Applied Thermal Engineering 37 (2012) 353e359

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Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Study on boiling heat transfer of watereTiO2 and watereMWCNT nanouids

based laminar jet impingement on heated steel surface
Sourav Mitra a, Sandip K. Saha b, *, Subhrakanti Chakraborty a, Sumitesh Das a
a

Research and Development Division, TATA Steel, Jamshedpur 831001, India

Division of Applied Mechanics and Energy Conversion, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 300A bus 2421,
B-3001 Heverlee, Belgium
b

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 8 May 2011
Accepted 23 November 2011
Available online 2 December 2011

The present study aims at investigating the boiling heat transfer aspect of watereTiO2 and water- multiwalled carbon nanotubes (watereMWCNT) nanouids based laminar jet cooling of heated horizontal
steel surface. Experimental results show that cooling rate is enhanced by using nanouids when
compared to water. A one-dimensional nite volume inverse heat transfer model is developed to predict
the total heat ux removal rate from the hot steel surface. It is also observed in the present case that the
shift from lm boiling to transition boiling regime occurs earlier for nanouid than that of water jet
cooled surface. An order of magnitude analysis shows that the shift may be attributed to the vapor lm
instability in presence of nanoparticle deposition. However, only marginal variation of critical heat ux
(CHF) is observed in case of nanouid jet when compared to water jet.
2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Nanouid
Laminar jet impingement
Boiling
Critical heat ux

1. Introduction
Run out table (ROT) cooling is an integral part of rolling operations in any steel industry where conventionally laminar jet of subcooled water is impinged on the horizontally moving hot steel strip,
which is being rolled continuously. The cooling rate of steel is an
important parameter for obtaining the desired mechanical and
metallurgical properties. The strip enters at an initial temperature
of about 1100 K and exits at around 800 K. As the temperature of
the steel strip is higher than 373 K, the heat transfer predominantly
occurs through boiling of water. Thus, research in this eld involves
an extensive study of laminar water jet impinging on horizontal hot
plate (either stationary or in motion), to understand the various
phases of boiling viz. lm, transition and nucleate and the factors
affecting CHF.
There have been efforts to develop a correlation for CHF for jet
impingement of saturated liquids viz. water, ethanol, R-11 and
R-113 on heated surface based on nozzle diameter, impinging uid
velocity and uid temperature [1]. Liu and Wang [2] studied lm
boiling heat transfer with water jet impinging upon a horizontal
at plate. They concluded that transition boiling occurs for
sub-cooled jets and the incipience of lm boiling is strongly inuenced by degree of the sub-cooling. Krishna Kumar et al. [3]
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 32 16322506; fax: 32 16322985.
E-mail address: sandipkumar.saha@mech.kuleuven.be (S.K. Saha).
1359-4311/$ e see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2011.11.048

developed a one-dimensional nite difference heat transfer

model for ROT cooling process by assuming heat transfer coefcients for different cooling zones. Sikdar and Mukhopadhyay [4]
predicted the exit strip temperature based on actual plant data
using a one-dimensional nite difference method based heat
transfer model.
Nanouids are particles with size less than 100 nm dispersed in
a base uid such as water. They are known to have higher thermal
conductivity when compared to that of the base uid and hence
have been a topic of great interest in research ([5,6]). A number of
studies have been performed to understand the effect of nanouids
in phase change heat transfer; however the studies have been
predominantly in pool boiling regime where several researchers
have reported anomalous ndings ([7e10]). The application of
nanouid in laminar jet boiling and the study of heat transfer
aspects during jet impingement is an emerging area of research.
Recently, Liu and Qiu [11] studied the boiling heat transfer for
watereCuO nanouid impinged on plate surface. They have reported a signicant decrease in boiling heat transfer of nanouid as
compared to water and formation of a thin sorption layer of
nanoparticle on the surface. Chakraborty et al. [12] reported that
using laminar jet of watereTiO2 nanouid for cooling hot steel plate
results in signicant enhancement in cooling rate as compared to
water which leads to changing the microstructure of the steel.
However, heat transfer analysis and the reason for observing such
a phenomenon are not discussed in details.

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S. Mitra et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 37 (2012) 353e359

Nomenclature

a
A
g
H
h
k
L
N
Q
q00
T
DT

Thermal diffusivity (m2/s)

Area (m2)
Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
Height (m)
Heat transfer coefcient (W/m2 K)
Thermal conductivity (W/m K)
Length (m)
Number of nozzles
Flow rate (m3/h)
Heat ux (W/m2)
Temperature ( C or K)
Wall superheat ( C or K), Ts  Tsat

The present study aims at understanding the effect of watereTiO2 and watereMWCNT nanouid based laminar jet impinging
on a hot steel surface. This is accomplished by developing a onedimensional nite volume inverse heat transfer model to predict
the total heat ux removal rate from the experimentally obtained
cooling curve. A systematic study of total heat ux removal rate for
the nanouids is performed and their CHFs, MFBTs are compared
with that of water.
2. Background
Different zones during boiling process are typically reported for
pool boiling experiments. The same theory in principle is extended
in the present study to understand the sequence of events occurring during the laminar jet cooling process.
Initially, when water jet impinges on the hot plate, it forms
a thin vapor lm during which the heat transfer is mainly due to
radiation. This region is known as lm boiling regime. The radiation heat ux is given by,

q}r fT 4

(1)

The heat ux removal rate in this zone is of the order of few

hundred kW/m2 for surface temperature on the order of 1000 K.
This vapor lm is stable till the vapor pressure is enough to hold
the pressure of the water jet above. The decrease in wall superheat below a certain temperature known as Minimum Film
Boiling Temperature (MFBT) leads to vapor lm breakage by
sub-cooled water jet. The jet then comes in contact with the hot
plate resulting in sharp increase of heat ux removal rate.
This region is known as transition regime and this zone is
hydro-dynamically very unstable. Since the area of contact of
sub-cooled water with the hot plate increases with decreasing
wall superheat, heat ux removal rate increases and reaches
a maximum called the CHF. Beyond this occurs the third regime,
where the sub-cooled water is completely in contact with the hot
plate. The heat removal in this regime occurs through the
continuous nucleation of small bubbles and the heat ux removal
rate gradually decreases with decrease in wall superheat. This
region is known as the nucleate boiling regime. Fig. 1 shows
a pictorial representation of the various regimes formed during
laminar jet cooling.
The typical experimental values for CHF and heat ux removal
rate (q00 ) for laminar ow will be much higher than in the pool
boiling regime [13], as the former is governed by forced ow of
sub-cooled uid over the heated surface, thus enhancing the heat
transfer rate, while the latter is a natural process where the heated
surface is placed within a pool of water.

t
w
x, y, z

Time (s)
Width (m)
Coordinate axes

Subscript
f
in
nf
o
r
s
sat
t
T

Cooling uid
Inlet
Nanouid
Overall
Radiation
Surface
Saturation
Overhead tank
Phase transformation

3. Experimental setup
The experimental setup is schematically shown in Fig. 2. It
consists of an overhead tank, intermediate tank, refractory brick
and reservoir. The overhead tank has a series of nozzle bank at the
bottom for discharging coolant (water or nanouid) in the form of
laminar jet on the hot steel plate kept horizontally on a refractory
brick. There are 91 (13 columns  7 rows) nozzles with an inner
diameter of 5 mm and length 2 mm. The nozzle center to center
distance is chosen in such a way that there is overlap of two
adjacent stagnation zones [14] and is taken as 15 mm. This
minimizes any localized drying of coolant and ensures maximum
uniformity in heat transfer across the plate. The ow rate discharging from the nozzle is 1 m/s. The refractory brick is at 1 m
below the overhead tank. This conguration forms a scaled down
representation of nozzle bank at Hot Strip Mill (HSM) in TATA Steel
used for cooling of hot rolls.
At the beginning of experiments, an intermediate tank is placed
below the overhead tank to obtain a steady ow of cooling uid.
The required time to reach a steady ow can be calculated from
equation (2). The intermediate tank is removed and the uid is
allowed to cool the hot steel plate. A centrifugal pump is used to
supply the uid from the reservoir at the bottom of the setup to the
overhead tank.

At

p
dHt
Qin  NAN 2gHt
dt

(2)

where At is the bottom surface area of overhead tank, Ht is the

height of liquid in overhead tank, N is the number of nozzles, AN is
the area of each nozzle and Qin is the volume of input liquid.

Fig. 1. (a) Film boiling, (b) transition boiling and (c) nucleate boiling.

S. Mitra et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 37 (2012) 353e359

355

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup.

The steel plate of dimensions 295  125  4 (thickness) mm is

heated to 1200 K in an induction furnace. The roughness of steel
plate is 0.88 mm. The hot steel plate is shifted on a refractory brick
for cooling. The temperature is measured by K-type thermocouples
which are inserted at 4 locations at a depth of 2 mm inside the steel
plate for measurement of temperature. The range of temperature
measured by K-type is 0e1473 K. Fig. 3 shows the thermocouple
locations on the steel plate. A data logger records the temperatures
from 4 thermocouples at 100 ms interval. The repeatability of
experiments is found to be within 2  C.
Two different types of nanoparticles are used in the experiments
viz. TiO2 random shaped nanoparticles (20e70 nm) and Multiwalled Carbon Nanotube (MWCNT). The dimensions of MWCNT
are 20e70 nm in diameter and 100e500 nm in length. The nanouid used is prepared by dispersing nanoparticles in water followed by 30 min of ultra-sonication. The concentrations of TiO2 and
CNT used are 0.1% and 0.01% by weight, respectively.

of steel plate is assumed to be uniform because of the closely

spaced nozzle bank design. It is also assumed that the heat loss
from the sidewalls is negligible as the area exposed to the ow is
small compared to the top surface. The bottom surface of the steel
plate is kept on a refractory brick of thermal conductivity w1W/
m K and hence adiabatic boundary condition is adopted. The ratio
of width to thickness and length to thickness are 25:1 and 50:1
respectively, hence it is assumed that the temperature gradient
along x and y directions will be negligible as compared to that in the
z direction. Thus, in the present study, one-dimensional (along zaxis) inverse heat conduction method is adopted to predict the total
heat ux, (q00o ) occurring from the top surface of steel plate at each
time step. The domain chosen for the numerical analysis is shown
in Fig. 5. The one-dimensional transient heat conduction equation
for cooling of the steel plate is given by,

4. Numerical method

where T denotes the temperature, t is time, a is thermal diffusivity

of steel and qT is heat source term to take into account the enthalpy
of transformation from austenite to ferrite. The enthalpy value is
taken from literature [14]. Equation (3) is solved numerically by
employing a nite volume method. Implicit scheme is used in the
present study. The present numerical model is validated using the
results for qT 0 presented in Beck et al. [15]. In their work, a heat

Fig. 4 shows the steel plate with the coordinate systems. In the
analysis, the spatial variation of heat transfer rate on the top surface

Fig. 3. Thermocouple locations on steel plate at 2 mm depth.

v2 T
vT

qT
vt
vz2

(3)

Fig. 4. Steel sheet used in experiments.

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S. Mitra et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 37 (2012) 353e359

Table 1
Thermal properties of materials.

Fig. 5. Domain chosen for numerical analysis.

Properties

Values used

Thermal diffusivity of steel

Thermal conductivity of TiO2 nanoparticles
Thermal conductivity of MWCNT
in transverse direction [16]

1.3  105 m2/s

11.7 W/m K
5.5 W/m K

ux pulse is applied to a carbon composite using a mica heater and

the measured temperature at their junction was used to calculate
the heat ux applied. The heat ux obtained from the inverse heat
conduction method was compared to the actual pulse. Fig. 6 shows
the comparison of the estimated heat ux by using FEM method
presented in Beck et al. [15] and the FVM used in present study. It
can be observed from Fig. 6 that the two methods are in good
agreement and closely predict the heat ux pulse applied.
The thickness (H 4 mm) of the plate is divided into 100 grids
(grid size 0.04 mm) after grid independence study. The boundary
conditions are given by:

k


vTs 
0 Adiabatic condition
vz z0

(4)

k


vTs 
q}o
vz zH

(5)

The total heat ux is determined by,



q}o ho Ts  Tf

Fig. 7. Cooling curve of steel plate by water, 0.1 wt. % watereTiO2 and 0.01 wt. %
watereMWCNT nanouids.

(6)
5. Results and discussion

where Ts is plate surface temperature and Tf cooling uid

temperature.
The average of temperature readings from 4 thermocouples at
each time step is used to represent the experimentally determined
midpoint temperature (at z H/2). At each time step, overall heat
transfer coefcient (ho) from top surface is iteratively determined
by numerically solving equation (3) until the error in predicting the
midpoint temperature is within 0.1  C of experimental result. The
overall heat transfer coefcient is then used to determine the total
heat ux removed (q00o ) from the hot steel plate at each time step
using equation (6).
The thermal properties of materials used in the numerical
analyses are listed in Table 1.

Fig. 7 shows the cooling curve of the hot steel plate cooled by
water, 0.1 wt. % watereTiO2 and 0.01 wt. % watereMWCNT nanouids. The average of temperature readings from 4 thermocouples
are used for this purpose. It can be observed from the gure that the
time to cool the heated surface has decreased from 11 s to 7 s by
using watereTiO2 and watereMWCNT nanouids. Similar results
are reported by Chakraborty et al. [12], where experiments are
performed with watereTiO2 nanouid. It can be noted from the
gure that similar cooling rate is achieved by watereMWCNT
nanouid using 1/10th concentration of watereTiO2 nanouid.

Fig. 6. Comparison of estimated heat ux derived by Beck et al. [15] and the present
FVM with the experimental result.

Fig. 8. Variation of total heat ux removal rate (q00o ) with wall superheat.

5.1. Cooling curve of hot steel plate

S. Mitra et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 37 (2012) 353e359

357

beyond MFBT is almost an order lower than the transition boiling

(Fig. 9) heat ux and hence, it is the most undesirable zone of
operation.
5.3. Occurrence of critical heat ux (CHF)

Fig. 9. MFBT for water and nanouid cooled surface.

5.2. Laminar jet impinged boiling curve

Fig. 8 shows variation of total heat ux removal rate (q00o ) with
wall superheat, DTsat. Different boiling regimes can be identied
from the gure. Initially, the heat ux increases with increasing
wall superheat and reaches a maximum value known as critical
heat ux (CHF). After the occurrence of CHF, heat ux continuously
decreases with increasing wall superheat denoting the transition
boiling region. At certain wall superheat the heat ux reaches
a minimum, and the corresponding temperature is known as the
minimum lm boiling temperature (MFBT). The total heat ux just

The jet impingement experiments carried out in the present

case is unsteady in nature and the use of quasi-steady boiling curve
(i.e. q00o vs, DTsat) obtained from the cooling rate curve may not
explain the results available in literature for steady state boiling.
The CHF for water in steady state pool boiling is generally observed
for wall superheat of w30 K [16], whereas in the present case, it
occurs at much higher wall superheat of about 120 K. Peyayopanakaul and Westwater [17] evaluated unsteady boiling on the
circular face of cylindrical copper rods with constant diameter
(5.08 cm) for various lengths (0.05 cme51 cm). They found that for
the length of the rod 51e2.5 cm, the occurrence of CHFs is at about
7 K wall superheat irrespective of their length. The reason for such
an observation is slow cooling rates with cooling time of
1000e10,000 s and hence can be approximated as steady boiling.
Further, as the length is decreased from 2.5 to 0.05 cm, the cooling
time decreases to only 50 s, resulting in occurrence of CHF at
slightly higher wall superheats of about 16 K. However, the reason
for observing this shift is not discussed. Gradeck et al. [18] investigated the boiling curve for water jet cooled hot rotating cylinder
and reported the occurrence of CHF at wall superheat of w100 K. In
jet boiling, a highly sub-cooled liquid is forced on a heated surface;
hence a possible reason for the shift in CHF may be the presence of
hydrodynamic boundary layer in this process. The hydrodynamic
boundary layer may interfere with the vapor bubbles escaping from
the surface at lower wall superheats, thereby shifting the occurrence of CHF to higher superheat values when compared to the

Fig. 10. Optical micrographs of the steel plates cooled by (a) water (b) 0.1 wt. % watereTiO2 and (c) 0.01 wt. % watereMWCNT nanouids.

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S. Mitra et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 37 (2012) 353e359

steady state pool boiling process where the effect of hydrodynamic

boundary layer is marginal.
5.4. Effect of nanoparticles on CHF
It can be observed from Fig. 8 that the CHF for all the uids are
within 5% margin. Further, it is observed that a thin layer of
nanoparticle is deposited on the plate surface after quenching as
shown in Fig. 10. The nanoparticle deposit may act as an insulating
layer affecting the CHF for nanouids. However, the effect on the
CHF values is marginal and within the error associated with the
numerical method adopted to predict heat ux. The CHF occurs for
watereTiO2 nanouid at w100 K, which is lower than that of
water. However, for watereMWCNT nanouid, it is slightly higher
at w130 K. Thus, the effect of nanoparticles on the occurrence of
CHF is inconclusive. However, it may be noted that the 10e20 K
shift in the occurrence of CHF for nanouids in comparison to
water, should not affect the cooling rate signicantly as the variation in total heat ux values are within 15% for wall superheat
of 50e150 K as shown in Fig. 11. Hence, it may be safe to assume
that in the present work, CHF and its occurrence play a very
marginal role in the enhancement of cooling effect observed with
nanouid jets.
5.5. Occurrence of minimum lm boiling temperature (MFBT)
Fig. 9 shows the occurrence of MFBT for all of the uids. It can be
observed from gure that the MFBT for water is much higher
(w680 K) than generally observed for steady state boiling. Gradeck
et al. [18] also observed MFBT occurring w500 K for jet cooling with
water which is well in excess of critical temperature of water. Hall
et al. [19] observed that the MFBT increases with jet sub-cooling
and attributed this observation to the presence of hydrodynamic
phenomenon which may not be present for pool boiling or saturated jets. The MFBT may correspond to a maximum thickness in
vapor blanket which can be sustained by the heated surface. The
vapor lm thickness reduces drastically as the surface temperature
cools below MFBT. This phenomenon leads to direct or partial
contact of the heated surface with the sub-cooled jet resulting in
higher heat ux values.
5.6. Effect of nanoparticles on MFBT
The literature available on nanouid jet boiling and its effect on
MFBT is very limited. Majority of the available literature explains

Fig. 12. Total heat ux removal rate (q00o ) with time.

the effect of surface roughness and contact angle on the CHF for
nanouid jet cooled surfaces. However, recently Kim [20] evaluated the repeated quenching of steel sphere in various nanouid
baths and reported an increase in MFBT with each run. They
observed that the vapor lm breakage for nanouids quenched
spherical ball is faster than water quenching because of the presence of nanoparticle deposition. The nanoparticles deposited on
the hot sphere surface seem to enhance the rewetting phenomenon, thus causing the MFBT to shift towards right. In the present
work, the MFBT value for water is 680 K whereas for watereTiO2
and watereMWCNT are 710 K and 705 K respectively as shown in
Fig. 9. Further, it can be observed from gure that the heat ux
changes by an order of magnitude across MFBT and hence, even
a 30 K shift of MFBT may have signicant effect on cooling rates.
Fig. 12 shows the heat ux variation with time for water, 0.1 wt. %
watereTiO2 and 0.01 wt. % watereMWCNT nanouids. It can be
observed from the gure that the shift in MFBT for nanouids
causes the inexion point in heat ux to occur at w3 s earlier than
that of water. This shift may occur due to a similar lm breakage
phenomenon by nanoparticles. An estimation of the vapor lm
thickness in water jet boiling is made to ascertain this phenomenon. The vapor lm thickness (dv) for sub-cooled water jets can be
found by solving the non-linear relation (equation (7)) which is
obtained by rearranging equations of the energy balance model
presented by Liu and Wang [2]:

1=3

2ll DTsub Rel Prl

DTsat lv

Fig. 11. Total heat ux removal rate (q00o ) with wall superheat (DTsat) of 50e200 K.

 2   4  
dv
ml
2 dv
Rel hfg rv Vs d

mv
d
3 d
(7)

where d is the jet diameter; lv, ll are the thermal conductivities of

vapor and liquid phase respectively; Rel and Prl are the Reynolds
and Prandtl number respectively of the impinging sub-cooled jet;
ml, mv are the dynamic viscosities of water and vapor phase, hfg is the
latent heat of vaporization of water and Vs is the jet speed. The
vapor lm thickness for water is w10 mm which is signicantly
thinner than the vapor lm thickness (w100 mm) reported by Kim
et al. [20] for their quench bath experiments. Further, assuming
ow rates and concentration of nanouid to be constant and also
assuming that nanoparticle deposition is uniform on the surface
without any loss or wash away, it is found that within 3 s, the
deposition thickness is of the order of vapor lm thickness calculated above. Hence, the nanoparticle deposition may affect the
vapor lm by causing instability or may even result in premature
break up.

S. Mitra et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 37 (2012) 353e359

6. Conclusion
In this paper, the effect of TiO2 and MWCNT nanoparticles on the
boiling heat transfer is investigated experimentally. Laminar jet of
water and nanouids are used to cool the heated steel surface kept
horizontally. A one-dimensional nite volume based inverse heat
transfer model is developed to determine the total heat ux
removal rate.
Enhanced cooling rate, as compared to water, is obtained by
using 0.1 wt. % watereTiO2 and 0.01 wt. % watereMWCNT nanouids based laminar jet cooling. Further, it is observed that CHF
occurs at a much higher wall superheat when compared to pool
boiling results, irrespective of the cooling medium. The difference
in CHF observed for nanouids as compared to water is marginal
and doesnt play a signicant role in cooling rate change observed.
MFBT for nanouids occurred at w30 K higher than that of water, as
a result of which the shift from lm boiling to transition boiling is
3 s earlier in case of nanouids. The vapor lm thickness and
nanoparticle deposition is found to be of the same order; hence the
shift in boiling curve may be attributed to the vapor lm instability
due to the presence of nanoparticle deposition.

[4]

[5]
[6]

[7]

[8]
[9]

[10]
[11]
[12]

[13]
[14]

Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to Prof. S. Ramaprabhu, Department of
Physics, Indian Institute of Technology, Madras and Dr. Prathab
Baskar, Researcher, Tata Steel Ltd. for providing MWCNT as a part of
collaborative research project between Indian Institute of Technology, Madras and Tata Steel Ltd.
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