTH.
108
torial
regions are
the part
of the
Earth which is most heated; consequently the air there becomes rarefied
fill
its
winds.
place
The
air
the equator
ascends,
is
soon
and
what successive belts do we find the Earth's surface divider] ? 908. How are the
trade-winds produced? How, the anti-trades ? For what is the equatorial belt
remarkable ? 209. What makes the trade-winds deviate in direction from due
Digitized by
109
still
it.
motion
is less
The Earth's
rapid.
surface, therefore,
now
by heating
the equatorial
it
its
position
The
HaiLTo
Digitized by
THE EARTH.
HO
temperature
its
the
snow, or
hail, is
atmosphere
is
On
formed.
if
a cloudy
increased,
phere,
is
called the
Non-metallic
elements,
or
phosphorus.
Metalloids.
Metals
of
the
alkalies
Potassium,
earths: Cal-
Metals
of
the alkaline
Other metals:
tin,
Aluminum,
zinc,
iron,
Of
3.
mass
aluminum,
of
cal-
sodium, sulphur.
Oxygen combines
der what circumstances will clouds disappear? 218. What is meant by the Chemical Elements ?
How many are there ? Into what two classes are they divided ?
Name the non-metallic elements. Into what classes are the metallic elements
subdivided? Name some of each class. 213. What elements constitute the
COMPOSITION OF THE
many
with
AIR.
Ill
is
by weight,
tion,
is
as
follows:
The
chemical composi-
Nitrogen,
77
Oxygen, 23
parts;
parts.
we have
Carbonic acid,
Aqueous vapor,
Ammonia,
We
...
a trace.
present, because,
said at
We
still
glowing crust
above
steam
As
common
above
and
lastly,
salt,
would be present
in
this,
and other
it
in a solid state.
to condense,
great mass of the Earth's crust ? Of these, which enters most largely into the
composition of matter? Of what 1b sandstone composed? Of what, granite?
214. What is at present the chemical composition of the air?
Give an account of
the atmosphere, when the Earth was molten. As the cooling went on, what
Digitized by
THE EARTH.
112
and
seas,
used up by
was
carbon going to form a luxurious vegetation, the remains of which are still to be seen in the coal
that warms us and does nearly all our work.
its
life
possible.
When
fluid state,
it
portion, condensed
state, exists at
we
Digitized by
SIZE
CHAPTER
113
VI.
THE MOON.
217. Size.
satellites,
The
Moon,
as already stated,
is
and, although
it
or secondary bodies
one of the
appears to
small
it is
is
little
that 49
it
we have
seen,
to be the ease.
elliptical orbit,
218. Distance
its foci,
at an
she
is
most
yfj, tfie
Mirth).
its
much
on the Moon than any other of the heavenly bodseen at the full, its disk would be as large as 13 full moons
larger to an observer
ies.
When
217. To what claw of heavonly bodies does the Moon belong? What is its
Blze? What is its size, as compared with the Earth and Son ? 218. Why does
the Moon look so large to us ? What is the shape of Its orbit ? When is tho
Moon
Digitized by
THE MOON.
114
219. Period of
Revolution.The
Moon
travels round
She requires
more time to complete a revolution with respect to the
Sun, which is called a Lunar Month, Lunation, or Synodic
the Earth in a period of 27d. 7h. 43m.
ls.
Period.
220. Librations.
The
Moon,
but there
is
and the
case of the
one side
we sometimes
see
the region round one pole, and somatimes the region round
This
the other.
is
termed Libration in
latitude.
from the
though its rotation is uniform, its rate of motion
round the Earth varies, so that we sometimes see more of
the western edge, and sometimes more of the eastern.
We have, moreover, a daily Libration, due to the Earth's
There
is
fact that,
When
on
line,
By reason
The
we
is
its surface.
Moon
performs
Moon,
What
the nodes distinguished ? 222. What renders the motion of the Moon complicated T To what UJts path round the Sun compared ? What is said of the devi
Digitized by
THE MOON'S
ORBIT.
115
The two
in
body passes
these
Earth at one of its foci but, while this revolution is going on, the Earth also is moving, in an
elliptical orbit which has the Sun at one of its
Hence (leaving out of view the fact that
foci.
the Sun also has a motion in which it is accompanied by both Earth and Moon) the mo;
tion of the
may
Moon
is
get an idea of
We
quite complicated.
its
to
if
have
spokes, so as to
its
is
The
Moon from
the
the continuous
line,
the Moon's.
223. Earth-shine.
Besides
223.
What
is
meant by Earth-
Digitized by
THE MOON.
116
tion
is
This appearance
faintly visible.
and
is
it is.
Moon
covers j^-^tru f
hence it follows that the light
full of moons would not be so bright as sun5
from a sky
shine.
the
Moon sometimes
we
sphere,
Moon by
we
we
stand
when
we are situated, as it were, on the side of the Earth, halfway between the two points nearest to and most distant
is
beneath
than
it
The
how
explained
the Sun's
is it
?
226.
It there
is
seems placed
produced?
224.
When
How
Digitized by
TELESCOPIC APPEARANCE.
beyond all the objects on the Earth's surface near the line
along which we look, and therefore appears to be more
distant than when it is overhead where there is no object
near the line of view. Now, as it retains the same dimensions, and seems in the one case to be farther off than in
the other, we intuitively endow it with a greater magnitude in the situation which is apparently the most remote
and it appears to the eye accordingly.
A powerful telescope
will
240 miles
off;
Moon
if it
ner
by volcanoes
of
all sizes.
A further
study convinces
As on
and
fertile valleys.
the Earth
we have
volcanoes, so
size,
of what
s
Digitized by
THE MOON.
118
imagine.
terrestrial crater
known
into insignificance.
The
228.
satellite is
minator
best
way
broken up
of seeing
in this
how
manner,
is
ter-
portions
is
called.
Along
mountain-peaks are
and the
shadows of the mountains are thrown the greatest distance
on the illuminated portion. The heights of the mountains
and depths of the craters have been measured by observing the shadows in this manner.
229. The Crater-mountains and Ranges of the Moon
have been named after distinguished philosophers, astronomers, and travellers. Thirty-nine peaks have been found
whose height exceeds that of Mont Blanc (15,870 feet).
Dorfel is 26,691 feet high; the Ramparts of Newton,
measured from the floor of the crater, are 23,853 feet high
Eratosthenes is 15,750 feet. These heights, it must be remembered, are much greater as compared with the size
of the planet than the same elevations would be on the
Earth's surface, as the Moon's diameter is but little more
lighted up, while the depressions are in shade
objects in the
its
immediate neighborhood
ruerp-ed
re-
The
masses,
shadow on the
floor, as
What was once the case with respect to the Moon ? Describe the lunar
craters. 228. What is the best way of seeing how the surface of the Moon is
broken np ? 229. After whom have the crater-mountains and ranges of the Moon
been named? How many peaks have been found higher than Mont Blanc
to be
280.
Digitized by
LUNAR CRATERS.
110
many
is
to the left)
Moon
is
2,650 feet.
shown
The
in the
shadow.
The
scale of miles
THE MOON.
120
are
Walled
interesting
Plains,
Billes,
The
features
diameter of the walled plain Schickard, near the southeast limb or edge of the
Moon,
is
133 miles.
Clavius and
Some
visible
all
illuminations.
class.
Somewhat
a glass globe
by
and plunging
it
filling it
into
warm
water.
it
up,
eventually bursts,
its
be
fissures, in the
Moon.
Moon
are
now
all
ex-
231. What other interesting features are there on the Moon'* surface?
What is the diameter of the walled plaiu Schickard ? Of Clavius ? Of Grimaldi r
What are the Rilles ? How many rilles are known ? What are seen apparently
cus.
been produced
What
is
Digitized by
ABSENCE OF ATMOSPHERE.
Moon,
its
121
The cooling of its mass would be attended with contraction, and the formation of vast caverns in the interior,
which would communicate by fissures with the surface.
In these internal receptacles the ocean may have been
swallowed up, to such a depth that not even the fierce
heat of the long lunar day can draw it forth in the form
of vapor. The Moon, then, may be a picture of what the
Earth is destined to be revolving round the Sun, an arid
and lifeless wilderness if ever its internal heat be wholly
lost.
because
it
would do
The
if
There
being no atmosphere to diffuse the solar light, the fiery
disk of the Sun stands out sharp and distinct against the
less desert.
The Moon
more slowly
in
turn exposed
fortnight.
As
to,
there
is
may
the absence of water be accounted for ? 233. Wliy do wo nay that the Moon
has no atmosphere? What peculiarities must the lunar days present? 234.
Moon's day ? With what change of temperature must the alternation of day and night be attended ? 235. What is meant by the Phases of the
Digitized by
The moon.
122
235.
Let
shapes this
gets
the Moon.
represented, and at
lie
to the right
its
lighted up.
is
When
the
Moon
is
at
is
Sun being
A, the illuminated side
it
this is the
Moon ?
With
see
Moon
B;
at
see all of
Moon
by
the
New Moonand
New Moon
Now,
at
we
at this point
it.
123
all.
Now
practically
let
and
Full Moon, when the
this occurs at
New
time of
visible
;
two
Moon
as at the
Moon.
At C and
the Earth
the
line,
Moon
we
us take the
our
satellite is
midway
be-
D we see the
at
represented
At C
positions.
right, as seen
from
left,
those occupied
by the Moon
at the First
gibbous.
236.
phases
New
We
have,
then,
succession,
in
the
foUowing
The Moon
Moon.
Sun
is
is
we
are on the
other.
Crescent Moon.
We
begin to see a
little
of the illumi-
Moon is still
that we only
so nearly in
catch, as
it
Sun are
the Sun
As
Moon is
the Moon is
When
south
illumi-
nated.
successive phases while the
Moon
is
waxiii?.
Digitized by
ECLIPSES.
124
Moon
is visible.
Full
Moon we
From
New Moon, when the cycle recomthat, from New Moon the illuminated portion
So
mences.
till
illuminated
portion,
except
we have
at
by a
Full Moon,
New Moon;
Moon, being
Full
semi-ellipse, called, as
CHAPTER
ECLIPSE
VII.
S.
In explaining the phases of the Moon, as reprewe supposed the motion of this luminary
to be performed in the plane of the ecliptic but, as stated
237.
Moon would
is
were, every
New
like
If
it
shadow, every
shadow.
stances.
while thr
dark part
Moon
is
waning.
How
is
837. If the
Moon's
Digitized by
EXPLANATION OF ECLIPSES.
125
the Moon
is in
that
of
called
it
the
Now, if the
Moon, when in either
Nodes.
node, happens to be
in line with the Earth
Moon
If the
eclipse.
new,
it
directly
is
Sun
the
eclipsed.
is
Moon
If
is full,
the
Earth is between ii
and the Sun, and the
Moon
eclipsed.
is
made
by the accom-
This will be
clear
panying diagram.
In
we
54
Fig.
Sun and
the Earth, and the
Moon in two posihave the
tions,
ing
it
represent-
as neic,
and
The
as full.
of the page
sents the
the
repre-
plane of
We
ecliptic.
suppose,
both
in
Moon
level
at a node,
in
the
and Lunar
neither
below
above
nor
it.
ECLIPSES.
126
At A, the Moon
shadow
its
falls
an
eclipse
is
in the
way.
is
called
of the Moon.
239. It will
eclipse of the
Moon by
whereas the
figure, that
much
larger
Penumbra (from the Latin pcene, alIf the Sun were a point of
merely, the shadow would be all umbra but it is so
Moon. In
a total eclipse of
Digitized by
this
dim
as
At
length,
when
it
the
umbra
shadow
Moon
entirely.
disk
enters
is
The
of the Earth's
it
is
distinctly seen,
Even
we
first
penumbra
in
reached, the
is
we have
east,
enters the
penumbra, spoken of
almanacs.
127
the
circular shape
and
at last the
is
sometimes tinges
A total
When
the
last contact
it
eclipse of the
at,
Moon.
a node,
is
over.
If the Moon
we have
is
very
only a partial
north of the node, the lower limb may enter the upper
edge of the penumbra or umbra if south of the node, the
upper portion may be obscured.
;
In a
on the Earth
As
the Moon,
which throws the shadow, moves in its orbit from west
to east, the eclipse always begins at the western edge of
the Sun. The shadow first strikes the illuminated side
of the Earth on the west, and sweeps eastward across it
is
50 miles.
Digitized by
ECLIPSES.
128
244. Annular Eclipse of the Sun. When the Moon intervenes between the Sun and the Earth at such a distance
from the latter as to make her apparent diameter less than
is
The
exhibited.
thb Sun.
round
point
its
shape
is,
is
Bhown
shadow ends in a
Now,
in Fig. 55.
the length of this cone varies with the Moon's distance from the Sun,
is
is
about as follows
The
Miles.
When
the
230,000
....
238,000
But the distance between the Earth and Moon varies as follows
Mile?.
When
the
is
221,436
253,263
times the
at such
node,
we
What
244.
is
RECURRENCE OF ECLIPSES.
tial
Moon.
As
129
the
is
Moon
is
not exactly
cause she does not pass quite into the shadow of the
Earth
and
because the
Moon
Sun
is
the Sun.
246. To measure the extent of a partial eclipse, the diameter of the Sun or Moon, as the case may be, is divided
into 12 equal parts, called digits, and the number of digits
is
stated.
Moon
in 18 years
orbit, therefore,
Moon,
after
alike situated.
what circumstances
Moon ? What
Digitized by
ECLIPSES.
130
at
Saws, and by its means eclipses were predicted before astronomy had made much progress.
248. Phenomena attending a Total Eclipse of the Sun. A total eclipse of the Sun is at once one of the grandest
and most awe-inspiring sights it is possible for man to wit-
As
ness.
is
and darker, and the color appears to run over large portions of the sky, irrespective of the clouds.
The
sea turns
lurid red.
the-
and gives
The Moon's shadow
rise to strange feelings of sadness.
sweeps across the surface of the Earth, and is even seen in
the air the rapidity of its motion and its intenseness produce a feeling that something material is rushing over the
landscape
is
is lost
fowls
flutter to the
silver-white light
It is slightly
Digitized by
B ALLY'S BEADS.
Moon
131
Be-
from the
row
a nar-
ring, a peculiar
notched
appearance
presented
is
in
which makes
of
56).
or 1836. Cobona.
"Baily'b Beam."
non has been called " Baily's Beads," from the astronomer
Baily, who was the first to describe it.
It is supposed to
be the effect of irradiation.
251. When the totality has commenced, close to the
edge of the Moon, and therefore within the corona, are
observed fantastically-shaped masses, bright red fading
into rose-pink, variously called Red-flames and Red-promi-
phenomenon, as exhibited in
of the most remarkable of
these prominences hitherto noticed, were observed in the
nences.
Fig. 57
shows
What
What
this
860.
Two
ECLIPSES.
132
eclipse of 1851
lows
Dawes
as
fol-
"A
triangular
bluntly
as
it
first seen,
had
Moon advanced.
It
appearance of a
the
To the
ill-defined substance.
HUiBMHI
first
revealed
cimeler,
arose to
tint,
a height of perhaps
1 \'
when
and increased
in length to 2' or
more completely.
it
it
To my
about
In shape
began to reappear."
Sun, as those at
first visible
It is
in
Number
of Eclipses.
In
observed by Mr. Dawes in the eclipse of 1851. 252. What reason is there for
supposing that these prominences belong to the Son ? What is the height of
some of them ? What are they thought to be ? 253. How many eclipses occur
NUMBER OF ECLIPSES
of
period
18
133
usually happen 70
In any one
and the least
2 in the former case, 5 of them may be solar, and 2 lunar
in the latter, both must be solar.
Under no circumstances
can there be more than 3 lunar eclipses in one year, and in
some years there are none at all. Though eclipses of the
Sun are more numerous than those of the Moon, in the
proportion of 41 to 29, yet at any given place more lunar
eclipses, of
lunar.
is 7,
is
Memorable
254.
men
Eclipses.
Thales,
of Miletus, one of
He
first
to give the
a c, and is memorable
having put an end to an engagement between the
Medes and Lydians. Herodotus tells us that the day was
suddenly turned to night, and that, when the contending
was cemented by a
twofold marriage.
Another total
1st,
557
by the
b.
withdrawn from
its
walls in alarm.
255. Effects of Eclipses
on the Uneducated.
by
Though
the wise
men
of
regarded
in the Saros? What is the greatest, and what the leaBt, number that can occur
in anyone year? How many lunar, eclipses may occur in a year? Which U
oftener eclipsed, the Sun or the Moon ? Why arc there more lunar than solar
eclipses visible at any given place? 254. Who was the first to give the true
explanation of eclipses? What eclipse did Thales predict? What made this
eclipse memorable? What other memorable eclipse is mentioned? 255. What
Digitized by
ECLIPSES.
134
these
phenomena with dread. Savage nations, not unnatupon them as omens of evil, and connect va-
urally, look
see the black disk of our satadvancing over the Sun, believe that the jaws of a
dragon are gradually eating it up. To frighten off the
devouring monster, they commence beating gongs and
rending the air with discordant screams of terror and
ellite
shouts of vengeance.
For a time
their efforts
At
have no
length, however,
he appears to
and then
rejects
mouthful.
When
it,
he
gradually disgorges
the Sun
is
is
the fiery
raised,
from a disastrous
fate.
Elsewhere in India,
is
in process of
An
sions, which the natives refused to supply, he took advantage of their ignorance of astronomy to save himself and
his men.
Knowing that an eclipse of the Moon was about
Digitized by
MERCURY.
that night.
When
135
Moon became
the
CHAPTER
VIII.
lost
It is
Sun.
Name
Digitized by
136
this
is
because
we
when
see
more of
its
phases
when
Mercury
same
Fio. 58.
The mean
of
its
light
seen from
does to
us.
is
its
Mercury is nearly
The mean
surface
We
say
would look
its
intensity
times as large as
light, for
when
it
it
How docs Mercury look to the naked eye ? What phases docs it present, through
the telescope? 258. Describe Mercury's orbit. How is it that Mercury's distance from the Earth varies -o much ? What change is noticeable in its apparent diameter ? 259. How do the heat and light received at Mercury comparo with
MERCURY.
18
nearest to the
Sun the
when most
times as great.
Hence the
there
and
light is
distant only 4
differences of temperature at
extreme
137
Every
is
and
its
28 to 29.
those of the Earth ? 260. How long are Mercury's day and year? What Ib believed to be the case respecting the inclination or it* axis ? What would follow ? How does Mercury compare with the Earth in density, and the force of
gravity on its surface? How does its polar diameter compare with its equatorial ? 361. Of what are there indication* on the surface of Mercury ?
8*52. Which
Describe the appearance of Venus. What
is the second planet from the Sun ?
138
the telescope,
it
owing to
apparent diameter
farthest
When
seen as a cres-
its
is
when
its
it is
off.
it
was then styled Hesperus or Vesper by the ancients, and is distinguished by us as the Evening Star.
The greatest distance it attains from the Sun is 47.
264. In size, density, and the force of gravity on its
surface, Venus differs but little from the Earth.
No flattening at the poles has been observed, from which it is
set
it
is
it
so small that
it
would be
In consequence
four seasons are
case of Mercury,
make a great
its
polar regions to
change does
Digitized by
MARS.
139
Mars
).
Mars, fourth
in order
the
is
to
day
Its
of
is
length as ours
year
its
twice
about
is
long
as
our
as
year
diameter
its
two-thirds
of
is
that
Earth.
the
The
inclination
of
axis to the
its
plane of
bit
its
or-
does not
dif-
much from
fer
its
therefore similar
When
to ours.
it
is
the
nearest to
Earth,
its
apparent diameter
is
as- large
it is
times
as
when
farthest
off.
cred in 1877.
ties
111
to the
140
ITere
The
planet
left.
The coast-line on the right reminds one of the
Scandinavian peninsula, and the included Baltic Sea.
the
268. It will
now be
seen
how we
its axis.
We have only to
hours that
describe curves
with
When
both
is,
half
maps
of
all
Mars
vary ? 267. Describe the surface of the planet, as represented in two sketches
taken in 1862. 268. How can we determine the length of a planet's day and the
inclination or It* axis? 269. What is the direction of the features which cross
the disk or Mars*
How
is
down
in
Digitized by
MARS.
141
by
their latitude
and
lon-
land, water,
and snow,
like the
Earth, but also clouds and mists, and these have been
watched at
when the
different times.
The land
planet's atmosphere
is
generally reddish
clear ; this
is
is
due to the
is
Sun with
by which Mars is
The water appears of a
us.
Hence the
greenish tinge.
271.
Now,
we
if
it
is
ice
This
is
is
observed to be smallest on the 11th of October, or fortytwo of our days after the highest position of the Sun. This
may
its
orbit,
and
occurs
270.
?
this red light attributable
271.
Digitized by
T1JE
142
much
In the northern
greater extent.
Spring
lasts
Summer "
As we must
days.
hrs.
hrs.
191
Autumn
lasts
149
181
Winter
"
147
sphere, spring
Passing over
come
to Jupiter,
by
is
performed in about
2 of
Fig. ou.
Comparative
cannon-ball.
The
Size of Jui'iteb
It turns
on
its axis in
is still
less
than 10 hours.
uorthem hemisphere of the planet? How do the spring and summer of the
southern hemisphere compare in lencrth with those of the northern ? 273. Which
is the largest planet of the Solar System?
How does it compare in hulk with
the Earth ? What are its periods of revolution and rotation ? How do wc find
JUPITER.
cury's, its polar diameter
143
being to
its
equatorial diameter
as 16 to 17.
what we
202).
nation of
its
very
is
summer
little
day
polar
6 years long,
is
equal length.
circle,
Owing
the planet
is
and
followed by a night of
more
is
and receives
in
consequence ^
heat.
the
first
Moon
is
shadow
absent, in spite of
like
in Fig. 60,
Mars.
Venus.
its
A glance
In fact
we know
nothing.
276.
are
What
are generally
known
to the poles.
The
in
They
two
belts
lie
shape to have been affected by its rapid rotation ? 274. What is the inclinamuch more
tion of Jupiter's axis ? What follow*, respecting the seasons ?
heat does the planet receive at perihelion than at aphelion t 275. How does Jnits
How
piter appear to the naked eye ? By what is Jupiter surrounded ? 276. Describe
the belts of Jupiter, and their relative positions. What tint has the equatorial
Digitized by
144
The
time.
terrestrial calm-belts
tint,
due to
its
277.
Though
all
size.
many good
In the
first
fifth
Now,
may
not
What are Been besides the belts? What is the planet's rotary velocity ?
is the necessary effect of this rapid rotation on the atmosphere ?
To what
the absence of cloud-belts in Mars due ? 277. What reason is there for sup-
belt?
What
is
Digitized by
145
Moreover, our own planet was most probably enveloped in a great shell of cloudy atmosphere, in one of the
early stages of its history, before
The
(Art. 214).
crust
its
in the
may now
in like
form of a blanket of
thickness.
along rapidly
in
AND
HIS
In
FOUK M0ON8.
times they
some-
planet, appearing
now
hereafter.
The passage
Transit.
of either a satellite or
we
shadow
observe
is
it
called a
from Ve-
poeing that Jupiter and Saturn are enveloped in immense shells of cloudy atmosIn what was our own planet probably once enveloped ? 278. How many
moons has Jupiter? In what different positions does the telescope exhibit
them? What is meant by a Transit? 279. How do Jupiter's moons compare
phere?
10
146
nus,
we should
see the
and
their
we
Moon is from
Like our Moon, they rotate on their axes in the same
time as they revolve round their primary. This is inferred
all
us.
from the
dullest in the
volume
about 750
is
next to Jupiter in
is
also next to
it
in size,
it is
al-
re-
having a
day is
Its
its orbit.
281. Saturn,
which
is
is
which
The
already
Fig. 62.Saturn
and
its
Moonb.
transparent.
is
have been
belts
referred
to
Seven of
(Art. 277).
the
primary,
etc.,
The equator
Moon
in size?
How,
transits, eclipses,
in distance
From what
is
greatly
and occultations
inferred
In what respect
What planet
2S0.
ranks next to Jupiter in size? How does Satnrn compare with the Earth in
size? How do Saturn's day and year compare with ours? 281. How many
moons lias Saturn ? By what else is it surrounded ? In what respect is Saturn
very unlike Jupiter? In what plane do the orbits of Saturn's satellites mostly
147
lie
rarely.
most of the
observers, with
earlier
were,
by
puzzled the
The
was supposed
interest of this
planet attaches.
to resemble a vase
planet at
first
It
The
was discovered by Huyghens in
the largest in the middle.
in this curious
"aaaaaaa
form
ccccc
nnnnnnnnn
These
letters,
lo cingitur
iticlinato."
"
1655,
who announced
0000
eeeee
pp
rr
h
8
iiiiiii
ttttt
1111
nmquam
cohserente,
surrounded by a thin
its surface,
mm
uuuuu."
It is
it
(enui piano,
attached to
ad
"Annu-
ecllpticam
flat ring,
nowhere
how many fold. The transparent ring was next made out
by Dawes and Bond, in 1852; then the transparent ring
What
satellites?
is
282.
Digitized by
148
was discovered
had
comes evidence that
last
of
all
itself is
probably increas-
its
shown
only
in
its
edge.
Fio. 68.Saturn
284.
The ring-system
planet's equator,
and
its
Size.
288.
is
is
What
ring-
la the distance
149
Miles.
166,920
...
147,670
1,680
144,310
...
.
91,780
9,760
...
71,900
109,100
rings,
and
of
Miles.
Outer bright
ring,
9,625
Dark
ring,
7,605
8,660
Entire system,
37,570
is
285.
is
Of what,
composed
There
great reason for believing that they are neither solid nor
liquid.
The
idea
now
generally accepted
composed of myriads of
dently, each in
its
own
little
orbit,
satellites,
is
moving indepen-
giving rise
both sides of the ring near the planet (shown in Fig. 84),
which is supposed to be due to some of the satellites being
atmospheric conditions,
its
in
from the planet to the nearest dark ring ? What is the breadth of the three principal rings respectively? What is the breadth of the entire system? What is
the thickness of the ringB ? 285. Of what are the rings now generally believed to
consist ? What are accounted for on this supposition ? 286. What follows from
the great inclination of Saturn's axis, with respect to its seasons ? By what be-
Digitized by
150
and
like
axis, is
its
Saturn's seasons,
its
we
To understand
ring-appendage.
these effects,
considered.
As
be
first
lies in
the
not
lit
up by the
light reflected
But
if
by the
it
it,
be
posi-
eclipses for
Sun
is
sides a change of temperature are its seasons marked ? How would the rings be
presented to an observer at the equator of Saturn ? As he increases his latitude,
what changes will be exhibited in the rings ? When will the rings sink below the
horizon? State the facts with respect to the illumination of the surfaces of the
rings. How must the illuminated surface look at night? How is the dark surface indicated ? 287. What phenomena are produced by the rings in the day-
Digitized by
URANUS.
day
that
is,
151
region covered
and
how
actual conditions as
ring.
As
the year of Saturn equals 29J of our years, it follows that each surface of the rings is in turn deprived of
the light of the Sun for nearly 15 years.
288.
Uranus
(Iff).
planet to Saturn,
naked eye.
It is
is
just
Uranus
is
able for their retrograde motion, travelling in the opposite direction to that of all
moon
except that
Earth
its
little
is
specific gravity is
ice.
Describe the eclipses in lat. 40*. How long is each surface or the rings
2SS. What appearance does Uranus present? How do its size, its year, and the intensity of its light and heat compare
with ours ? How many moons has Uranus ? For what are they remarkable ?
What Is the specific gravity of Uranus ? 289. Which is the most remote planet
of our system? How does Neptune look? How loni: is its year? How many
time?
Digitized by
152
moon, a
little
Its light
us.
Nothing
is
about of
Its density is
CHAPTER
IX.
290. Bode's
write
down
12
24
48
96
28
52
100
this series of
Jupiter. Saturn.
We see that
dis*
:
among
is
known
fifth
term
the planets.
This
the
How
do Neptune's
light, heat,
What is meant by 14 Bode's Law " ? Which term of the aeries was
represented among the planet* ? 291. What gave an impetus to the search
290.
not
/or
Digitized by
153
Appendix.
292. Size of the Asteroids. None of these planets,
except occasionally Ceres and Vesta, can be seen by the
naked eye. This is owing to their small size the largest
;
minor planet
is
may
On
and those enormous animals which here require the buoyant power of water to counteract their
exist;
weight,
may
293. Orbits.
The orbits
and are
some
in
lie
if
we
mean
distant one
is
There
is
mean
distance
is
is
The most
as long as 6
313,000,000 miles.
Digitized by
154
The
is
that of Mas-
294.
Pallas
hazy appearance, to be surrounded by a dense atmosphere, and this may also be the
case with the others, as their colors are not the same.
There are also evidences that some among them rotate on
has been supposed, from
its
Mode
of Discovery.
dis-
In the
Fia. 64.
new
covered.
teroids resemble those of the comets
How
in the case of
some of the
asteroids
296.
THEORY AS TO THEIR
Fig. 64,
the
field
sued.
The
telescope
its
is
stars
shown
seen the
in
left
ORIGIN.
155
will give
in the field
of the
is
found to be a
member
of our solar
system.
CHAPTER
X.
COMETS.
297.
We have
or cooling solid bodies, called planets, revolve; that be296. What theory has been advanced, to account for the existence of the asteroids ? What fact indicates an intimate relation between them ?
What is probable with regard to future discoveries ? How great may the num-
minor planets.
y
Digitized by
COMETS.
150
cause they are cold they do not shine by their own light
that they perform their journeys in almost the same plane
that the shape of their orbits is oval or elliptical; and
that they
all
move
in
one direction,
that
is,
from west to
east.
But these are not the only bodies which revolve round
There are, besides, masses, probably white-hot,
called Comets (from the Greek KouTj-rq^ long-haired),
which shine by their own light; which perform their
journeys round the Sun in every plane, in orbits some of
the Sun.
Major
Axis
have
hodies
What have we learned with respect to the planets? What other
What
we now to consider? How do comets differ from planet*? 298.
Digitized by
THE COMETARY
move round
ORBITS.
157
Comets.The
much
the
in
appear to describe
Here
is
list
of
Time
of
Revolu-
COMETS.
tion.
is
known
Snn.
Years.
Enckc's
D' Arrest's
Faye's
De Vieo's
32,000,000
387,000,000
110,000,000
475,000,000
64,000,000
537,000,000
82,000,000
585,000,000
192,000,000
603,000,000
o6,000,000
3,200,000,000
Winneeke's
Brorsen's
Biela's
H
*i
Mechain's
13}
Halley's
76$
curve* do the comets describe ? What comets return at fixed periods ? How do
the elliptical cometary orbits compare in shape with the planetary orbit* ? What
comets will never return ? Mention some of the short-period comets, and their
time of revolution. Mention some of the long-period comets, and their time of
Digitized by
COMETS.
158
These are called Short-period Comets. Of the Longwe may mention those of 1858, 1811, and
1844, whose periods of revolution have been estimated at
2,100, 3,000, and 100,000 years respectively.
From the table given
299. Distances from the Sun.
above it will be seen how the distance of these erratic
bodies from the Sun varies at different points of their orThus Encke's comet is twelve times nearer the Sun
bits.
at perihelion than at aphelion. Some comets whose aphelia
lie far beyond the orbit of Neptune, at perihelion almost
period Comets
Sir Isaac
Newton estimated
that
its
nearest point,
it
at
was but
The
by a Comet.
In
66
Fig.
we
which
The brighter
the comet
is
part of
still,
Comst
(general
view).
The
tail is the
dimmer
part
it
revolution. 299. Give instances Bhowlng how the distance of eome comets from
the Sun varies at different points of their orbits. What facts arc stated respecting the comets of 1680 and 1843 ? 300. Name and describe the different parts of a
comet. What different appearances does the tail present? What evidence is
may be
159
multiple.
two.
revolution
is
is
entirely wanting.
tail
diameter.
301.
Changes in Appearance.
When these
bodies are
away from the Sun, their heat is feeble, and their light
dim we observe them in our telescopes as round misty
bodies, moving very slowly, say a few yards in a second,
far
any body, be
it
in
it
its
motion increases
(for the
nearer
more
light,
A violent action
in jets
the
coma
there that both head and tail are transparent ? Mention a case in point. 801.
What changes of appearance take place, as a comet approaches the 8un f In
is the tail always turned T
What does the coma sometimes con-
what direction
Digitized by
COMETS.
160
coma
times the
of a
This was
consists
series of envelopes.
was con-
into the
tail.
Hence the
as a
tails
of comets,
rapidly increase as
rule,
ing the
gives rise to
tion.
long,
tail
The
and
all this
tail
Comet (show-
violent ac-
been exceeded
in
long, the
diameter of the coma being 112,000 miles, that of the nucleus 400 miles near perihelion, the tail increased at the
;
perihelion passage,
the nucleus in gome cases throw off? What does the tail gencomet gets still nearer the Snn ? What comets were exceptions
Give the length of the tails of two or three comets. 302. What
What does
to this rule?
its
DANGER FROM
while
it
hour, in
302.
COLLISIONS.
161
deed, there
is
is
so small that
we need
not be alarmed
in-
way
its satellites,
as if the
years.
303.
Divided Comet.
There
two
is
orbits.
an instance on record
portions,
But
This
which afterward
is
Biela's comet,
this is not
all.
These
Earth on the 30th of November but in spite of the strictwatching nothing was seen of them. It is believed that,
like Lexell's comet, they have been diverted from their
course by some member of our system, and that in this
;
est
apprehension was formerly felt respecting comets ? What does modern science
teach us? What two occurrences show us that there is little cause for alarm?
303. What remarkable facts are mentioned in connection with Biela's comet?
What is thought to have been the disturbing cause? 304. What have we reason
11
Digitized by
COMETS.
162
case the
the disturbing
cause.
304. Physical Constitution of Comets. In the case of a
comet without a nucleus, we have reason to believe that
the coma is a mass of white-hot gas, like that of which the
whether a comet with a nucleus
nebula; are composed
is made up of similar matter we do not know. One thing
;
is
of the comet.
circular, at
fact,
in three
days
less
than
it
ago.
resistance offered
a resistance not
much
is
greater.
Sir Isaac
Newton
good-sized
is,
in a
is
if
air
be gas,
may
The
tail
be not
room
it
solid.
With
for waste,
and
sistance offered
may
easily
become
itself,
not
is
mass the
re-
noticeable.
to believe that a
to the
Digitized by
Number
of Comets.
From the
163
is
much
many
are re-
is,"
It is
The
Sertorian
War, the
ized
civil dissensions
As
late as the
consternation
all
weigh,
the
308.
them
How
What
foreshadowed by comets
What took
place as late
Digitized by
COMETS.
1G4
refers to a
Norman
Normandy
to in-
vade England.
CHAPTER
XI.
Number
of Meteors.
There
if
are
we watch
for
some time, we
On some
nights
we may even
see a shower of
is
fall-
so dense that
some places the number seen at once equals the apparnumber of the fixed stars seen at a glance. It has
been calculated that the average number of meteors which
in
ent
atmosphere
the
and which are large
enough to be visible to the
naked eye on a dark clear
night, is no less that 7,500,-
traverse
daily,
000
ors
and,
if
we include
which would be
mete-
visible in
be increased to 400,000,000
Some astronomers have even
ac-
sunrise,
Fio.
DQ
a
_ of the
68.
Shape
Light.
What
Zodiacal
set,}
collection
807
we
On some
it
nights what
may
is
165
Too
Light
is
its
308.
it
shown
its
in Fig. 68.
It is
now gen-
erally held that these little bodies are not scattered uni-
certain years.
The
all
doubt.
Digitized by
166
we
Now,
the group referred to perabout 33 years; hence November showers may be expected at intervals of about 33
But as the meteors extend along their orbit in a
years.
which
forms
are crossing.
its
revolution
in
it
takes
which they
may
3 10.
its
Let us
in
with a straight
At any moment,
called,
a tangent
to its orbit)
left,
Sun
therefore, as longitudes
The Sun's
November, 1866, was
we
encounter them in
Digitized by
THE RADIANT-POINT.
In
seen
167
In
fact,
there
ment
like so
many
stars,
From
this point
they
all
point
is
the appropriate
of the radiant-point
of each
member
fore of the
it
By
of the
November
whole mass,
is
an
Uranus
that
its
star-shower,
ellipse
careful observations
its
with
its
and
there-
perihelion
Digitized by
168
the ecliptic
is
of the meteors
17
is
retrograde.
them more
3
3.
Let us now
why
does
In the
it
first place,
we have
mass of bodies
whose
soon increased
own,
by the Earth's
is
attraction.
Its
motion
is
The
30
it,
as
it
were,
Heat
results
force, in proportion
spaces
it
little
facts together,
some
How
How
Digitized by
by attributing
it
atmosphere of a succession
when
by
its
resistance.
and Distance from the Earth. All the particles which compose the November shower are small; it
has been estimated that some of them weigh but two
grains, and that comparatively few exceed a pound. They
begin to burn at a height of 74 miles, and are burnt up
and disappear at an elevation of 54 miles; the average
314. Size
It is sup-
Other Star-showers.
other
What
cometary
orbits.
applies to the
August and
which also travel round the Sun in
those
star-showers, particularly
November meteors
In fact, there
is
of
November shower ?
314.
What
What
is
thought to be composed ? 815. To what else will what has been said about the
November meteors apply? What is there reason to believe respecting three
bodies that passed for cornels ? When do the August meteors appear? Where is
their radiantrpoint? How are they thought to be distributed? What is said of
Digitized by
170
it is
entirely
sunlight,
New
Jersey
was
it
FlU. W.
t IKK
series
of terrific ex-
actually
complete their
fall
to
the Earth.
They
are
We
meteors which occasionally appear, and which are there316. Why do shooting-stars generally disappear without noiae?
other meteoric bodies are there with which thin is not the case? Describe
a detonating meieor that passed over New Jersey. What happens in the case of
very large meteors? 317. What are Meteorites? Futo what classes arc they di-
thelr orbit?
What
SHOWERS OF AEROLITES.
particular dates.
graphical position,
it
171
As they
common
may
Among
may mention
the following.
falls
On
of
modern
times,
we
The
by
The
large mass
was found,
vidcd ? 318. What 1* meant by Sporadic Meteors ? What has been thought respecting them ? 319. Describe the fall of aerolites at L'Aigle. At Stanoern. At Or-
172
The
fall
was followed
visible in the
by a loud
sky for
explosion,
chemical
known
to us, and
may
In the
predominate.
in
The
iron
is
cobalt, copper, tin, and chromium. Among the silicates may be mentioned augite,
and olivine, a mineral found abundantly in volcanic rocks.
nickel,
and
rus,
compound
is
artificially
produced.
321.
found
this
Carbon has
Metalloids:
Oxygen,
in meteorites
up to
sulphur,
phosphorus,
carbon,
silicon.
Metals
Iron,
nickel,
chromium,
tin,
aluminum, mag-
it
at
At Kuyahinza. 820. What is shown by a chemical examination of the fragments of meteorites? Of what are they composed in the main? What are found
the silicates ? What is said of schreiberzlte ? 321 Which of the metalloids
have been found in meteorites ? Which of the metals ? 322. What has been ascer
gueil.
among
Digitized by
STRUCTURE OF METEORITES.
173
and that the most remote condition of which we have posiwas that of small, detached, melted globules.
The formation of these cannot be satisfactorily explained
except by supposing that their constituents were originally
tive evidence
they
now
CHAPTER
XII.
APPARENT MOVEMENTS OF
THE
HEAVENLY
BODIES.
323.
tail
nebula)
lastly,
and
stars
own Earth
the
Sun
and
among them.
now, therefore, be
being:
We should
actly
in
Nature "
really
is.
We
it,
in fact, to
Digitized by
APPARENT MOVEMENTS
174
324.
The Earth an Observatory. But, however unimmay be, compared with the universe
it
is
all in all
to us
who
it,
lar
movements
own
are,
we
To
make
this
In that case, the side turned toward the Sun would have
perpetual day, the other side perpetual night.
On
the
side, the
solar system ? 824. What makes the Earth important to ns, in an astronomical
point of view ? What kind of an observatory is the Earth ? What apparent motions are the result of the Earth's real motions ?
do not the planets appear
to move in circles? What movements are we now to consider? 825. If the
Earth had no motion at all, what would follow ? If the Earth turned ou its axis
Why
Digitized by
let
Moon
as the
175
its
The
Sun.
illuminated hemisphere
inhabitants of the
still
and
once a year.
parent
first
its
axis,
movement
is,
as
it
When we
appear to
rection to that in
fly
were,
ex-
in a
travel in an express
and
to the occu-
is felt,
fall
down from
rises or
descends.
TJic Celestial Sphere.
326.
The
Celestial
of the stars.
The
ferent parts
at the equator
and
is
very different in
dif-
An
but once during each revolution round the Sun, what would be the result? What
should these examples show us? Into what classes may the apparent movements be divided ? Of what is the apparent movement in each cane a reflection ?
niustrate this. 326. How does the daily motion of the Earth differ in different
purts ? What should we expect to see in consequence ? What do we see ? What
176
is simply turned round without changing his place, while one at the equator is swung round
a distance of nearly 25,000 miles every day.
ought,
therefore, to expect to see corresponding differences in the
observer at a pole
We
if
Now,
what
is
Not only is
observed.
this is exactly
be
fixed,
direction.
we must
explain
In the
first place,
we
please.
we may
off,
lie
we may imagine
The
we
call
same plane
it
points at which
im-
either at the
it
;
were
ex-
the great
i?
The
point overhead
feet,
the Nadir.
328. Declination
is
belted
is
the Zenith
by parallels of
the Celestial Sphere ? To what is the apparent motion of the celestial sphere
similar? 327. Where may we imagine the centre of the celestial sphere to lie ?
What is meant hy the Celestial Poles? What is the Celestial Equator? The
Zenith? The Nadir? 328. By what are the heavens belted, to the astronomer
is
Digitized by
177
parallels
If
tended to the
equator (90).
As we
from the meridian of Greenwich in reckonwe start from a certain point in the
celestial equator occupied by the Sun at the vernal equinox, called the first point of Aries, in measuring right
start
ing longitude, so do
ascension.
east of Greenwich, so
In short, as
we
first
so
is
many degrees
many hours,
so
point of Aries.
and longitude (in demanner do we define the position of a heavenly body by saying that, referred to the
celestial sphere, its declination (in degrees) and right
its
latitude
329.
pole
is
This
is
celestial
almanacs,
etc.,
by the
initials
N. P. D.
As
the pole
is
90
the Earth do these lines correspond ? What In the heavens correand longitude ou the Earth ? From what is declination measwhat, right ascension ? Eluntrate the way in which these terms
are used. 329. To locate a point in the heavens, what is sometimes given instead
of its declination f What relation do the north-polar distance and the declination bear to each other? 330. What Is meant by the Visible or Sensible Horizon ?
To what on
spond
ured
to latitude
From
12
Digitized by
178
employed, which
we proceed
to explain.
Horizon,
is
which
parallel to the
is
331.
Vertical Line
to the nadir,
it
is
declination
Where docs
the Plane of the Vinible Ilorizon touch the Earth ? What is the RaTrue Horizon ? 331. What is a Vertical Line ?
How is the position of a heavenly body pointed out on that part of the celestial sphere which is
visible above the horizon of a place at a given moment ? What is Altitude ?
What is Zenith-diftancc ? What relation do they bear to each other? What is
Azimuth? What relation does azimuth bear to altitude? 388. What is meant
tional or
Digitized by
is
to latitude, or
is
179
to declina-
tion.
circle
south points.
Apparent Movements of
334. Rising, Culmination,
We
are
now
Stars.
movements of the
the apparent
the Stars.
We shall
celestial sphere.
now understands
that
it is,
in fact,
its
of
its
When
a star
is
horizon,
so situated that
it
is
said
it
to rise.
is
When
the horizon
is
and
is
said to
When
the plane of
that
became
is,
visible,
the western
it
passed
the
star
horizon,
set.
Ce.estial Meridian of any place? What is the Prime Vertical ? 834. When
of the Sun or a star n* rising or setting, what do we really mean ? When
a star said to culminate? 335. With Fi?. 70, explain the apparent movements
by the
we speak
Ih
180
tor.
and round
move
appear to
in
circles,
The
is
stars never
approached.
or set,
rise
but always keep the same distance from the horizon. The
observer is merely carried
Fio. 70.Celestial
Sphere, viewed
Parallel
336.
We
will
is
In Fig. 71
position.
suppose an observer, Q, at
its centre,
equator.
we
In this position
/1
celestial poles
1
1
\l
\\
1
<
'Ho
and
//
i
i
Fiq. 71.The
*r
down along
poles.
by the Earth's
approach the
set
travelling straight
the
u\ E
A*
and the
PP on
tar
/
\
\
we
to be on the Earth's
The
rotation,
^^
up and
which
we
spectator
and the
circles
stars
is
carried
up and down
appear to be so carried.
orthe stars, as seen from the north pole. 336. How is the observer supposed to
be placed in Fijj. 71 ? In this position, where do we find the celestial equator,
aud where the poles ? How do the Htars appear to move, and why ? 337. In Fig.
Digitized by
AN OBLIQUE SPHERE.
337.
Yet another
figure, to
lat.
(that
181
At
the equator.
half-
O, in Fig.
is,
in lat. 90).
be
and the
hori-
and
close to the
ever,
As
zon.
the
eye
dle Latitude.
rep-
when
the horizon
we
and
find
spt
and
de-
st'irs
.,
SCHOe larger
o*raduallv
&
J
Circles,
dipping
VV h
Farther south,
risp
obliquely,
is
finally,
To
pole
is
observers in
in like
manner
it.
lat.
visible
the stars
and
never
rise
rise
we never
see in
with them.
to be placed ?
in lat.
Digitized by
182
Latitudes.Now
let
the
and a southern
it is
An
one
while one at
some of the
and another in a middle southern latitude
sees all the southern stars and some of the northern ones.
Hence, in middle latitudes, and therefore in the United
latitude
sees
all
southern ones
L Those
Those southern
circumpolar
III.
Those
circumpolar
II.
we may
States,
the
stars
stars).
stars
which never
(southern
rise
stars).
which both
rise
and
set.
is
its
altitude
the zenith,
lat.
45
its
was on the
and consequently
was nothing at the pole, in lat. 90, it was in
and its altitude was therefore 90 while in
Accordingly, at New York,
altitude was 45.
horizon,
49 N. (90-40}
338. What stars are visible to an observer at the north pole ? At the
?
south pole? At the equator? In a middle northern latitude? In a middle
southern latituie? In middle latitudes, how may the stars be divided? a39.
What ie the height of the celestial pole above the horizon at any place ? Uluatrate this in the case of New York, and state what stars will there belong to
each of the three classes just specified. What stare belong to each of the three
classes, in the latitude in which you live ? 340. What may be used with advan-
45' south
Diqitized by
CjOOqIc
183
Earth's axis.
To
compass may be
from the
the time and place in
made
the
to run
due
If
east,
ing
movements of the
be seen that some
It will
stars
stars
above
341.
it.
Celestial
Pole.
At
the
Ursa Minor,
and a star in that constellation very nearly marks the
position of the pole, and is therefore called Polaris, or the
The direction in which the Earth's axis points
Pole-star.
is
make much
it
lies in
difference.
As
a conse-
Digitized by
184
would
strike the
342.
The Circumpolar
Constellations.
Wain and
is
Ursa Major
Charles's
Seven bright stars in this constellation (connected by lines in Fig. 17) form what is
called the Great Dipper, three making the handle and
The two stars of the bowl which are
four the bowl.
farthest from the handle (Merak and Dubhe) are called the
Pointers, because the straight line which connects them
points very nearly to the north pole, in whatever position
the constellation may be. This will be seen from Fig. 74.
The Pole-star, readily found with the aid of the Point
ers, is at the extremity of the tail of the Little Bear, and
unites with six other stars of that constellation to form
the Plough.
M ELO
A R d
T'vlan s
*
k io. 73. The
73).
CIRCUMPOLAR CONSTELLATIONS.
Great Dipper in shape, but
is
185
brilliant stars.
Seven
Draco.
con-
form what
may be
fan
343.
The
Crux
are
(the Cross),
Triangulum Australe
(the Southern
Triangle),
(the
Sword-fish).
tial
Sphere.
the
As
UPPER CULMINATION
Earth's
ro-
tation is accom-
plished
56 m.
in
23h.
4s., it fol-
sphere
completed
in
POLE STAR
is
that
and were
there no clouds,
and no Sun to
time;
the
daytime
by
his
superior
brightness,
we
10WR CULMINATION
Fio. 74.Different Positions of
tions belong?
188
The circumpolar
shown
in Fig. 74.
we
we should
see
and
them
But what we cannot do at mid-day, in consequence of the Sun's brightness, we can easily do at midnight for, if the stars behind the Sun change, the stars
change.
visible celes-
midnight.
As
the revolution
is
completed
in 365 days,
we may
eee? What would the circumpolar constellations be seen to do? 345. What
other change is seen in the heavens, and to what is it due ? At what rate does
the portion of the heavens visible in the south at midnight advance, and why?
W6. Of what is this advance a consequence ? How do the solar and the sidereal
Digitized by
HOW TO
187
Hence the
stars south at
midnight
and
and so
will
month
on.
A knowledge of the various stars and constellations may be obtained with the aid of a celestial globe.* We first, as
347.
How
its
make
is
used, and
its
We
We
this place is
by the Sun
in the
alma-
Then,
if
is
day compare in length? In hew long a time will the daily motion produce
changes equal to thoee produced by one month's yearly motion ? What follows
with respect to the stars south at midnight on any given night ? 347. How may
a knowledge of the stare be obtained ? How is the globe rectified ? When it is
Digitized by
188
after noon,
we turn
When
we have
till
if before
it is
called,
horizon, just
wooden
manner.
All that
is
when
the globe
necessary
is,
is
recti-
as before, to
bring the Sun's place, given in the almanac, to the meridian, and set the index to 12.
To find the time at
which any star rises, we bring it to the eastern edge of
the wooden horizon, and note the time, which is the time
of rising. To find the time at which any star sets, we
bring it similarly to the western edge of the wooden horizon and note the time, which is the time of setting. To
find the time at which any star culminates, we bring the
star under the braz.cn meridian and note the time, which
is
349. In the absence of the celestial globe [or planisphere], the student will derive assistance from the follow-
The
month
in the
The
stars
in
Digitized by
U. 8.
189
their vicinity
tions,
and
4,
N8.
E W.
NE SW.
SE NW.
p.
m.
Jan.
5,
11
p.
m.)
N S.
m.
Mar.
15,
p.
m.
p.
m.)
E W.
NW.
NESW.
SE
p.
Auriga, Taurus.
Look for Castor very near the zenith, a little to the west.
Near it is Pollux, on the meridian, and in the zenith in lat. 31.
Procyon, in Canis Minor, is very nearly on the meridian, about
one-third of the distance from the zenith to the southern horizon.
The Milky Way will be seen running along the heavens, in a
curve west of the meridian and not far distant from it, from the
northern to the southern horizon.
March
(Apr.
*
5,
p.
m.
21,
;
10 p.m.
Mar.
6,
11 p. m.)
The asterisk on
the several lines denotes that the zenith (In lat. 40*. to which
the table particularly refers, though it will serve for any lat. in the U. S.) separates the two constellations between which the asterisk is placed. When the asterisk Is prefixed to any constellation, the constellation itself ocenpies the zenith.
Digitized by
190
N S.
EW.
Virgo,
NESW.
SE NW.
Look
U. S.
April
(May
5,
N S.
E W.
10 p.m.
Coma Bere-
NW.
Look
20,
ceros.
NE SW.
SE
May 20,
9 p.m.;
for Denebola, or
meridian, and a
little less
May
(June 5, 9
NS.
E W.
NE SW.
p.
m.
May 28,
91
p.
21,
m.
10 p.m.
May
6, 1
p.
m.
Leo
Coma Berenices,
Virgo, Crater.
SE
NW.
Lynx, Gemini.
Look
Jr\E
(July
6,
9 p.m.
N S.
June
21, 10 p.m.
29, 9J p. m.
June
5,
11
p.
m.
May 22,
midn't.)
Digitized by
E W.
NESW.
SE
Coma
July
5, 9 p.
N S.
E W.
NESW.
m.
July 30, 9
22, 10 p. m.
p.
m.
July
June
22, midn't.)
little
Aug.
7,
11 p. m.
NW.
(Sept.
7,
Camelopardalus, polaris,
SE
Look
Bootes, Canes
Berenices, Leo.
NW.
(Aug.
191
NS.
p.
10
23,
p.
m.
Aug.
31,
E W.
Pisces, a
Andromeda
Serpens, Libra.
NE SW.
N W.
SE
Perseus,
Sept. 23, 10
N S.
W.
NE SW.
NW.
SE
p.
m.
Oct.
1,
p.
m.
Sept.
7,
Piscis Australis.
Aries,
Digitized by
192
U. 8.
Nov.
NS.
E W.
7,
p.
m.
Cetus.
NE SW.
NW.
SE
Hercules.
First
Nov.
(Dec.
7,
9 p. m.
NS.
E W.
NE SW.
SE
NW.
Look
22,
10 p.m.
Nov. 7, 1 1 p. m.)
Ursm Majoris, Draco, polaris, * Perseus, TrianDec. 23, 8 p.m.; Oct. 23, midn't
the zenith; in
its
great nebulas.
now
N S.
Dec.
6,
11 p. m.)
EW.
NW.
NESW.
SE
zenith,
and a
little
Digitized by
193
the group of the Pleiades (Art. 86), consisting of six stars visible
naked eye, the brightest of which is Alcyone, of the third
magnitude. South-east of the Pleiades 11, and just east of the
meridian, are the Hyades, a group which may readily be recognised by the brilliancy of its principal star, Aldebaran, or a Tauri.
is
to the
10,
Dec. 21,
\j
Caster
PoUac
RAM
-.
.b
y'
v..
t-
T
r
*
'J*-*
I.VTTIE
,m
rtcifcn
Ml
'.
A.
'
P.
...
%\
HARE
?
'
If HI.
o c
io.- -imjuatukial
. .
con-
Sirius, Betelgeuse,
and
EQUATORIAL CONSTELLATIONS.
194
of May.
of it
is
Arcturus
now
is
East
our Sun
is
may
and comets.
Hercules
sided figure
(nearly a square)
brightest stars.
.
''
C R E
A.
-*"
P R A C 0
LION
T T.L E
<
BERENICE- 9
HAIR
V*
"
...
o-
0 N
'.HERCULES
.4ntuW'9
Apparent Movements of
thb South on
the Sun.
the
is,
the heavens?
the horizon?
195
it,
it
star-time
solar day.
353.
Day.
Difference
How
this
difference
arises
shown
is
in
Fig.
77,
east of his,
ried
by
c before the
Fig. 77.
motion in
its orbit,
combined with
its rotation.
354.
uniform, as
we
6hall
hereafter see.
its
orbit
is
not
Consequently, the
With Fig. 77, explain the difference between the sidereal and the eolar day. Br
what is this difference caused ? 354. Is the solar day always of the same length?
>y
196
same length
is
faster,
and therefore
it
farther, in
is
In a subsequent chapter
time.
will
be shown
how
this
Sun is obviated.
The apparent
355. Celestial Latitude and Longitude.
yearly motion of the Sun is so important that astronomers
map
more
by a second method,
easily
in order
does
not coincide with the plane of the ecliptic, the Sun's distance from the celestial equator varies every minute.
To
make
of the plane of
They apply
angular distance
Celestial
it
it
to
north and
Longitude to the
of the ecliptic
the
in
this
its Signs.
second arrangement
is
The
celestial
equator
by
a circle
represented
all
Why
not? 855. What have astronomers done, in order to indicate the Sun's
motion more easily ? What is meant by Celestial Latitude and Celestial LonWhat is the meaning of the terms heliocentric and geocentric, as applied
?
to celestial latitude and longitude ? 856. In this arrangement, how is the celestial
equator represented ? How is the Zodiac divided ? Name the spring signs ; the
summer signs the autumn signs the winter signs. With what must these
gitude
Digitized by
Spring Signs.
Autumn
Signs.
197
Winter Signs.
Signs.
Cancer.
==
Libra.
Taurus.
Leo.
Scorpio.
iU
Virgo.
Sagittarius.
Aries.
Gemini.
At
V3 Capricorn.
Aquarius,
Pisces.
357.
sphere,
These
Equator.
bodies in
refer,
it,
Now
Moreover,
if
we regard
it is
clear that
it
to each other at
equator.
358.
the ecliptic,
it
south of
it;
in other
words,
its
it,
cross
it
its
path, cross
again, and be
latitude remaining
the
signe not be confounded ? Why were the name* of the constellations given to
them, If the signs and constellations do not agree ? 857. What must be remembered with respect to the celestial equator and the poles of the heavens? If the
centre of the Earth be taken as the centre of the celestial sphere, what will
follow ? 358. Describe the apparent path of the Sun. Give an account of its
Digitized by
198
same,
its
will change.
Hence, although the Sun rises and sets every day, its
is sometimes high, sometimes low.
At the
daily path
its rising
ward, until
it
Here
separated.
summer
stand),
solstice
and
its
it
appears to stand
is
It
and
is
its
still;
we have
the
sol,
solstice,
when
its
apparent
south.
359. To determine the Time of Sunrise and Sunset
with the Celestial Globe.-The use of the celestial globe
throws light on many points connected with the Sun's
apparent motion. When we have rectified the globe, as
its
its
By
is
at once shown.
we
find
bring
of the
it
Sun
at
noonday
the index-hand
is,
therefore, set to
movements after passing the vernal equinox. At tbe summer solstice. What
does its apparent dally path resemble at the winter solstice ? 359. How may the
varying meridian height of the Sun be shown with the celestial globe ? 860. How
Digitized by
AND
NIGHT.
199
we then
12.
place
is
sunrise.
when
the globe
is
turned
As
civil
convenient
way
Similarly, if the
is
is
the length of
the day.
the night.
may the time of Hunrlse and sunset bo determined ? How may the Diurnal Arc
described by the Son be shown? 361. State two rules for finding the length of
day and night from the time of sunrise and sunset. Give an example. Give the
Digitized by
200
Apparent Movements of
362.
the
Moon.
circuit of the
The
inclination of the
being
equator.
But
ecliptic.
let
us suppose the
Moon
to
pied
by the Sun
the Sun
we
is
at noon-day.
lowest, the
Moon
is
In winter, therefore,
highest
and so
when
in winter
reasoning on which these rnles are based. 362. Why does the Moon rise and
from night to night ? If the Moon's orbit were exactly in the plane of
the ecliptic, what would follow? How much is its orbit inclined to the plane of
the ecliptic? What is the consequence? What in the greatest possible dif
ference between the meridian altitudes of the Moon ? At what season do we
Bet later
Digitized by
summer,
is
201
Moon,
like the
Sun
hemisphere.
363.
the
If the
Although, as
we have
seen,
varies con-
.But
is always inclined the same to our horizon.
moves nearly along the ecliptic, which is inclined 23 0
the equator; and because it is so inclined, she ap-
equator
she
to
times, varying in
In Art. 357
we saw
is
to the
the ecliptic
is
farthest
near a node,
*.
Aries or Libra.
in
the equa-
in
//
represents the
horizon,
east
tor,
Fio. 78.Explanation op
40
looking
E Q the equawhich
is
in
lat.
inclined 50
get the most moonlight? Explain how this happens. 303. What is said of the
interval between two successive risings of the Moon ? Why does this interval
vary? Under what circumstances is the time of the Moon's rising nearly the
same for two or three successive days ? Explain this with Fig. 7H. How often
Digitized by
202
to the horizon.
The dotted line A B represents the diwhen the sign Libra is on the horidirection when Aries is on the horizon.
and
CD
its
horizon
the
is
Moon
Apparent Movements of
364.
The
planets,
when
and
set
visible,
by
We need, therefore, to
the Planets.
appear as
stars, and,
Digitized by
among
by
203
But this is not all ; as the orbits are ellipand the nearest approaches and greatest departures occur in different parts of them, the distance of any planet from
the Earth even at these times will not always be the same.
367. The following table shows the average least and
greatest distance of each planet from the Earth, leaving
out of account the variation due to the ellipticity of the
orbits.
The first column presents the difference between
the distances of each planet and the Earth from the Sun,
and the second column gives their sum.
planet's orbit.
tical
Greatest Distance.
Least Distance.
Miles.
Miles.
Mercury,
Venus,
Mars,
56,038,000
126,823,000
157,562,000
230,742,000
25,299,000
47,882,000
384,263,000
780,704,000
Uranus,
1,662,421,000
1,845,281,000
Neptune,
2,654,841,000
2,837,701,000
Jupiter,
Saturn,
567,123,000
963,565,000
are we to consider? 385. What is said of the dlsta nces of the planets from each
other and from the Earth? 866. What difference must there he between the
greatest and least distance of a superior planet from the Earth ? Of an inferior
planet? What further affects the difference of distance? 867. What are shown
lu the table? How are the numbers in the first column obtained? How, those
204
368.
To
The
different times.
difference of size
whose
and brilliancy
is
at
greatest in the
At other
sphere.
the right or
left
times, as
shown
Sun
is
to
and
sented to
370.
us.
Among
By
in the
second
368.
What changes
be ascribed to variations
When
is
Digitized by
that
is
is,
in conjunction ;
is
205
we say
in the
line,
but
When
a planet
is
Conjunction
the sign 8
is
quadrature,
it
occupies in
said to be in quadrature.
it is
by the
opposition,
by
the
sign
In
Fig.
Sun, and
79,
E the
represents
V is Venus
Earth.
in inferior conjunction;
is
the
opposition
in
at
and
in
quadrature at Q.
The pas-
371. Transits.
of an inferior planet
sage
across
Sun's
the
Venus
79,
Fig. TO.- Con/unction Opposition
is
making
in inferior conjunction.
do not
is
is
In Fig.
her transit.
Quadrature.
at
disk
lie in
But, as the
there
with different
velocities,
When,
but
in the case of
any particular
When,
in opposition
denoted?
in
206
one with an almost uniform rate of speed. Not only, however, is our Earth a moving observatory, the motion of
which complicates the apparent movements of the planets
In the
first place, it is
is
good
Stationary-pointsRetrograde
its
its
Motion.In Fig.
and an inferior
orbit (P),
we will suppose to
At superior conjunction
the planet will appear to move in the direction indiby the outside arrow when it arrives at its eastern
remain at
(iSC)
cated
rest, will
both vary.
Digitized by
STATIONAEY-POINTS, RETROGBADATIONa.
Fiu.
elongation (EE),
it
be stationary, because
will appear to
it is
From
Earth.
to
left,
as at superior conjunction,
it
207
ments in
it
difference
this case
is,
WE), when
it
reaches the
The only
recovers
made by
that, as its
its
direct motion.
the Earth's
motion
is
same
differentr reason.
At
the
moment
a superior planet
Let
let
its
P in Fig.
rest,
and
From
208
arrow.
When
the Earth
is
seen from the planet, the planet as seen from the Earth
appear at
will
straight to
rest, as
we
When
it.
this point
is
these changes take place will vary with the actual motion
of the planet
for instance,
will
it
be much
In
as the former
moves
Solar
Mean
Days.
Days.
Mercury,
Venus,
115.87
583.92
779.94
Jupiter,
398.87
Solar
Saturn,
378.09
Uranus,
369.66
Neptune,
367.49
Mars,
planets' revolu-
a superior planet, supposed to be at rest. What difference will the motion of the
planet make ? 375. What is meant by a Synodic Period ? Why does a planet's
synodic period differ from its period of revoluiion round the Sun? State the
synodic periods of the different planets. How have they been found? What
have been obtained from them ? 376. What causes the apparent motion of the
\
Digitized by
Here
and
is
Fig. 81.
209
Inclination of
Longltnde of
Ascending Node.
Orbit.
Mercury,
Venus,
Mars,
3 23 29
Jupiter,
Saturn,
74 51
47 59
51
18 52
98 25
2 29 36
111 56
Uranus,
0 46 28
Neptune,
72 59
130
46 59
The apparent
377.
45 57
distance of a
Earth,
A.
if
the planet
is
nearer the
Of
course,
a node,
it
when the
will
planet
always appear
is
at
in the
ecliptic.
378.
Stars.
Fig. 81
study of
it
should
planets to differ from tliat of the Snn ? 377. Why does not the distance of a
planet from the plane of the ecliptic vary as regularly, when seen from the Earth,
as it would do if seen from the Sun ? When will a planet appear in the ecliptic ?
14
210
clear.
From
April
379. Effect
Pio.
878.
What does
R2.
The
by
affected
Inclination of the
apparent
path
of
Fig. 81 rcpresvut
own
its
AND MARS.
If
orbit.
211
we examine
closely than
we have
hitherto done,
its
we
shall
see
more
how
Fig. 82
by both
two
The
in the
1869.
380. Fig. 82 also enables us to understand that, in the
if
we
put
it,
to be in the
same
(or,
as astronomers
where.
Similarly,
if
we
The Earth's
orbit,
however,
is
practically so nearly
depends more upon the eccenof the orbits of the other planets than upon our
own.
hihlted.
879.
By what is
What
?
Fi2. 82 represent
different oppositions?
is
880.
APPEARANCES OF SATURN'S
212
shows us
we
that,
RINGS.
when Mars
is
observed
when the
planet
is
while at those
at the opposite
we
see
10.
382. Saturn's
the Earth.
Fig.
INVISIBLE.
plane
are
Twice
in
always
213
parallel,
is
and
sweeping
;
Earth, in consequence of
rapid motion,
or Saturn
84. Appearance
Fir,.
its
Rings
may
through the
or three times
its*
pass two
this time may be invisifrom three causes: (1) Its plane may pass through
the Sun, and its extremely thin edge only will be lit up
or (3) The
(2) The plane may pass through the Earth
Sun may be
lighting up one
surface,
and
ble,
the other
be
to
may
presented
the
Earth.
These changes
occur
about
every
fifteen
years, and j[u
in
the
Fig. 85.Saturn
mid-inter-
its
is
greatest angle.
In Fig.
63,
south surface of
Fig. 85,
we have
its
when
In
the north
is visible.
ances are presented by the rings? What three causes may render the ringsyBtem invisible ? How often do these changes occur ? How is the ring-system
presented to the Earth in the mid-interval ? How i* Saturn represented in Fig.
63? How, in Fig. 85?
THE MEASUREMENT OF
214
CHAPTER
TIME.
XIII
Having
heavenly bodies,
we now come
to
measurement of time.
For common purposes, time is
measured by the Sun, as it is that body which gives us the
primary division of time into day and night but for as;
that
when
we
that measurement
384. Clepsydrae
was
all
was a period
but impossible.
contriv-
and
we may mention
Sun-dials.
Of
Clep'sydrae, or water-clocks,
these, the
by the Greeks
and Romans, but by other nations, the ancient Britons
among them. In its simplest form it resembled the hourglass, water being used instead of sand, and the flow ot
time being measured by the flow of the water.
After the time of Archimedes, clepsydra? of the most
elaborate construction were common but while they were
in use, the days, both winter and summer, were divided
into twelve hours from sunrise to sunset, and consequently
the hours in winter were shorter than the hours in sum;
purposes ?
Digitized by
THE SUN-DIAL.
215
for
385.
The
ferred to as in use
among
cloudy weather
it
b. c.
This was a
but at night and in
cul-
form
in
"
What
is
the star
now
passing
"
is,
on record that as
late as a. d.
the sun-dial,
To
tell
him
in the day,
by the
aid of
wax
at equal intervals
denoted hours and their subdivisions, each inch of candle burnt showing
To prevent currents of air from
that about twenty minutes had passed.
making
his candles
burn
irregularly,
he enclosed them
in cases of thin
transparent horn.
To
understand the
opaque
axis,
When
If the
become common ?
clepsydra?
in one of the tragedies of Euripides ? How was the time for summoning the
monks to their midnight prayers determined, as late as 1106 a. d. ? To what
Digitized by
MEASUREMENT OF
216
TIME.
Sun
of
axis
the
cylinder in the
the
cast
shadow of the
axis on the side
of the cylinder
as long as
mains
it re-
above
the horizon.
All
we have
to do, therefore,
to trace
is
on
cylinder
24
lines 15 apart
(360-j-24
.
= 15)
taking care to
Fio. 88.Sun-dial.
A B, axis of cylinder MN.PQ.
dials, at different angles to the plane of the horizon,
showing how the imaginary cylinder determines the
;
387. In practice,
all
we want
is
however,
shadow.
we do
21 1
it
in the
is
The
first
their invention
clock
made
in
But the
clock,
How may
the dial be placed? 388. On what principle are both clocks aud
watches constructed ? What is the force that imparts the motion ? How is the
motion regulated? 389. When were clocks first used in Enrope? To whom is
their invention attributed ? When was the first clock made in England? How
wa it regarded? How did Tycho Brahe regulate his clock? When and by
whom wae the pendulum introduced as a regulator? 390. What does the word
218
MEASUREMENT OF
is indefinite,
is
TIME.
unless
it is
for
when
specified
whether
As commonly
intended.
it
was found
used,
that, in
the year.
Let
Sun,
by means of which
mean
and
first place,
variable.
is
is
in the ecliptic,
midway between
the equinoxes
to the equator.
Hence,
the angle
392.
is
its
its real
greatest.
Let us
first
first
the
cause
When
the Earth
inis
nearest the Sun, about Jan. 1st, the Sun appears to travel
mean
many
de-
day, as
real
Digitized by
is
is
219
or
little
SUN.
mean Sun
travels
daily.
Sun moved
us to determine
the ecliptic,
day
mean
in the year
time.
by the Earth's
rotation.
it
may be
At
the equator
time
tor,
celestial
at the equinoxes
is lost.
globe
we
when
its
it
parallel to
motion
is
if
on a
form rate of
the
first
all,
and
starting, so to speak,
from
in-
we
How
in
travels daily.
898.
at tho equinoxes?
points
If the true
MEASUREMENT OF
220
TIME.
At
below
June
as specified
is
Minutes.
February 11th,
May
14th,
This
is
what
Minutes.
14
July 25th,
November
1st,
16J
and
is
is
what
we must add
get the mean
that
it is
to be subtracted.
Sun in perigee),
on the mean
takes longer than the mean Sun to come
moving
to the meridian
is
When
time.
the Earth
is
We
by adding or sub-
may
Mean
readily deduced.
time
is
now
be,
it
can be
universally used in
all
civilized countries.
395.
Commencement of the
next consider
in
position?
ftipns
+ and
894.
w hen
T
Whnt
is
mean, when
Days. We must
We have,
Different
to
the
equation
when subtracted?
of time?
What
is
What do
the
When
the
is
the equation of
Howie
221
L The Apparent
stant the true
it
Solar Day, reckoned from the inSun crosses the meridian, till it crosses
again.
same manner.
Both
by astronomers.
III. The Civil Day, commencing at midnight, and
reckoned through 12 mean hours only to noon, and thence
through another 12 hours to the next midnight. The civil
these days are used
reckoning
is
astronomical reckoning
cal time.
396.
Apparent
Mean
solar day,
solar day,
Sidereal day,
Mean
lunar day,
variable.
24h.
Om.
Os.
23
56
4.09
24
54
397. Sidereal
Aries.
does at
sidereal
time, as
long
mean time obtained? 395. When does the apparent solar day begin? The
mean solar day? When does the civil day begin, and how is it reckoned? How
Give the
civil reckoning compare with the astrouomioal reckoning.
changing civil time to astronomical time. Give nn example. 896. What
Of the mean solar day ? Of the sidereal
is the length of the apparent solar day ?
day, in mean time ? Of the mean lunar day ? 397. From what is sidereal time
reckoned ? When will the mean time clock and the sidereal clock agree ? When
does the
rule for
Digitized by
MEASUREMENT OF
222
is
TIME.
nal equinox.
its axis,
At
it.
the
moment
its
Oh.
Om.
Os. is
on the
Om.
Os.
and
same time.
The Week. Although the week, unlike the day,
month, and year, is not connected with the movements of any
heavenly body, the names of the seven days of which it is
composed were derived by the Egyptians from the seven
The Romans, in their names
celestial bodies then known.
for the days, observed the same order, distinguishing them
dicate the
398.
as follows
Dies
Dies
Dies
Dies
Dies
Dies
Dies
We
first
Saturni,
Solis,
Saturn's day,
Sun's day,
Lunce,
Moon's day,
Martis,
Mars' day,
Mercury's day,
Mercurii,
Saturday.
Sunday.
Monday.
Tuesday.
Wednesday.
Jovis,
Jupiter's day,
Thursday.
Veneris,
Venus's day,
Friday.
names
for the
deities equivalent to
Digitized by
THE MONTH.
399.
The Month.
223
is
is
to the
is
aluo movable.
The calendar month is the month recognized in the almanacs, and consists of different numbers of days, such
as January, February, etc.
400.
is
The
as follows :
Mean Time,
d.
The Year.
The
year
its axis.
h.
m.
e.
29 12 44
2.84
27
4.71
27
7 43 11.54
43
27 13 18 37.40
27
is
day
5 35.60
the period of
is
Thus,
sorts of years, as
we may
take the
By what is
Digitized by
MEASUREMENT OF
224
TIME.
This
Or we may take
and
is
it
two
This
is
shorter than
equinoxes.
in its recession
meets the
sooner than
it
it
would
otherwise do.
Again,
we may take
two
As
aphelion.
is
called, is
402.
as follows
is
Mean Time,
Mean
Mean
Mean
sidereal year,
....
h.
m.
365
d.
s.
9.6
365
5 48 46.05444
anomalistic year,
365
6 13 49.3
The Calendar.
It is
403.
solar year does not contain an exact
number of
solar days,
first
to discover this.
in
in
the
WW
the Latin
bis, twice,
and
sextus, sixth).
longer, the solar or the sidereal year? The anomalistic or the sidereal year?
What is the exact length of the mean solar year? 408. What caused the
calendar to get in confusion in old times ? Who attempted to reform it ?
402.
Whom
Digitized by
225
too
secular years, 1800, 1900, etc.) to be a bissextile, or leapyear, containing 366 days
400 to be a leap-year ;
of that
the
month being
New
Style (O.
though
Style (N.
S.).
it is
contradistinction to the
Old
retained,
is still
:
1870
al-
g^^*
be exactly
Sosigenes ?
What
15
Digitized by
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
22G
Change in the Length of the Solar Year. At presowing to a change of form in the Earth's orbit, the
406.
ent,
solar year
is
century.
It is shorter
Hipparchus
by about
now than
it
^ of a second
was
in the
in a
time of
12 seconds.
makes a complete
stated,
we
revolution.
At
present, as already
1st; in a. d.
CHAPTER XIV
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
Light.
which pervades
all
space.
the eye what sound-waves are to the ear, and they are set
in motion by bodies at a high temperature
the Sun, for
instance much in the same manner as the air is put in
in a stone.
exactly adjusted to the length of the solar year? 406. At what rate is the nolar
year constantly changing, and why
407. What is meant by the Line of Apsides ?
What change is this line undergoing? When are we at p repent nearest the Sun ?
When will the perihelion correspond with the vernal eqninox?
408. Of what does Light consist? To what are waves of light analogous?
Digitized by
LIGHT
these causes, the
way
in
227
in
each case.
409. Velocity of Light.
that to us
its
requires
it
Its velocity
He found
calculated beforehand)
by exactly
the
had so much
distance,
i.
e.,
was due
Now,
farther to travel
the additional
\^
Roemer's
what
astronomers
aberration
of
and
time,
call
light is
the
one of
the proofs.
410. Aberration of Light.
We
may
aberration of light
ing the
way
by
observ-
in which,
when
ration of Light.
as
we should do were we
still.
Let us make
ing
standthis a
409.
410.
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
Suppose we wish to let a drop of water
clearer.
through a tube (see Fig. 87) without wetting the
If the tube is at rest, there is no difficultyit
sides.
; but if
has only to be held upright in the direction A
little
fall
we must move
is
The
not so easy.
must be
inclined.
Now, we may
liken the
By virtue of
incline our telescopes in like manner.
circle in
small
a
describe
to
seems
really
star
each
this,
the heavens, representing on a small scale the Earth's
orbit ; the extent of this apparent circular motion depend-
must
From
we
learn
that light travels about 10,000 times faster than the Earth
does that is, about 185,000 miles a second. This velocity
by
a turning mirror.
411. Beflection
flected
and Refraction.
Foucault,
when
of
ray of light
is re-
path, and
is re-
lie in its
by means
it
passes obliquely
Effect of Refraction.
AB
extent of the apparent circular motion of the star depend? From the actual
dimensions of tho circle, how fast is light found to travel ? How has Foucault
experimentally proved this velocity? 411. By what is a ray of light reflected?
Under what circumstances is it refracted ? 412. How do the stare appear, in
Digitized by
REFRACTION
OF*
LIGHT.
229
is
the ray
gradually
is
fracted until
it
re-
reaches the
C;
from which
seems to
the direction C B.
sirface at
point the
lie
approached,
in
star
The
413.
refraction of
Refraction.
light
beam
of
sunlight
through a hole in
Fio. 83. A Prism, refracting a
it
fall
Ray of
Light.
let
we
shall see at
is
changed.
which
it
is
different
refracted
by
its
white light of the size of the hole that admitted the beam,
a lengthened figure
shown
By
made up
rays,
occupying
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENT?.
280
Spectrum.
Dispersion.
If
materials,
we employ
a hollow prism
filled
in length.
with
oil
Thus,
of cassia,
we
powers.
Lenses.
416. A Lens is a transparent body (commonly of glass)
which has two polished surfaces, either both curved or one
The general
effect of lenses
we have
Which, the least? How may the colored rays be brought together again into a
beam of white light
What is the separation of light into the colors of the
spectrum called ? 415. If we pass light through prisms of different materials,
what shall we find? Give an illustration. How is this fact expressed? 416.
What is a Lens ? What is the general effect of lenses ? 417. With bow many
Digitized by
LENSES.
231
Bi-convex Lens.
Bi-concave Lens.
Plano-convex Lens.
One
Planoconcave Lens.
One
Different
Kinds of Lenses.
Fig. 91.
418. Refraction
refracts a
ray of light as shown in Fig. 89 ; hence, two prisms arranged as in Fig. 92 would cause two parallel beams coming from different points at
and
b,
verge
point
to
con-
at
one
c.
We may look
upon abi-convex
lens as composed
of
an
infinite
number
Fig. 92.Action
have a similar
effect to that
shown
prisms
in Fig. 92.
it
of
will
A section
kinds of lenses have we mainly to do? Name and describe them. 418. How
two prisms arranged in Fig. 92? What is their effect on two parallel beams ?
How may we regard a bi-convex lens ? What will be the action of such a lens on
are
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
232
its
refracted,
c,
its
surface
which point
is
we
hold a
common
burning-glass (which
is
bi-convex lens) up to the Sun, and let the light that passes
through
it fall
to a focus
m^
we have
-y
in fact, is
7,
...
At
cr,
nam ;
which rays,
ra, behind
the image. So with by
We
point.
The
inverted image.
42 1
Such
is
line
xy
is
lens is a burning-glass ?
What
What is
form an
and such a
What kind of a
What 1b meant
to
is
by the focal distance of the lens ? 420. Explain the action of a bi-convex lens in
forming an image. What kind of an image does it form? 421. Explain the
REFRACTION BY LENSES.
lens
we have
in
our eye.
Behind
we have
it,
2 33
membrane which
is
receives
telegraph, as*
were, an account of the impression to the brain,
and we
it
see.
We
and we
by Concave Lenses. If, instead of arprisms as shown in Fig. 92, with their bases
423. Eefraction
ranging^
together, we
place them
point to point,
is
evident
it
that
96Bi-concave
they will
^act separate,
We
G r diverge.
suppose a lens formed of an infinite number of prisms,
joined together in this way.
Such a lens is called a bi-
may
concave
shown
lens.
Its
in Fig. 95.
we have
we would
natu-
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
234
This it does;
rally expect it to throw a colored image.
and unless we could get rid of the colors, it would be imBy compossible to make a large telescope worth usiug.
bining, however, two lenses of different shapes, and made
of different kinds of glass,
Greek
a,
We
425.
we
called an
is
different bodies.
shown
in Fig. 90,
beam
be unaffected
dispersive power,
we
shall of course
be able to counteract
first
But
The beam
will there-
what
wanted.
is
can
and
still refract.
426.
An
achromatic lens
an achromatic prism.
The
made
rected
of crown-glass.
by a bi-concave
The second
made
in
the same
.033.
The
as
and
chromatic aberration
Its
way
flint
is
cor-
it.
is
dispersive powers of
and why?
effect
of the latter
What would be
the consequence,
is
If
convex
not wholly
we
rid of the
425.
Digitized by
THE TELESCOPE.
nullified.
But
235
it
makes
it
it
it
is
said to have
its
its
If
curves
spherical aberra-
its
and the
form a nearly colorless point at its
image of a star
will
focus.
The
Telescope.
Galileo, hearing of
was the
first
The
The
principle
telescope
involved in
is
a combination of
its
construction
is
and
this lens
throws an image.
on a
it
viewed;
because
let
Digitized by
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
236
focus
of the
The rays
eye-piece.
as they are
object-glass
when they
on the
fall
them as well as
had been there.
use
if
no telescope
The
Illuminating Power.
429.
depends on
two things, its Illuminating and its
Magnifying Power.
efficiency of the telescope
The
object-glass,
Pow-
being larger
pupil.
If its sur-
a thousand times
greater
of a star formed at
its
focus
is
nearly
We
the retina.
by
How
THE TELESCOPE.
237
the centre of the lens, the image will always bear the
same proportion
evident that
it
to the circle.
will
Suppose
be larger in a
circle
it
covers 1
whose radius
it is
is
12
is
Thus,
if
the eye-piece one inch, the telescope will magnify 100 times.
image
is
is
its
is useless.
If
image
will
431. Eye-pieces.
modern
eye-piece.
opera-glass,
This eye-piece
point where
effect of
its
A convex
the focus, as
shown
same reason
is
placed beyond
in Fig. 96.
way
light
coming from
would color
as the object-glass
430. On what two things does the magnifying power of the telescope
Show how the focal length of the object-glass has to do with the
magnifying power. What exactly Bhows the amount of magnifying power?
With any magnifying power, what is essential ? 431. Describe the eye-piece and
1
its position in Galileo * telescope. What difficulty did the use of such eye-pieces
involve ? How did Huyghens remedy this difficulty ? Pow*ire the plano-convex
Io:*t?
depend?
Digitized by
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
238
if its
chromatic aberrar
This
used except
in
The
the construction
away from
is
micrometers,
in
which the
now
generally
flat sides
of the
the eye.
is
largest
refracting
The
^ of an inch in diameter this objectglass, therefore, will grasp over 15,000 (25 -h
125;
125*
If
15,625) times more light than the eye can.
pupil of the eye
is
Moon
as
it
in other
is
pure,
it
words, the
would were
it
Moon
seen through
it
appears
We
in
which a speculum,
These in-
struments appear in several different forms. The prinon which Herschcrs is constructed, will be understood from Fig. 97.
ciple
is
lenses turned in micrometers ? 432. What is the use or the* telescope-tube ? With
what if the eye-piece furnished ? 433. Where is the largest refracting telescope
in the world ? What is its size ? How does the li^ht received by the object-^lass
compare with that receive'! by the eye? When the air is pure, howhlch a power
does it bear? 434. What other kind of telescopes is there? In reflecting tele-
REFLECTING TELESCOPES.
tremity
239
the
of
tube, inclined so
as
to
make
the
that
fall
rays
upon it converge
toward the side FlG 8T. Pbwciplb of Herschei/s Reflectob.
of the tube in which the eye-piece a b is fixed to receive
them.
The observer at E, with his back toward the
heavenly body, looks through the eye-piece, and sees the
reflected image.
His position is such as not to prevent the
rays from entering the open end of the tube.
-
The Largest
435.
Its mirror is
of Rosse.
four tons.
is
The tube
that,
Reflector.
is
when
largest
reflecting
light
436.
The
Different Mountings.
is
An
essential
is
that the
command every
is
shown
in Fig. 98,
scopes, what takes the place of the object-glass? Explain the principle in
Herschel's reflector. 435. Give an account of the largest reflector in the world.
For what two kinds of work does an ast ronomer use the telescope ? When
he wants to watch a heavenly body, what alone is essential? What is the best
mounting for this purpose? What is an instrument so mounted called? In
438.
Di
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
240
cated
the
to
in-
strument by clockwork.
In this arrange-
head-piece,
in
pillar
which
is
fixed the
to the axis of
This
the Earth.
polar axis
is
made
round once
to turn
twenty -four
hours by the clock
in
that
obvious
is
telescope
attached to such
move
a circle
in
of declination,
that
the
turning
Fio. 98. Equatorial Telescope.
the
and
clock,
tele-
Earth is carrying it in the opposite one, will keep the instrument fixed on the object. It is inconvenient to attach
the telescope directly to the polar axis, as the range is
then limited
it is
fixed, therefore, to
a declination axis,
shown
what
it,
as
in Fig. 98.
How is the
telescope kept
MEASUKEMENT OF ANGLES.
241
437. For the other kinds of work, telescopes are mounted as Altazimuths, Transit-instruments, Transit-circles, and
Zenith-sectors.
It is
the circle should be not only correctly graduated, but correctly centred
that
is,
To
movement should
the focus of
An
is
An
eye-piece so arranged
is called a Micrometer.
frame moved by a screw, and
the distance of this wire from the fixed central one is measured by the number of revolutions and parts of a revolution
of this screw, each revolution being divided into thou-
ured.
is set
in a
by
;
made by the line joining two stars, with the
direction of movement across the field of view, is determined. The use of the position-circle in double-star meascarries
tiiis
it, is
the angle
urements
is
it is
with
its
on the same object ? 487. For the other kinds of work, how are telescopes
mounted ? 488. In all these Instruments, how an* angles measured ? How far is
the graduation sometimes carried, and how ? What is of the greatest importance ? To insure greater precision, what are provided ? What is said of an
instrument which has the cross-wires perfectly adjusted ? 439. What is meant
by a Micrometer? How is the movable wire fixed? What is attached to the
fixed
16
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
242
orbital
The micrometer
by
outside,
and a
we want simply
to
celestial
sphere
it-
self.
that
is,
when we wish
to de-
we
is
The Altazimuth.
circles
An altazimuth
pillar
is
an instrument
supporting a horizontal
axis.
is fitted
all vertical
planes.
To
axis,
and
free to
move
in
When
one
tude)
we
we
any particular
star,
circle gives the zenith distance of the star (or its alti;
its
azimuth.
micrometer?
THE ALTAZIMUTH.
serve
all stars
circle will
show
altitude,
their azimuths.
If
we can move
243
we clamp
the axis to
the telescope so as to
make
it
and the
circle at-
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
244
of the stars (or the altitude), which, in this case, will lie in
apart.
used.
is
horizontal axis.
size,
and move
called Y's.
The ends
When
pieces, which,
in
the instrument
is in
perfect adjustment,
is
at right angles to
is
Under
its
ends are
that
is,
the place.
On
by microscopes attached
The cross-wires in the
pillars.
read
is
moment
crossed
The
which
is
fixed a circle,
is
of sidereal time
circle
attached shows us
is its
its
declination.
celestial
Digitized by
THE TRANSIT-CIRCLE.
245
celestial
body was
circle so as to
pole,
we
read 0
when
we
we have
adjusted the
lie
We
to adopt
and noting
it,
when
when it
observe the
it
passes below
it,
zenith-distances,
The
equator, which
is
passes the
we
celestial
readily determined
its
zenith-distance will
be the
dif-
IT.
III.
IV.
Any
From
From
From
From
We
can, therefore,
transit-circle,
the zenith.
the celestial pole.
the celestial equator.
the horizon.
other.
445.
When we
celestial equator,
we
444. If the celestial pole exactly corresponded with the polar star, how
could we determine the north-polar distance of a hody ? As it is, how do we find
the north celestial pole? What will tho zenith-distance of the celestial equator
he equal to? How can the horizon be determined ? From what, therefore, may
we measure angular distances with the transit-circle? 445. What is distance
circle?
Digitized by
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
046
terrestrial latitude.
places
may have
But
this is not
a hundred
may
we need what is called another
position.
On the Earth we get
enough
other coordinate
movement of the
first
moment
meridian visible in
we
is
Hence, a sidereal
denote the right ascension of the
point of Aries.
the
transit-circle
at
that
and
if
at the
zenith,
quired.
of these readings.
equal care.
The
The
right ascension
is
is
the
mean
obtained with
What
How
is
446.
THE TKASSIT-CIKCLE.
this case a transit eye-piece), the
24?
when a
transit eye-piece.
He
presses a spring,
and an additional
The time
which the transit of each wire has been effected, is estimated from the position the additional puncture occupies
between the punctures made by the clock at intervals of a
at
second.
The observer
is
the star.
of determining the time of transit over a wire ? What are they called ? Describe
"the eye and ear method." What is used in the second method? Give an
account of the mode of using the chronograph. What advantage has the observer
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
248
filled,
With
body
and bound up as
when
in the celes-
on the meridian.
The equatorial enables this to be done, on the other
hand, in every part of the sky, though not with such extreme precision. The object is brought to the cross-wires
of the micrometer eye-piece, and the declination-circle at
once shows its declination. The right ascension is determined as follows
At the lower end of the polar axis is a
movable circle divided into the 24 hours. Flush with the
tial
it is
The
is
circle is
or the
meridian
then
is
moved by
circle.
The
method which
is
good
for
whole
celestial
mapped
mined.
In this method ? 448. As regards the determination of positions, how does the
equatorial differ from the tranplt clrcle ? How ia declination obtained with the
equatorial ? How Is right ascension determined r 449. What has been accomnlished through these method? of finding the declination and right ascension f
Digitized by
CORRECTION OF OBSERVATIONS
249
Argelander.
ward of 324,000
stars,
from N. Decl. 90 to
S.
DecL
2.
similar
After
the astronomer
heavenly body, and has
freed them from instrumental and clock errors, he has obtained what is termed the observed or apparent place.
This, however, is worth very little ; he must, in order to
450. Correction* to be applied.
has
made
obtain
its
his observations of a
The
first
correction
is
body
nearer
it is
to the horizon.
On
amount of correction
In practice,
We
By whom have
Digitized by
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
250
from
Hence the
it.
star's aberration'
round with
its
it
place
Fio. 100.
Effect of Aberration
a, 6, c, d,
exactly as
the
The
the Sun.
aberra-
The
its
which
be at
will
true place.
its
as
we
The
correction to be
made
is
half
It is deterin
mind
that
the 360 of the Earth's orbit are passed over in 365J days,
and that light takes about 8 minutes 13 seconds to come
m.
Days.
365
453.
The
s.
8 13
::
360
"
20.25
be made? From what does aberration result? IIow does the aberration-place
move, in the case of stars In different positions? What is the allowance to bo
made for aberration? What is It called? ITow is the constant of aberration
determined ? 4T>3. What is meant by the Earth's way? IIow far Is It from the
PARALLAX.
251
circle
Moon
we have
do not give the same result, as their positions on
the celestial sphere appear different to observers at differindicated,
tions
made
This
is
called ap-
Horizontal Parallax,
This
centre,
is
and
is
greatest.
O an
in exactly the
no parallax.
observer, a
body
at
C being
At
tfits parallax is
the Earth's
(the zenith)
O 8 C,
is
seen
and has
and at II it. is
points,
Digitized by
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
252
OHC, which
than
O S C or
is
greater
the angle
would be formed
any point between S
and
that
at
As shown by the
dotted prolongations of
OS, C S, a
body seen from 0 would
the lines
if
seen from
Z
C
must
parent zenith-distance.
l 5 6.
that,
if either
be
Now,
it
is
101.
How must the correction for parallax be used, to obtain the true zenith,
distance? 466. What renders corrections in the positions of the stars, as once
determined, necessary from time to time? 457. What change takes place In the
position of the Earth's pole ? From this what important fact follows ? How does
Digitized by
position,
253
From this
As the Earth's
it,
and
than
earlier
it
would otherwise
This
do.
is
called the
move backward,
Sun
the
Aries
Sun
now in
The plane
This
left
to right, so as to
is
was
2,000
meet the
years ago
in the constellation
it is
458.
tion.
or from
earlier.
of the ecliptic
is
of the Ecliptic.
459.
is
Of
It
of the
these changes
Moon, and
is
planets,
by
the Sun,
The
effect is to
may be
strictly
comparable.
the equinox seem to move? What is this motion called? 8ince the time of
Hipparchus, what change has taken place in the position of the Sun at the vernal
equinox ? 468. What is the variation in the plane of the ecliptic called ? 469. Of
these changes, which is the more important ? What is the amount of recession
annually? What does this recession cause? 460. What is the cause of these
tuanijeB in the plane of the ecliptic and the plane of the equator? What is their
Digitized by
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
254
Celestial
latitude
by
and declination
Recapitulation.
Let
us
recapitulate
what has
1.
The astronomer,
to
make
is
of a
itself,
makes use
The positions
visible to him,
and
calculation be referred
its
right ascension
and
declination determined.
2.
circle
made
principally
equatorial,
In
all
may be
directly determined.
4.
others
caused by the
which must
5.
also
refraction
and aberration of
light,
be corrected.
by reducing
all
This
is
centre.
6. There are still other errors depending upon the
change of the intersection of the two planes to which all
measurements are referred. These are got rid of by reducing all observations to a point of time (as parallax was
the centre
To what do apparent
ae to the
461.
How
are
celestial latitude
NAUTICAL ALMANACS.
255
Some year
is fixed upon, and the observawhat they would have been at this time
past, or what they will be when made at this
of the Earth).
tions reduced to
if
the year
time
if
is
the year
is
to come.
The right ascension and declination are easily converted by calculation into celestial longitude and latitude,
7.
if
required.
They have
number.
by which they
are regulated,
and to be able to
This information
is
embodied
to determine
I.
Time.
II.
Latitude.
III.
Longitude.
quired, a transit-instrument
is
used
that
is,
is
re-
a simple
tel-
the
circle,
accuracy by
transit-circles,
in
obtained. 463. By means of observations thus freed from errors and extendinpover
centuries, what have astronomers been able to do? In what is this information
mbodied? What arc given in the Nautical Almanac ? What do these positions
enable ns to determine? 404. When time only is required, what iB used? How
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
25b
observed.
may,
if
465.
Determination of Latitude.
is
and longitude.
observatory
hand.
an easy matter,
For instance
half the
if
a fixed
proper instruments be at
sum
its
if
position
is
unknown,
will
Again,
lination of
if
we
is
referred
is
if
the declination of
if
DETERMINATION OF LONGITUDE.
257
lat.
time,
and
difference of longitude
is
Longitude
is
in fact
hour
15,
and so
on.
in
in
of longitude
same
is
Thus the
stars at each.
transits at station
A and
are re-
B, and the
transits at station
are similarly recorded at
and
;
from both chronographs the interval between the times of
transit is accurately recorded in sidereal time, and the
mean
of
all
mean
solar time
One mode
at sea? Give examples. 467. To what is longitude, and to what is difference of longitude, really equivalent ? What \% the most convenient mode of
determining longitude in fixed observatories ? 468. What method of determining
longitude at sea has already been explained? What other method is there?
mined
17
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
258
the distance
tude.
Determination of Distances.
469.
To determine
of trigonometry be determined.
which subtends an appreciable angle at the body in question, and whose length is accurately found, being taken, a
triangle is formed by drawing lines from the ends of the
The
body and
its
by
found.
470. Parallax of the
Moon.
In the case of
the Moon,
is
is
nearly 57'
known.
Moon
The mean
when
equatorial hori-
3*.
is
made
In
the
the base-line,
owing
by
of the
Moon found
to
Moon
be ?
471.
What
What
if
is
allowance
diameter
259
Earth's diameter
is
As
so small that
useless as a base-line
when they do
is
On
pro-
Sun serves the purpose of a micromand observations may be made with the most rigor-
ous exactness.
The
New
was
by
.
value obtained
"
"
"
"
Stone,
"
"
"
Le
8.916"
parallactic equation,
tions of Mars,
ty of light,
8.578'
8.964"
8.930'
8.960*
mo-
The
8.950"
How is this doDc ? 472. On what is the method of finding the Han's parallax
based? Why is not the Earth'b diameter used as a base-line? When will the
next transit of Venus occur? What was the old value of the Sun's parallax,
obtained from the transit of Venus? What later values have been obtained?
What Is the difference between the old and the new value now generally accepted ?
Digitized by
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
260
But we
is insufficient
to meas-
we
are using
is
l"
If,
be
less
than
474. In
1",
distance of a star
be wrong to ascribe
it
to parallax.
What difference in the Sun'* distance does this small difference of parallax make ?
stars?
473. What may now be taken as a base-line, to And the parallax of the
How may it be made available ? Is it found sufficient for the purpose ? Why
a
star's
not? now sreat a parallax shonld an ordinary telescope show us? If
parallax be less than one second, how far must the star be away? What follows
with respect to the distance of every ntar in the heavens ?
what star alouc was the parallax found by this method I
474.
In the case of
261
Bessel, however,
He
away
with, or nearly
so.
Star.
Parallax.
Distance.
Snn's distance
1.
//
61 Cygni
....
224,000
0.5638
1830 Groombrid'e
0.226
70 Ophiuchi
0.16
366,000
912,000
1,286,000
Vega
0.155
1,337,000
Sirius
0.15
1,375,000
1,624,000
3,078,000
4,484,000
employed by Bessel
What
What
is its parallax,
is
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
262
is
is
found to
more than
20,000,000,000,000 miles.
When
angular measurement,
proportion
its size is
is,
is
known, and
also
determined by a simple
there are as
many seconds
or
in 1,296,000
tion
206,265*.
is
contained times
The diameter)
of the body )
in miles
f
th* diatanre
d * ,*" Ce )
>
,
n mi,eB
,
in
f
-M
(
I
:
1
|
the angular)
diameter V
in seconds, f
(
:
^L,
1
206366
]
by multiplying
the
means
we
,jv
distance
its
??!?10 x
,8fi8 8
2153
miles.
206265
In Table
II.
Hence
tances given in Art. 367, the student can calculate the real diameters for
himself.
Vega. Of Sinus. Of Arcturus". 475. Prom what can the size of a heavenly body
be determined, and how ? Give the process by which the formula for finding the
diameter in miles can be obtained. Give the formula. Apply this formula, to
THE SPECTRUM.
476.
From Formula
below, which
is
to be used
263
is
re-
Distance
206265
* *
.
is its
distance
miles,
and
its
mean angular
CHAPTER XV.
THE SPECTRUM.
477.
A careful examination
we
What we do
see
is
rays after
latter
we
chemical rays.
rays, the
is
heated in the
When
fire,
a cool
the rays
it
when
THE SPECTRUM.
20 4
first
we
see nothing,
waves of red
it
light,
of the spectrum.
previously emitted,
which a prism
If
we
still
will
it
now
show
in
addition
sends forth
end
and conadded to the
at the red
we
find,
and
violet
when
the poker
is
If,
white-hot,
all
the colors of
been
greater heating,
it
act in form-
the
or ultra-violet rays.
the prismatic
plains
480.
if
we make
in
which
them?
480.
How
can
we
Digitized by
Til E
SPECTROSCOPE. EXPERIMENTS.
trum crossed
We find the
265
spec-
by numerous
the band.
ing
down
the keys,
all
as
if
or
two notes
in
Let us try
still
another experiment.
We will so arrange
decomposed by its
upper portion, a beam proceeding from burning sodium,
iron, nickel, copper, or zinc, may be decomposed by the
our prism, that while a sunbeam
lower one.
We
shall find in
is
do
what appearances does the solar sped ram present ? Describe the spectrum of a
match. Describe the spectrum of a substance that does not burn with white
light such as some of the metals. Oive an account of the third experiment with
the spectroscope. 481. What principle is at the basis of KirchhofTs hypothesis t
THE SPECTRUM.
266
by Experiment
By experiment-
L When
they
When
II.
state of gas,
substances.
When
III.
light
from a
through a
which
own spectrum
consists.
has become of those rays which the dark lines in the solar
spectrum
tell
us are wanting.
Before they
left
the regions
of our incandescent Sun, they were arrested by those particular metallic vapors and gases in his atmosphere with
which they beat in unison; and the assertion that this
and that metal exists in a state of vapor in the Sun's
atmosphere, is based upon their absence. So various and
constant are the positions of the bright bands in the
spectra we can observe here, and so entirely do they
correspond with certain dark bands of the spectrum of the
Sun, that it has been affirmed that the chances for the correctness of the hypothesis are something like 300,000,000
to
1.
first
to
down
of the
more or
less cursory,
In
482.
Digitized by
we
an atmosphere
find
267
sifting
due to
by
is
sifted, so to
speak,
by
its
these
atmosphere, which
the photosphere.
out
by
we can by
many of the
we can
is
abstracted,
Having done
this light.
the Sun.
all
more or
less like
the Sun, for their spectra exhibit nearly the same appear-
ances;
we can
also
tell,
as above,
83).
Nebula.The
Sun and
stars,
that
is,
showing a band of color with black lines across it, consist of a few bright lines merely.
487. On August 29th, 1864, Mr. Huggins directed his
telescope,
At
first
to the plan-
place, for
no
light, perpen-
trum ia examined? 485. What conclusions are drawn respecting the San from
investigations of its spectrum ? What do we find with respect to the stars ? 486.
Describe the spectra of the nebula?. 487. Who examined the spectrum of the
planetary nebula in Draco ? Give the results of his examination. With what
THE SPECTRUM.
268
He
which
was not com-
analysis,
spectrum.
sists
a bright
line,
line.
was seen
in the spectroscope as
Beyond
line,
this again, at
line,
dis-
was
seen.
The
This line
is
The
midway between
b and/J
spectrum.
line
we have
three
little
An
all
lines.
object-glass collects a
beam
lines ?
489.
by these three
What may be
inferred
269
shine
is
Moon and
Planets.
That
moon-
Moon
has
lines
In
the Frontis-
Nebula
two
H. iv., and
The latter is shown, to explain
the double line of sodium.
the coincidences on which our knowledge of the substances
present in the atmospheres of the Sun and stars depends.
The light given out by the vapor of sodium consists only
of the double line shown in the plate. A black double line
stellar spectra, the spectra of the
is
37,
all
these suns.
Similarly,
of iron, in
we
The
all
It is seen
line.
observed and measured, no less than five cases of coincidence have been detected that is to say, w e have now
evidence universally accepted in the analogous case of
T
from this? Describe the spectrum of the planets. What follows? 490. What
are represented In the Frontispiece? Show how we find the Bnhstances present in the atmospheres of the stun*, by taking sodiam and iron as examples
Digitized by
THE SPECTRUM.
270
bis-
be rendered
The other
may
visible.
focal length, is
slit,
its
slit,
spectrum.
length,
is
Behind the
breadth to the
slit,
The dispersing
prisms of dense
flint-glass,
of 60.
The spectrum
duced
by the passage of an
in
electric current.
what
first
CELESTIAL PHOTOGRAPHY.
493.
used at the
Kew Observatory, in
The
solar spectrum.
light enters at a
271
narrow
one
parallel be-
slit in
is
bent into a
circle,
widening out as
it
goes.
494.
It is often
Direct-vision Spectroscope
that
is,
is
termed a
enters
and
the
leaves
Ficj.
0J
Path
ru
Rayi
nil.
i:
line.
How this is managed in the HerschelB rOWn ln g 8pCCtr08COpe,
by means of successive
refractions
and
its
reflections,
kind,
may be
In
The chemical
rected for the actinic rays, and then to enlarge this picture
to the size required.
De La
in diameter, are
of such perfection
as a basis of a
feet.
map
These
of the
in diameter.
UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.
272
CHAPTER
XVI.
UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.
496. Motion.
If a
body
like
every thing
curved
Were
is
no
else, to
its
path will be a
line.
it
where there
and were there no body to draw the
as the Earth does, the projectile would for-
air to resist,
ball to itself,
As
is,
moment
the
is
To illustrate resultant
497. Parallelogram of Forces.
motion, suppose that the cricket-ball A, in Fig. 103, receives an impulse which will send
time
it
will
move
in
the direction
j
it
it
to
A 1$.
in a certain
Suppose, again,
receives
an
A~
"
impulse
it
to
C in
it
will
move
(\
the
in
direction
^ ^
R
496. If a body at rest receive an impulse in any direction, how will it move?
stops a body set in motion on the Earths surface ? By what is a
cannon-ball fired in the nir stopped, and what is its course ? Of what is the path
described by such a projectile the resultant? 497. Illustrate resultant motion
What Boon
273
All
Earth
Weight.
and
it
is
due simply to
is
show that
in the
first
second
it
will fall
second.
I.
To
The
multiply 10
bers
each
(1, 3, 5,
feet
7,
9,
by
11, etc.)
any second,
of odd num-
given second.
with Fig. 103. 408. Whence do we derive our idea of weight ? When a dime and
a feather are dropped, what do we find as regards their respective times of falling? What misapprehension might follow ? How is this proved to be a misapprehension ? Why does the feather take longer to fall than the dime ? 400. What
do experiments show with respec to the velocity of a falling body? Give the
rule for finding the space passed through during any second. Give the rule for
t
18
Digitized by
UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.
274
To
II.
any
What distance
will
a body
by the square of
feet
fall in
descent, what will be its velocity at the end of the fourth second,
how
far will
it
have fallen
seconds
its
and
7 being the fourth in the series of odd numbers, in the fourth second
it will fall
through 7 times 16
A
,
g feet,
or 112,^ feet.
will
be 8 times
16^
its
feet, or
velocity at the
128
feet,
per
second.
It will
first
four seconds 16 (4
f
)
times IGyS
or 25 7$ feet.
feet,
ball
Curvilinear Motion,
were
left
good
curvilinear motion.
As
the cannon-ball
which
is
is
one of
pulled
down
its
straight course
rectilinear course.
501.
first
Newton's Discovery.
Sir
Isaac
that of a projectile, and that both are due to the same cause
as the fall of an apple
finding the velocity at the termination of any second. Give the rule for finding
the whole space patted through in any number of seconds. Illustrate these rule*
with an example. 500. How is curvilinear motion produced ? Show this in the
ease of a cannon-ball. 501. What great discovery waa made by Newton ? By
LAW OF
He saw
GRAVITY.
275
to fall
like
even on the highest mountains why not, then, at the disMoon ? He immediately applied the knowl;
tance of the
falling bodies
on the
Law
kinds of matter.
and
Now,
is
what reasoning did ho arrive at this conclusion ? 508. Is gravity confined to any
particular kind of matter? State the law of gravity. By what is the intensity
of a force measured? Illustrate this in the case of a one-pound and a ten-pound
UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.
276
weight, yet
of the Earth
atom of the weight, we might
rises
Body.
16
Effect of
It follows
gravity
A man
is
carried
to
Moon
the Sun
the force of
enormous.
it is
the
011
whereas,
the
if
same
as on the
would
by
feet per
A body at the
its
surface of the
centre, acquires, as
we have
this second,
however,
it
first
second.
feet
During
for, as it
weight, and show that the velocity in both cases is the same. 508. What movement might we expect in the Earth, when a weight is dropped ? Does the Earth
move toward the weight ? With what velocity, and why ? 604. What is the effect
of an increase, and what of a decrease, of mass ? What fact* are stated with respect to the force of gravity at the surface of the Moon and the San ? 605. How
far docs a falling
body descend
Digitized by
211
it
will
at the
MJV,
Moon's
In fact,
in Fig. 104,
is
the direction
B, at right angles
and a constant attraction
toward the Earth the amount of
in
to
EM,
M N,
arc
j.
by the
is
MA.
line
MA,
'
let us
To
take
by the Moon
in
27(1.
The
7h. 43m.:
arc
MN,
lm.
360
found
That is,
a body at the Moon's distance falls as far in one minute
as it would do on the Earth's surface in one second in
one second, therefore, by Rule III. Art. 499 (as 60s. make
a
lm., and 60 = 3600), it will fall but yjV* of the distance
it would fall in one second at the Earth's surface.
Now, the Moon, being 2-! 0,000 miles from the Earth's
centre, is just 60 times as far from it as an object at the
the length of
to be
16^
feet
when
ME equals 240,000
it is
miles.
Digitized by
278
UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.
Earth's surface
is,
force of attraction
affected
it is
by
Its distance is
Thus the
less.
is
of the
Newton
distance.
It
was
this calcula-
tation.
name.
I.
the
II.
The
foci.
in equal times.
III.
planet be divided
by the cube of
its
mean
dis-
Second Law.
move
It
was stated
faster as they
is
301
how much
faster.
in Art.
it
in
be-
foci.
the part
of the orbit intercepted being shortest where the radius-veclatton reveal to Newton ? 507. What is meant by Kepler's Laws ? Give Kepler's
three laws. 508. What was stated in Art. 301 ? What does Kepler's second law
enable us to find ? What i the Radiu*-voctor of a planet ? In what kind of or509. Explain the second law, with
bits does the radius-vector vary, and how
Fig. 105. Show from the figure how the velocity at perihelion and aphelion must
KEPLER'S LAWS.
279
tor
as
longest,
is
must be the
case in order to
make
the areas
equal.
The
A B,
arcs
CD, and
at
Fig. 105.
Illustration
distance,
at
aphelion,
and
at
is
and a
at its
mean
must be more
trav-
mean
one at aphelion,
less
rapid,
and
in the latter
The
Sun are
in
period
Cube of
Earth's
distance
Cube of
Jupiter's
distance
11.80X11.86
1x1x1
140.559
Square of
Square of
Earth's
Jupiter's
That
may
is,
^140 times
greater.
compare with that at mean distance. 510. What does Kepler's third law show
us ? Wnat must we know, to determine a planet's distance from the Sun in terms
of the Earth's distance?
511.
What does
UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.
2*0
511.
we
The following
are considering
table
Mean
Periodic Time.
Mercury
Venus
Time squared
distance.
Earth's
divided by
distance cubed.
1.
87.97
0.3871
133,421
224.70
0.7233
133,413
365.25
1.0000
133,408
686.98
1.5237
133,410
Jupiter
4332.58
5.2028
133,294
Saturn
10759.22
9.5388
133,401
30686.82
19.1824
133,422
60126.72
80.0368
133,405
"XT
Earth
Mars
Uranus
Neptune
its
orbit
is
forces
one
a tendency to
move
the result of
it
two
and which
is
the original
off
from
its
the table show ? How do yon find the results to aeree ? In the cape of what
planet is there the great est deviation ? 512. What did Newton show with respect
to these laws of Kepler? Of what did he prove that the motion of a planet in
any part of its orbit is the result ? 513. To what did Newton show that the attraction is proportional? Where may we imagine all gravitating energy to be
concentrated? What did Newton show with regard to the smaller of two
bodies bonnd together by mutual attraction ? What kind of an orbit will it describe? What would follow, if the attraction of the central body were to cease ?
Digitized by
larger.
be
281
that
Which
of these
it
arrested as bodies in
are, is still at
Fio.
106.-The
AB,
circle;
hyperbola;
Conic
CD,
O If,
Section*
ellipse
parabola.
Were
n
volvmg body would
,
leave
its
consequence of the centrifugal tendency it acquired at its start; were the centrifugal tendency to
cease, the centripetal force would be uncontrolled, and
orbit, in
fall
it
is
that, according to
The
direction of a
circular orbit
is
be
direction
If the
elliptical,
thus
is
the
per-
/. <?.,
at the apsi-
major axis
KW.-Varyino Velocity op a Body
MOVING IN AN ELLIPTICAL OKBIT, EX-
Fio.
plained.
the aphelion
an( j pi
r r ihelion points.
'
In P
lg.
i ,
t lie
planet
the centrifugal tendency were to cease ? 514. What is always the direcbody revolving round another in a circle? If the orbit be elliptical,
where alone is the direction thus perpendicular? With Fig. 107, explain the
What,
if
tion of a
UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.
282
moving
is
in
P T,
the direction
occupies
it
being
of the
At
it is
is
centripetal force
is
evident that
At Q
is
the
enabled to
we had
ner, if
by the Earth.
In like man-
great as the Sun, at the same distance from the Earth, the
Earth's attraction would
number of feet
516.
all
of attraction
body
draw them
in a second.
is
(Art. 502),
it
mass
body
unit of
will
vary in a: velocity of a body moving in an elliptical orbit. 515. Of what Is the attraction which a body exerts entirely independent? 516. If all the attractive
force were confined to one of two bodies, what would be the result? As they
mutually attract each other, what follows ? What is meant by the Centre of
Digitized by
CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
5
7.
The
283
bar at
Fia. 106.-
ratio
of
its
in
greater
Fig. 109. Centre of Gravity and MoT,ON IN THE CA8E oy Unk<iual Ma88M
-
lies
has been stated, that the masses of the Sun, and of those
planets which have satellites, can be determined, if the mass
of our
i
51V. How could the centre of gravity and motion he determined?
it lie, if the bodies were of equal mass ? Where, if one were heavier
than the other ? Where does it lie in the case of the Sun and the Earth ? 518.
How can the masses of the Sun and of those planets that have satellites be determined? How can the masses of those double stare whose distances arc known
Gravity
Where would
UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.
284
by measuring
on each other's orbit.
Determination of the Earth's Density and Mass.
determine
like a gas, or
bulk, because
it
The mean
that
is,
It is not
might be
light,
density, or
how much
they
weigh, bulk for bulk, compared with some well-known substance, such as water must be determined.
520.
ways
in three
L By comparing
known
ball of
size
ular.
III.
By
at the
bottom of a mountain, or
at the bottom of a mine
and at the Earth's surface.
521.
The Cavendish
Experiment.
It will
dish in 1798.
of any thing
of the
tion.
is
a measure
Earth's
attrac-
Cavendish, there-
Cavendish Experiment. A B,
took
A\ fore,
the small leaden balls on the rod C.
the suspending wire.
Q, the large leaden leaden balls
II K,
_
halls on one fide of the small ones.
.
the larpe leaden balls In a position on the Weight,
other Hld0
by CavenThe weight
two
of
_
small
known
_
be determined* 519. What mast we first find? Why is It not sufficient to determine the Earth's bulk ? 530 In what three ways has the Earth's density been
EARTH'S MASS,
HOW DETERMINED.
285
feet long,
the rod
rest,
mark the
deviation.
With
11.35.
it
to
6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 tons.
number
But
this
many
times
it is
if
we can
find
how
we
This
On
i.
e.,
its
centre,
determined ? 521. Give an account of the Cavendish experiment. What was the
Earth's density thus found to be? What is its mass? 622. Give the details of
UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.
2*6
we do by multiplying
by
4,000
which
.0099, since
The
Then
ifit
16*
ft.
eioqirsQ
5,123,7o8
1i
we
mass
is
we determine
its rate
If
we
express the
on
Square of radius"
314760
107.8 3
27
We have seen that it is the atwhich causes the planets and satellites to pursue their paths round the central body; that
their motion is similar to that of a projectile fired on the
525.
Perturbations.
traction of gravitation
Earth's surface,
if
we
ance of the air; aud that Newton's law enables us to determine the masses of the Sun and of the other central
the process by which the Sun's mass Is determined
What is it found to be in
terms of the Earth's mass? 528. By the same process, what further may we determine? 544. How is the force of gravity on the Sun's surface found? 525.
What have we found with respect to the motion of the planets and satellites ?
Digitized by
>
287
Now,
itself is known.
body would describe round
primary, if itself and the Sun or pri-
and
satellites.
ac-
526.
my
it is
we have been
by
carefully ob-
satellites
and of the
satellites themselves.
527.
We
shall
is
by a
ring, supported
by two points
its
at the extremities of
Digitized by
UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.
288
ring.
protuberance.
fall
as
if it
The Sun's
from above.
is
is
pre-
it
is
is
greatest,
reduced to
and
In the
0.
constantly varying
is
Earth were at
down
rest,
sult is
two motions,
this re-
that particle to
it
If
we
ecliptic earlier
than
down
is
is
is
it
Toward
more
it
would otherwise
ring and a string. By what is the problem complicated ? What is the consequence of the yearly motion ? What is the consequence of the Earth's rotation ?
529. If the Earth were at rent, what would the equatorial protuberance soon do?
What \* the effect of the Earth's two motions ? If we look at the Earth aB presented to the Sun at the winter solstice in Fig. 44, what will appear? What does
Digitized by
still
The
exercised.
final
289
result therefore
is,
that
it
meets the plane of the ecliptic sooner than it would otherwise have done.
What happens with one particle in the protuberance
happens with all. One half of it, therefore, tends to fall, the
other half to rise and the whole Earth meets the strain
by rolling on its axis. The inclination of the protuber;
ance to the plane of the ecbptic is not altered ; but, in consequence of the rolling motion, the places in which it
made
constant.
The
producing precession
is
Moon
is
so
in
but, as the
one-half of the protuberance tend to do, and what the other T How does the Earth
meet the strain ? What ie tbe consequence of the rolling motion r 690. What i*
the effect of the sphere enclosed in the equatorial protuberance t What part does
19
Digitized by
UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.
290
noxes,
an
is
Superadded
Moon
effect
tion.
in
the orbit
is
inclined so that
its
is
will
it
ble.
Were
cause
it
is
in motion, as
we just saw
in
Fig.
that
the Moon perform in producing precession ? Why is its effect greater than
consequence
of the Son ? 631. What motion is produced in the Earth's axis, in
Moon
to
the
due
effect,
of the change in the position of the equator ? 682. What
alone, helpB to produce the precession of the equinoxes ? What is meant hy
Nutation ? If the pole of the Earth were at rest, what would nutation cause it
TIDES.
is
tic,
291
111.
533.
apparent position of the heavenly bodies, and the corrections which are thereby rendered necessary, have already
rise for
flood
tide,
tide,
fall,
in
these
and then,
and
is
tide,
tide
after a
12 hours 27 minutes,
that
is,
they
rise
fall
We
new and
Moon
the tides
after
Moon
is in
full
Twice
correspond with the lunar day and the lunar month, because the Moon's differential attraction is about three
times as great as that of the Sun.
536. Tides, how produced.It may be stated, then,
generally, that the semi-diurnal tides are caused by the
Moon
(although there
is
do ?
s
Digitized by
UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.
292
by the Sun)
height
is
occurs
tic.
Moon throughout
537.
the eclip-
follows the
The double
Moon on both
the
in
On
itself.
than
its
is
greater than
is
more remote.
Moon's attraction
its
action on the
In like manner,
are always
two
double tide
is
is
tides
this
by
its
action on
all
vp under
ordinary tides, and the spring: and neap tide?, prodnced ? By what are the spring
and neap tides also affected ? 587. Explain why there is a double daily tide. 538.
What besides the direct attraction of the Moon on the pnrtirlcs immediately beneath it helps to produce the tides ? What is meant by the tangential component
Digitized by
TIDES
the Moon.
The
force acting
298
upon these
particles
by
far the
is
and
called
this is
tides, as it acts at
right angles to the Earth's gravity, whereas the direct attraction of the Moon acts in opposition to this gravity.
539. Establishment of the
PortThe phenomena
of the
ridian
terval at
new
or full
is
The
in-
may be
greatly increased.
move
Bay
of
Fundy
is
it is
is
daily rotation, causing a constant but very slight deThe apparent acceleration of the
crease in its velocity.
^ of a second
in 2,500 years.
the tides greatly comof the attraction ? 539. By what are the phenomena of
540. How great
plicated? What is meant by the Establishment of the Port?
What is it sometimes
ocean
open
?
the
in
be
may the velocity of the tidal wave
the tide round the islands in
in shallow waters ? What is the average height of
What ia the
the Atlantic and Pacific? At the head of the Bay of Fnndy ? 541.
we suppose
Digitized by
APPENDIX
Table
I.
<p
Aries
L Taurus
II.
III.
Gemini
Cancer
Leo
IV. Si
V. TTfi Virgo
.
The Sun
The Moon
c5
....
VI. =- Libra
30
VII.
VIII.
...
Scorpio
60
U0
120
$ Sagittarius
IX. V3 Capricornus
X.
Aquarius
150
XI.
A
A
&
...
....
Pisces
Comet
Conjunction.
Degrees.
Minutes of Arc.
" Seconds of Arc.
R.A., or A.., or
a.,
h.
Dec'
Minutes of Time,
N. P. D., North-polar
s.
Seconds of Time.
cension.
,
D., or
<J,
Declination.
Distance.
Alpha.
Iota.
Beta.
Kappa.
Sigma.
Gamma.
Tau.
<J
Delta,
Lambda.
Mu.
LTpsilon.
Epsilon.
Nu.
Phi.
Zeta.
Xi.
Chi.
Eta.
Omicron.
Psi.
Theta.
Pi.
Omega.
*r
Rho.
J/fljor Planets.
Mercury.
Venus.
The
Jf
Right As'
in.
or 6
330
'
Descending Node,
Hours.
270
300
Star
Quadrature.
8 Opposition.
Q Ascending Node.
5
180
210
240
Earth.
Mars.
Jupiter.
Saturn.
J# Uranus.
?
Neptune.
APPENDIX.
295
0
0
0 Juno.
0 Vesta.
0
Hebe.
0
0
Hygeia.
0 Parthenope.
@
@ Egem.
0
0 Eunomia.
Psyche.
0 Melpomene.
0 Fortuna.
0
0
0
0
0 Themis.
0 Phocea.
0 Proserpine.
Euterpe.
0
0
0 Urania.
0 Euphrosyne.
@ Pomona.
0 Polyhymnia.
0
0 Leucothea.
0
0
Ceres.
Pallas.
Astrsea.
Ins.
(V)
if
lora.
Metis.
Victoria.
Massilia.
Lutetia.
Calliope.
Thalia.
Bellona.
Araphitrite.
Circe.
Atalanta.
Fides.
Lsetitia.
Harmonia.
Daphne.
0
/ \
Ariadne.
Pales.
Virginia.
^)
Aglaia.
Europa.
Calypso.
Diana.
happho.
Terpsichore
Beatrix.
Clio.
Pandora.
Io.
CI
Semele.
Sylvia.
Thisbe.
Alexandra.
Julia.
Antiope.
JSgina.
Undina.
Melete.
Mnemosyne.
Concordia.
Olympia.
Echo.
Danae.
Erato.
Ausonia.
Frigga.
Doris.
Nemausa.
0
0
Freia.
Alcmene.
Eugenia.
Hestia.
Eurydice.
Eurynome.
Isis.
Nysa.
Irene.
Thetis.
Leda.
Angelina.
Asia.
Leto.
Hesperia.
Panopea.
Niobe.
Feronia.
Clytie.
Galatea.
Aurora.
Arethusa.
jEgle.
Clotho.
Ianthe.
Dike.
Hecate.
Helena.
Miriam.
Maximiliana.
Maia.
Minerva.
TT
Hera.
Clymene.
Artemis.
Dione.
Camilla.
necuba.
Felicitas.
Lydia
Ate
etc.
Digitized by
APPENDIX.
290
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APPENDIX.
297
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11 IS
I
.2
APPENDIX.
298
Table IV.
THE
SUN.
New
Old Value.
Value.
8.5776"
8.940"
95,274,000
91,430,000
Diameter in miles
Inclination of Axis to Plane of Ecliptic
Longitude of Node
Mass
Density
73
en as
852,584
for
1.
1850
40
354,936
314,760
0.250
0.250
1,415,225
1,245,126
28.7
27.2
Earth's tak-
Volume
Force
888,646
82 45'
of Gravity at
Equator
....
Time of Rotation
Apparent Diameter
Maximum
Minimum
31' 32"
Mean
32' 4.205"
82' 36.41"
Table V.
15
34.4
17"
13 53'
29.530588715 4
27.321661418*
1 30'
Longitude of Pole
10.8"
?
13 10'
35"
6793.391084
Density, Earth's as 1
u
Volume,
2.70"
57'
.
8232.57343 d
0.56654
0.02012
1
\
2.6 feet.
Digitized by
APPENDIX
299
Table VI.TIME.
L
THE
YEAR.
Mean
II.
THE
Solar Days.
m.
d.
h.
365
365
48
46.054440
365
13
49.3
12
44
43
2.84
11.54
35.60
MONTH.
27
13
43
18
27
Nodical
III.
THE
4.71
37.40
DAY.
Table VII.
B.
9.6
CORRECTION
variable.
56
4.09
54
FOR REFRACTION.
Apparent
Mean
Apparent
Mean
Apparent
Mean
Altitude.
Refraction.
Altitude.
Refraction.
Altitude.
Refraction.
//
//
34 54
7 20
25
0 20
30 52
6 30
30
40
0 40
27 23
5 49
35
22
24 25
10
5 16
40
18
11
.0
45
0 58
0 48
14 15
12
4 49
4 25
50
3 30
12 48
13
60
0 33
11
39
14
3 47
70
0 21
47
15
3 32
80
0 10
6.
8 23
20
2 37
90
Digitized by
ALPHABETICAL INDEX
AND
Abbreviations used
see
Appendix, Table
Astronomy,
in
Aberration
of the atmospheres of
Sun, 1M,
Acceleration, Secular, of the Moon's
mean motion, an Increase in its velocity caused by a slow change in the
eccentricity of the Earth's orbit, 541.
Achromatism (a, without, aud
stars, 8Jj of
of lenses, 42-4.
discovered Neptune,
xpuifta, color)
1 11.
Aerolites
(arjp,
Aerosiderites
iron), pieces of
fall
(arjp
and tripos,
meteoric iron which
Aerosiderolites,
XiBos), pieces
stone which
(arjp,
ai&ifpos,
of meteoric iron
fall
and
and
411.
variable star. EL
Nautical, 463.
Alphabet, ft reek. HL
Almanac,
Anaximander,
Ang-le
Annular
face, 317.
Algol, the
(contraction of altitude
Absorption
Adams,
Altazimuth
XL
Anomalistic, month,
244; nebulte,
399, 400
year,
401, 402.
o M aAo, equal).
The anomaly is
The
id
by
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
belion
what it would
moved with a mean
a law), defined.
the second,
usefulness of, 14
enf>u-
Attraction
282.
Anti-trades,
tation.
207-209.
Axis,
Aphelion
apsides
the minor axis is the line at right
angles to it; the semi-axis major 1*
equal to the mean distance.
Axis of the Earth, its inclination, 18Q
motion or, 531 ; inclination of Sun's,
elliptical orbit is the line of
II.
112.
Axis,
Arc,
250.
Base
line, 469.
Bayer, John,
his
method or naming
m
Law, m
ML
Biela's Comet,
Bissextile (W*, twice, and
ecliptic,
R.
setting, 360
polar,
torials, 436.
for
and
201
1
eextue,
sixth), 403.
32S,
Aristarchus, taught
Ascension,
mosphere and
rotation, 294
mode
Astronomy
(a<ro}p, a star,
and vo^o*
Bode
Bolides,
Bond,
Sun,
Brilliancy, or the stars, 41
lOii; Moon, 224; minor planets, 205.
;
Calendar,
Calms,
403-405.
equatorial. 207
or Cancer and
521.
movements
517.
ed by
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
302
Centripetal Force,
Chaldeans,
their
Astionomy,
Chinese,
Comes
512, 518.
early progress in
tronomy,
2XL
(xpovos,
and
time,
declination, the
tem,
Clepsydrae
circle, defined,
(Ac^v$pa, a water-clock),
384.
tion,
389
application
between
its
a star is the
latitude
and
90.
Collimation (cum,
i
i
Corrugations, on
meridians
sol-
solstitial colures.
the Sun's
disk,
120.
Cosmical
370.
of aberration, 452.
of the
on opposite sides,
Constant
270.
338.
how
Compression,
set, 839.
305.;
306.
Circumference of a
81; bow divided, 32.
numbers
circle
which never
star.
defined,
(0M>)n|f, long-haired),
Chronograph
(Lat.
component of a double
Comets
20.
rising
heavenly body,
with the Sun.
and setting of a
its
rising or setting
Craters
(wpanjp, a mixing-bowl) of
the Moon, 227-230.
Crust
ed by
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
ture of, 199: thickness, 200
density,
Dispersion
of light, 414;
varies in
2QL
Culmination
Distance, of stars,
43, 44
bow
deter-
218
polar, 329
how
distances are
measured, 469.
Donati s Comet, 300.
Double Stars, 66, 68.
ML
Earth,
160;
Dawes,
and
395
night,
length
sidereal
and
solar, 895;
solar, 353
how produced,
182, 183
181
De La Rue,
Democritus,
Diameter,
eclipse, 246.
Dimensions,
Milky Way,
Disk
46.
the, a planet, 11
is
round,
166;
165,
proved by Foucault,
proved by the gyroscope,
rotation
163, 164
diameters, 162;
126; when in perihelion, 126; velocity of rotation, 122 ; velocity of revolution, 178; inclination of axis, 180
361
movements of
tation,
325.
ments of the
the, 325
344
stars,
effects of ro-
attraction
Earth-shine, 223.
Eccentricity (ex, from, and centrum,
a centre), of an ellipse, the distance
of either focus from the ecntre, divided by half the major axis, 35.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
304
Eclipses
a disappearance),
('*A<if it,
recurrence
annular, explained, 244
phenomena attending a total
of, 2J3
number of,
eclipse of the Sun, 248
253; memorable, 254; effects on the
ignorant, 25JL
Ecliptic (so called because, when
either Sun or Moon is eclipsed, it is
In this circle), the great circle of the
heavens, along which the Sun performs his annual journey, 356 plane
of the, 111, 145; secular variation of
the obliquity of the ecliptic, 458.
Egress, the passing of one body off
the disk of another; e. g., one of the
satellites off Jupiter, or Venus off the
;
Sun.
Egyptians,
Astronomy,
Elements,
Sun,
20.
126.; in
Elements
Elongation,
Emersion,
Ephemeris
(iwi,
for,
day), a statement of
and
iinipa,
3d; terrestrial,
of using, 448;
horizontal parallax,
455.
Equinoxes
and nor,
(ceguus, equal,
431
tran
eye-piece, 446.
Faculse
Field of view,
of, 499.
Fixed
Focus
(Lat.
hearth),
the
point at
418.
Foci
163,
1M
rota-
Fraunhofer's Lines,
479, 483.
the positions
Galaxy (yaAaxrof
name
for the
tea, 46.
first used the telescope, 23,
construction of his telescope,
Galileo,
427;
431.
Geocentric
rpov,
and
*4r-
ed by
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
centre of the Earth;
and
latitude
Horizon
longitude, 355.
Gibbous
tional, 830
(Lat. gibOus,
bunched) Moon,
'
236.
I
Globes, use of
celestial,
Gnomon
(yv*p,<*v,
an index), a sun-
385 387.
dial,
Granules on
Gravity
of,
planets, 524
342.
cal
knowledge,
21.
I sec),
'
of
Hour-circle,
Huyghens,
discovered ttie true nature of Saturn's rings, 282; his arrangement of lenses in eye-pieces,
431.
Hyperbola
(mep0oAj),
one of the
meas-
ure
and
Greeks,
bound), true or ra
Great Bear,
305
(opt'w, I
<rno-
lfifL
(immergere, to plunge into), the disappearance of one heavenly body behind another, or in the
shadow of another.
Inclination of an orbit, the angle
between the plane of the orbit and
the plane of the ecliptic ; of the Sun,
112; of the Earth, 1M; of the axis or
the planets, see Appendix, Table II.
Halley's Comet,
Harvest Moon,
301.
363.
Immersion
349.
a star is
in even-
Inferior Conjunction,
Inferior Planets, 256.
Instruments,
Irradiation,
370.
astronomical, 427-448.
223,
Heliocentric
the
Sun, and
Kivrpov, a centre), as seen from, or
(ijAio*,
Sun
Heliometer
(JjAtov, and
pirpov, a
measure), a telescope with a divided
desigued to measure
small angular distances with groat
accuracy
so called because first
used to measure the Sun.
object-glass,
Hemispheres
covered Uranus,
half,
and
<r4>*ipa,
140_;
principle of hiB
reflector, 434.
their ideas of
an
eclipse,
255.
HipparohuB,
20
of Jupiter, and
xivrpov, a centre), as seen from, or
referred to, the centre of Jupiter.
Julian
calendar, 403.
(wui
Hindoos,
Kepler's Laws,
trated
KirchhofTs
catalogued the stars,
2L
investigations or spec-
ed by
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
306
Latitude
(latitudo, breadth),
trial, liiS
how
terres-
379-381
determined, 471.
the quantity of matter a heavenly body contains of Sun, 109; how
determined, 522 ; of planets, 151 how
determined, 523, 526.
the pole, 339; Geocentric, Heliocentric, Joricentric, Saturuicentric, latitude a? reckoned from the centre of
the Earth, Sun, Jupiter,
Lens, what
it is,
416
is
Mass,
and Saturn.
action on
its
Maximiliana,
kinds of lenses,
Le Venier,
Light, what
414.
293.
Mean anomaly,
148.
mean
Anomaly
see
Limb,
orbit.
Longitude
trial,
191.
how determined
169;
468
at sea,
celestial, 355;
how
determined, 461
Saturuicentric,
longitude as reckoned from the centre of the Earth, the Sun, Jupiter,
and Saturn.
centric, Jovicentric,
Lunar Distances,
mine
used to deter-
Lunation
Luni-solar
399.
sion.
and density,
Meridian
ical
composition
struc-
Meteors
luminous, their
position in the system, 135
divisions of, 807; numbers seen in a
star-shower, 307 explanation of starshowers, 308-311 ; the November
ring, 308 ; radiant-point, 311
cause
of brilliancy, 313
shape of orbits,
312; weight of, 314 velocity of, 313 ;
August and April showers, 315; desporadic,
tonating meteors, 316.;
(jirriupov),
Magellanic
clouds, 4L.
Magnitudes of stars,
Major axis, see Axis.
Mars, 266 distance
40,
4L
318.
Metius, invented
Micrometer
an instrument with
movable wires attached to eyepieces, to measure small angular dis-
rpoy, measure),
fine
tances, 439.
xi
by
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
Microscopes
and
(mi*ps, small,
<tko-
Milky Way,
Moon, why
its
size, 217;
222
22a
size,
description
of
surface,
no water or atmosphere,
232; rotation, 234j day, 234j phases,
235, 236 ; eclipses, 241, 242 ; apparent
227-231
one
other the
Nubecula Major, 4L
Nubecula Minor, 47.
Nucleus (Lat. kernel),
of a comet,
of sun-spots, llfL
Nutation {nutatio, a nodding), an
oscillatory movement of the Earth's
axis, due to the Moou's attraction on
the equatorial protuberance, 532.
300, 301
Obliquity
Occultation
elements
Moons,
of. see
direct and
duced, 500.
Mountains,
Nadir
(notam, to
Neap
called, 1
488
correspond), the
feet, 327.
tides, 535.
Nebulae
a cloud), why so
are masses of gas, 13, 102,
{nebula,
;
102.
discovery
and density,
Newton,
of, 141;
light,
heat,
289.
how
Moon
or a planet.
line,
870.
Parabola,
to
one of its
Parabolic
sides, 513.
Parallactic
of, 458.
Appendix, Table V.
see Satellites.
307
Nodes
Parallax
(wapaAAaft?, alternation),
correction for, 454, 455 ; equaof the Moon,
470; of Mars, 471 ; of the Sun, old
and new value, 472 ; of the stars, 473,
455
474.
182
Parallels of latitude,
tion, 22&
16.1
of declina-
ed by
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
308
Penumbra
which
in an
is
Perihelion
change
of, 407.
Peri-Jove, Saturnium,
est
approach of a
Saturn,
etc.,
the near-
satellite to Jupiter,
etc.
Period
375.
Perturbations
(perturbare, to inter-
Phases
145,
Planet
motions
ecliptic, 145;
of, 147
dis-
Earth, 365-367
variations
in size
phases, 369; asand superior,
256 ; conjunction and opposition, 370
elongations, 372; direct and retrograde motion, and stationary points,
373. 374; synodic periods, 375; inclinations and nodes of orbits, 376;
apparent paths among the stars, 379 ;
and
brilliancy, 368
pects, 370
elements
of, see
Planetary
inferior
Appendix, Table IL
nebula?, 93.
HI
circles,
162,
Polaris
Poles
motion
of, 457.
(pracedere, to precede)
of the equinoxes, a slow retrograde
motion of the equinoctial points
upon the ecliptic, 856, 457 ; cauBe of,
explained, 528-530.
Precession
Proper
light, 413.
red, of the
Sun,
123.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
Ptolemy,
tem, 21
Right Ascension,
&L
Punotulations, on
Rings
of Saturn, 282-287
times invisible, 382.
Rocks,
122.
stratified,
194;
why some-
list of,
194
igneous, 197.
the motion of a body round
a central axis : of Sun, 110; of Earth,
177: of Moon, 234; of Earth, possibly
slackening, 511.
Rutherford, Mr., his lunar photographs, 495.
Pythagoras,
Rotation,
46.
Quadrant
Quadrature. Two
heavenly bodies
are said to bo in quadrature when
there is a difference of longitude of
90!
828.
stellations,
ble III.
Quarters
Saturn,
Radius
151;
point of
why sometimes
on the
Earth, 382 ; atmosphere, 2815 ; seasons, 286; solar eclipses due to the
rings, 282 ; how presented to the
Earth in different parts of its orbit,
123,
25L
Reflecting* telescope, 434
Earl of
invisible
883.
Rosse's, 435.
Reflection, 411.
Refracting" telescope,
Refraction
281;
satellites, 281;
spoke of a wheel)
vector, an imaginary line joining
the Sun and a planet or comet in any
(Lai. a
belts of,
Retrogradation,
arc
in
meteorites, 320.
428-433.
by
Seasons
Secular
ties, 525
Retrograde
mean motion,
541.
Selenography
and ypa^w,
the Moon.
of
of
(o-eAijnj,
the
Moon.
I write), a description of
measured,
440.
Shooting-stars,
see
Meteors.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
310
Sidereal
the stare
(sidus, a
;
relating to
star),
clock, 397
day,
31K5
time,
397.
71 77
Sun a
80
Signs
Sirius.
Snow ou
ent
Mare, 271.
Solar spectrum, 477.
Solar system, 137-158.
Solid, defined, 3fL
Solstices, or solstitial points (sol, the
Sun, aud stare, to stand still), the
pointH in the Sun's path at which the
extreme north and south declina-
motion
its
is
direction is
daily
movements
apparent
334
movements, 335-337; apparent
movements, 845, 346 visible
of,
yearly
pole;
those seen at mid841, 342;
night are opposite to the Sun, 346
how to identify the, 347; constellations visible throughout the year,
349-351; circumpolar, 338; sidereal
star,
Speotroscope
Stationary -points,
gee Colure.
and
(*j)ectrum,
oxoirlw,
points in a
planet's orbit at which it appears to
have no motion among the stare, 373,
374.
Stones, meteoric,
vision, 494.
317.
the solar, 477; gradual formation of, 478; dark Hues and
bright lines, 479, 480; spectrum analysis, general laws of, 482
importancc of, 485 ; spectra of the stars,
484; of nebulae, 486; of Moon and
planets, 489; solar, stellar, and nebular spectra, illustrated, see Frontis-
volume and
diameter, 108
101
mass, 109 rotation, 110; inclination
of axis, 112; son-spots, proper mo-
Spectrum,
114
piece.
Sphere
defined.
(<r<f>atpa),
celes-
37_;
tial, the sphere of stars which apparently encloses the Earth, 1^ 326
of observation, 330.
Spheroid (<r<t>a~ip* a sphere, and !8o?,
f
rota-
its
axes;
minor
on the
tion of an ellipse ou
it
by the
one of
axis,
is
a star, 9j
why
shines, lOj
it
relative brilliancy,
its
proaching
the
cules, 64j
its
4L 106; apconstellation
Her-
disk, 105;
tion
distance,
of,
description
113;
of,
115-118
facula\
ules. 120;
387.
Sun,
fUi-Tf)
variable,
force, lSJj
of,
135j
phenomena, 248-252
rising, setting,
daily
and apparent daily path, 358
motion, explained with the celestial
globe. 360; mean Sun, 390-393 irregularities of the Sun's apparent dally
motion, 391; distance, how determined, 472; parallax of. old and new
;
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
value, 472; elements of, tee
Appen-
gun-dial,
the, 885-387.
Superior Conjunction,
Superior Planets,
370.
plane, convex,
Surface, defined,
and concave, defined, 28.
Symbols
in conjunction
it is
an
to go),
ire,
time
of, 447.
Transit-circle, when used and general description of, 443; determination of positions with, 444-446
de-
or opposition.
Tails of comets,
SQL
800,
447.
9^
or
429;
magnifying power,
illuminating
power,
<tkoWi,
construction, 428
space - penetrating
430
433, 435
re-
flecting, 434;
equatorial,
Transit-instrument, 464.
Triangle, defined, 30.
Tropics (Tpe'jrw, I turn) of Cancer
and Capricorn, the circles of declination which mark the most northerly and southerly points in the ecliptic, in which the Sun occupies the
signs named, 170.
Tycho Brahe,
tions,
54.
eclipse, 254.
Tides (Saxon
Way,
minor plan-
CLat.
Universe,
our, one of
many,
Moon
shape
8.;
of, 49-51.
4<L.
wave, 540;
Time,
how
Uranus,
to
convert difference of time to difference of longitude. 131 how measured, 383; the mean Sun, motion of,
893 equation of time. 894 sidereal,
897; week, 398; month. 399; year.
401; bissextile, 403 Julian and Gre;
to the
Umbra
Theophrastus,
7JL
Terminator,
Thales, taught
round, 2J
sometimes given
ets,
Temporary
Ultra
gorian calendar, 403, 404; how determined, 464; table of, tee Appendix, Table VT.
lunar inequalities.
Venus, 2ii2; distance from the Sun
and period of revolution, 148 diameter, 150; volume, mass, and density, 153; polar compression, 2li4; its
;
ed by
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
312
396.
of
sun-spots, 121.
Winds,
206-210.
472.
Verniers. 438.
Vertioal {vertex, the
top).
A vertical
a line perpendicular to
the outface of the Earth at any place,
and is directed therefore to the zenith ; a vertical circle is one that parses through the zenith and nadir of
the celestial sphere ; the prime vertical (333) is the vertical circle passing through the east and west points
of the horizon.
Via Lactea (Lat.\ see Milky Way.
Volcanoes, of the Moon, 227.
Volume (wlumen, bulk), the cubical
contents of a celestial body ; of the
Sun, 109; of the planets, 152.
Vulcan, a suspected planet, 143.
line (331) is
Year,
the, 401
length of the sidereal
change in the
length of solar, 406; length of the
planets years, see Appendix, Table
;
II.
Zenith,
9"
ecliptic, in
Zodiacal,
how
55.
Zones,
Walled Plains, on
the
Moon. 23L
170
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