ELECTRICAL TRACTION

ABSTRACT
In the present state of electrical science and practice, electric traction must be
considered as a branch of the electrical transmission of energy. We require, first of all, a
natural source of energy, such as coal or other fuel, or water at a high elevation or in motion.
In the next place, we require a prime mover to transform energy into work, such as a steam or
gas engine, a turbine, or water- or tide-wheel. Then this work has to be transformed into
electric current, by means of a dynamo or magneto-electric machine, the so-called primary
machine. The electric current has then to be transmitted from the place where it is produced
to the place where it has to be used, by means of a conductor or a storage battery. The current
has next to be retransformed into work, by means of a motor carried by or attached to the
vehicle which has to be moved. This work has then to be mechanically transmitted from the
motor to the axle of the wheel of the car which travels along the line.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my deep sense of gratitude to my guide Prof Deshmukh S.M.for his

valuable guidance rendered in seminar. I am thankful for his wholehearted assistance, advice
and expert guidance towards making my seminar a success.
I would also like to extend my gratitude to HOD of elect. Dept.Prof.Shivchandran
H.R.for his valuable guidance during the completion of the seminar

My special thanks to honorable Director Dr. Mahatme A.B. for their keen interest,
encourage and excellent support.
I am also like to express my thanks to all of other staff members of college & friends who
helped me directly & indirectly during the completion of this Report.

Mr.Patil Sagar Sambhaji.

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CONTENT

ABSTRACT

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

iv

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Chapter 1 Introduction

vi
01

Chapter 2 Railway Electrification System

02

Chapter 3Steam engine locomotive

03

Chapter 4 Diesel-Electric Locomotive

Chapter 5 Classification

04
06

5.1 Standardized voltages

06

5.2 Direct current

06

Chapter 6 Overhead systems

07

Chapter 7 Electric Locomotive

08

Chapter 8 Pantograph (Rail)

09

Chapter 9Railway signal

11

Chapter 10 Application & positioning of signals

15

Chapter 11 Aspects and indication

17

Chapter 12 Advantages

20

Chapter 13Disadvantage

21

Chapter 14Conclusion

22

References

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LIST OF FIGURE
Fig. No

Figure Caption

Page no

1.

Electrical traction

01

2.

.Electric locomotives under the wires in Sweden

02

3.

Steam engine locomotive

03

4.

Diesel-Electric Locomotive

04

5.
6.
7.

Ty Wear Metro is the only Kingdom system1, 500 V DC.

Block Diagram of Modern AC Electric Locomotive
Modern pantograph

07
08
09

8.

Semaphor signal

11

9.

Colour light signal.

13

10.

The additional lights on signal

15

11.

16

12.

These signals show that the train should advance

Semaphore stop signal with subsidiary arm below.

13.

Finnish distant signal.

18

17

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
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1) ABA

Alarm Browser Application

2) AC

Alternating Current

3) ACR

Area of Control Region

4) ATO

Automatic Train Operation

5) ATS

Automatic Train Supervision

6) DC

Direct Current

7) I/O

Input / Output

8) IR

Indian Railways

9) IRS

Indian Railway Standards

10) PA

Passenger Alarm

11) SAP

System Assurance Plan

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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

Fig.1.Electrical traction

The steam locomotive was not detached for passage through the tunnel. The overhead
conductor was section bar at the highest point in the roof, so a flexible, flat pantograph was
used tracks. A stationary dynamo nearby provided the electricity. The world's first electric
tram line opened in Lichterfelde near Berlin, Germany, in 1881. It was built by Werner on
Siemens. In Britain, Volk's electric railway was opened in 1883 in Brighton. In the US,
electric trolleys were pioneered in 1888 on the Richmond Union Passenger Railway, using
equipment designed by Frank J. Sprague.

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Chapter 2
RAILWAY ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM

Fig.2.Electric locomotives under the wires in Sweden

A railway electrification system supplies electrical energy to railway locomotives and

multiple units so that they can operate without having an on-board prime mover. There are
several different electrification systems in use throughout the world. Railway electrification
has many advantages but requires significant capital expenditure for installation.
In India, both AC and DC type of electrified train systems operate today. A 1,500 V
DC based train system is only operating in the Mumbai area. It is being converted to the
25kV AC system. The rest of the India, where routes are electrified fully, operates under
the25 kV AC overhead wire. As of 2006, Indian railways haul 80% of freight and 85% of
passenger traffic with electric locomotives.

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Chapter 3
STEAM ENGINE DRIVE.

.Fig.3 Steam engine locomotive.

Steam is steam under pressure, obtained by heating water in a boiler. The steam is
used to operate stationary or moving equipment.
A live steam machine or device is one powered by steam, but the term is usually
reserved for those that are replicas, scale models, toys, or otherwise used for heritage,
museum, entertainment, or recreational purposes, to distinguish them from similar devices
powered by electricity or some other more convenient method but designed to look as if they
are steam-powered. Revenue-earning steam-powered machines such as mainline and narrow
gaugesteam locomotives, steamships, and power-generating steam turbines are not normally
referred to as "live steam".
Steamrollers and traction engines are popular, in 1:4 or 1:3 scale, as are model
stationary steam engines, ranging from pocket-size to 1:2 scale.

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Chapter 4

THE DIESEL LOCOMOTIVE.

The modern diesel locomotive is a self-contained version of the electric locomotive.
Like the electric locomotive, it has electric drive, in the form of traction motors driving the
axles and controlled with electronic controls. It also has many of the same auxiliary systems
for cooling, lighting, heating, braking and hotel power (if required) for the train. It can
operate over the same routes (usually) and can be operated by the same drivers. It differs
principally in that it carries its own generating station around with it, instead of being
connected to a remote generating station through overhead wires or a third rail. The
generating station consists of a large diesel engine coupled to an alternator producing the
necessary electricity. A fuel tank is also essential. It is interesting to note that the modern
diesel locomotive produces about 35% of the power of a electric locomotive of similar
weight.

Fig.4Diesel-Electric Locomotive

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Parts of a Diesel-Electric Locomotive
Diesel Engine
Auxiliary Alternator
Main Alternator
Motor Blower
Air Intakes

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Rectifiers/Inverters
Electronic Controls
Control Stand
Cab
Traction Motor
Pinion/Gear
Fuel Tank
Air Reservoirs
Air Compressor
Drive Shaft
Batteries
Gear Box
Radiator and Radiator Fan
Turbo Charging
Sand Box
Truck Frame
Mechanical Transmission
Gearbox
Fluid Coupling

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Chapter 5
CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM.
Electrification systems are classified by six main parameters:
1. Voltage
2. Current
3. Direct current (DC)
4. Alternating current (AC)
5. Frequency
6. Contact System

5.1 Standardised voltages

Six of the most commonly used voltages have been selected for European and
international standardisation. These are independent of the contact system used, so that, for
example, 750V DC may be used with either third rail or overhead lines (the latter normally
by trams).
There are many other voltage systems used for railway electrification systems around
the world, and the list of current systems for electric rail traction covers both standard voltage
and non-standard voltage systems.
The permissible range of voltages allowed for the standardised voltages is as stated in
standards BS EN 50163 and IEC 60850. These take into account the number of trains
drawing current and their distance from the substation.

5.2 Direct current

Early electric systems used low-voltage DC. Electric motors were fed directly from
the traction supply and were controlled using a combination of resistors and relays that
connected the motors in parallel or series.
The most common DC voltages are 600 V and 750 V for trams and metros and 1,500 V,
650/750 V third rail for the former Southern Region of the UK and 3 overhead. The lower
voltages are often used with third or fourth rail systems, whereas voltages above 1 kV are
normally limited to overhead wiring for safety reasons. Suburban trains (SBahn) lines in
Hamburg, Germany, operate using a third rail with 1,200 V, the French SNCF Culoz-Modane
line in the Alps used 1,500 V and a third rail until 1976, when a catenary was installed and the
third rail was removed.
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Chapter 6
OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

Fig5.The Tyne and Wear Metro is the only United Kingdom system that uses 1,500 V DC.

1,500 V DC is used in the Netherlands, Japan, Hong Kong (parts), Ireland,

Australia(parts), India (around the Mumbai area alone, to be converted to 25 kV AC like the
rest of the country), France, New Zealand (Wellington) and the United States (Chicago area
on the Metro Electric district and the South Shore Line interurban line). In Slovakia, there are
two narrow-gauge lines in the High Tatars (one a cog railway). In Portugal, it is used in the
Cassias Line and, in Denmark, on the suburban S-train system.

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Chapter 7
ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE

Fig.6.Block Diagram of Modern AC Electric Locomotive

An electric locomotive is a locomotive powered by electricity from overhead lines,

athirdrail or an on-board energy storage device (such as a chemical battery or fuel
cell).Electrically propelled locomotives with on-board fuelled prime movers, such as diesel
engines or gas turbines, are classed as diesel-electric or gas turbine electric locomotives
because the electric generator/motor combination only serves as a power transmission
system. Electricity is used to eliminate smoke and take advantage of the high efficiency of
electric motors; however, the cost of railway electrification means that usually only heavilyused lines can be electrified.

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Chapter 8
PANTOGRAPH (RAIL).

Fig.7.The diamond-shaped pantograph of the Swiss cogwheel loco in Shying Platte, built In1911.

A pantograph is a device that collects electric current from overhead lines for electric
Trains or trams. The term stems from the resemblance to pantograph devices for copying
writing and drawings. Early (1895) flat pantograph on a Baltimore & Ohio Railroad electric
locomotive.
The contact ran inside the section bar, so both lateral and vertical flexibility was
necessary flat side-pantograph was invented in 1895 at the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad and in
Germany in 1900 by Siemens &Halske. The familiar diamond-shaped roller pantograph was
invented by John Q. Brown of the Key System shops for their commuter trains which ran
between San Francisco and the East Bay section of the San Francisco Bay Area in California.
They appear in photographs of the first day of service 26 October 1903. Forman decades
thereafter, the same diamond shape was used by electric rail systems around the world and
remains in use by some today.
The pantograph was an improvement on the simple trolley pole which prevailed up to
that time primarily because it allowed an electric rail vehicle to travel at higher speeds.
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MODERN

Fig.8.Modern pantograph

The (asymmetrical) 'Z'-shaped pantograph of the electrical pickup on the Berlin

StraBenbahn. This pantograph uses a single-arm design. The most common type of
pantograph today is the so called half-pantograph (sometimes Z'-shaped), which has evolved
to provide a more compact and responsive single-arm design at high speeds as trains get
faster. The half-pantograph can be seen in use on everything from very fast trains (such as the
TGV) to low-speed urban tram systems.
Thedesign operates with equal efficiency in either direction of motion, as
demonstrated by the Swiss and Austrian railways whose newest high performance
locomotives, the Re 460and Taurus respectively, operate with them set in opposite directions.

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Chapter 9

RAILWAY SIGNAL
A signal is a mechanical or electrical device erected beside a railway line to pass information
relating to the state of the line ahead to train/engine drivers (engineers in the US). The driver
interprets the signal's indication and acts accordingly. Typically, a signal might inform the driver of
the speed at which the train may safely proceed or it may instruct the driver to stop.

Semaphor signal

Fig 8.Semaphor signal

The oldest forms of signal displayed their different indications by a part of the signal
being physically moved. The earliest types comprised a board that was either turned face-on
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and fully visible to the driver, or rotated away so as to be practically invisible. These signals
had two or at most three positions.
Semaphore signals were used by Napoleon's army (when coupled with telescopes);
later, they were adopted by the railways. They were patented in the early 1840s by Joseph
James Stevens and soon became the most widely used form of mechanical signal, although
they are now rapidly decreasing in number and mere handfuls remain in U.S. railroad service.
The semaphore arm consists of two parts: An arm orb lade which pivots at different angles,
and a spectacle holding coloured lenses which move in front of a lamp in order to provide
indications at night. Usually these were combined into a single frame, though in some types
(e.g. "somersault" signals in which the arm pivoted in the Centre), the arm was separate from
the spectacle. The arm projects horizontally in its most restrictive aspect; other angles
indicate less restrictive aspects.
The color and shape of the arm is commonly varied to show the type of signal and
therefore type of indication displayed. A common pattern was to use red, square-ended arms
for "stop" signals and yellow "fishtail" arms for "distant" signals. A third type with a pointed
end extending outward (in the opposite direction from the fishtail shape) may indicate
"proceed at restricted speed after stopping" (and indeed, stopping itself is often waived for
heavy freight ("tonnage") trains already moving at slow speed).

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COLOUR LIGHT SIGNAL

Fig9.Colour light signal.

The introduction of electric light bulbs made it possible to produce color light signals
which were bright enough to be seen during daylight, starting in 1904. These at first were
"short range" signals, used in low speed applications. Improvements in signal glassware by
Dr. Churchill of Cornell University in conjunction with Corning Glass Works (Corning, New
York) increased the daylight viewing range to that of "medium range" signals. These were
quickly adopted by many U.S. rapid transit and trolley (street, light) railway systems.
Ultimately, by 1913, Dr. Churchill developed the "doublet lens" combination wherein an
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outer clear Fresnel lens was sealed with inwards facing ribs to an inner glass of the desired
color with ribs facing the outer lens. Both inner and outer exposed surfaces were therefore
smooth, avoiding dirt accumulation. The inner lens convexity permitted a 35 watt, 10 volt
lamp filament to be almost surrounded by this system, gathering much more of the light
produced than with previous systems. This yielded the first true "Long Range" daylight signal
with a range of over 2,500 feet (760 m) under bright sun conditions. The first application was
by the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad's use of the US&S "Style L" color
light signal on their line through the Pacific Northwest in 1914. These were intentionally
fitted from the start with two lamps one ahead of the other, the circuitry so arranged that
failure of the main lamp caused the lighting the back-up lamp to assure the most restrictive
indication always being illuminated. The final improvement came in the early 1920s with
Corning's "High Transmission" glass colors increasing this range to 3,500 feet (1,100 m)
under bright sun conditions. The results were that in the U.S., all semaphore manufacturing
had ceased by 1944, having been completely replaced with light signals of one type or
another.
The signal head is the portion of a color light signal which displays the aspects. To
display a larger number of indications, a single signal might have multiple signal heads.
Some systems used a single head coupled with auxiliary lights to modify the basic aspect.

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Chapter 10
APPLICATION & POSITIONING OF SIGNALS

Fig.10..The additional lights on signal 10 show that the points are set for the left route at the next
junction.

Originally, signals displayed simple stop/proceed indications. As traffic density

increased, this proved to be too limiting and refinements were added. One such refinement
was the addition of distant signals on the approach to stop signals. The distant signal gave the
driver warning that he was approaching a signal which might require a stop. This allowed for
an overall increase in speed, since train drivers no longer had to drive at a speed within
sighting distance of the stop signal.
Under time table and train order
Operation, the signals did not directly convey orders to the train crew. Instead, they directed
the crew to pick up orders, possibly stopping to do so if the order warranted it.
Signals are used to indicate one or more of the following:

That the line ahead is clear (free of any obstruction) or blocked.

That the driver has permission to proceed.

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That points(also called switch or turnout in the US) are set correctly.

Which way points are set.

The speed the train may travel.

The state of the next signal.

That the train orders are to be picked up by the crew.

Fig.11.These signals show that the train should advance, that the speed limit is reduced from 60 km/h to
30 km/h, and that it is approaching the end of the line.

Signals can be placed:

At the start of a section of track.

On the approach to a movable item of infrastructure, such as points/switches or

a swing bridge.

In advance of other signals.

On the approach to a level crossing.

At a switch or turnout.

Ahead of platforms or other places that trains are likely to be stopped.

At train order stations.

'Running lines' are usually continuously signaled. Each line of a double track railway is
normally signaled in one direction only, with all signals facing the same direction on either
line. Where 'bi-directional' signaling is installed, signals face in both directions on both tracks
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(sometimes known as 'reversible working' where lines are not normally used for bidirectional working). Signals are generally not provided for controlling movements
within sidings or yard areas.

Chapter11
ASPECTS AND INDICATION

Fig.12.A British lower-quadrant semaphore stop signal with subsidiary arm below.

Signals have aspects and indications. The aspect is the visual appearance of the signal;
the indication is the meaning. In American practice the indications have conventional names,
so that for instance "Medium Approach" means "Proceed at not exceeding medium speed; be
prepared to stop at next signal". Different railroads historically assigned different meanings to
the same aspect, so it is common as a result of mergers to find that different divisions of a
modern railroad may have different rules governing the interpretation of signal aspects.

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Fig.13.finnish distant signal.

A Finnish distant signal at the western approach to Muhos station is displaying Expect
Stop. In the background, express train 81 is pulling away from the station.
It is important to understand that for signals that use coloured aspects, the color of
each individual light is subsumed in the overall pattern. In the United States, for example, it
is common to see a "Clear" aspect consisting of a green light above a red light. The red light
in this instance does not indicate "Stop"; it is simply a component of a larger aspect.
Operating rules normally specify that when there is some imperfection in the display of an
aspect (e.g., an extinguished lamp), the indication should be read as the most restrictive
indication consistent with what is displayed.
Signals control motion past the point at which the signal stands and into the next
section of track. They may also convey information about the state of the next signal to be
encountered. Signals are sometimes said to "protect" the points/switches, section of track, etc.
that they are ahead of. The term "ahead of" can be confusing, so official UK practice is to use
the terms in rear of and in advance of. When a train is waiting at a signal it is "in rear of" that
signal and the danger being protected by the signal is "in advance of" the train and signal.
A distinction must be made between absolute signals, which can display a "Stop" (or
"Stop and Stay") indication, and permissive signals, which display a "Stop & Proceed"
aspect. Furthermore, a permissive signal may be marked as a Grade Signal where a train does

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not need to physically stop for a "Stop & Proceed" signal, but only decelerate to a speed slow
enough to stop short of any obstructions. Interlocking ('controlled') signals are typically
absolute, while automatic signals (i.e., those controlled through track occupancy alone, not by
a signalman) are usually permissive. Drivers need to be aware of which signals are automatic.
In current British practice for example, automatic signals have a white rectangular plate with
a black horizontal line across it. In US practice a permissive signal typically is indicated by
the presence of a number plate. In the Australian states of New South Wales, Victoria and
South Australia, as well as New Zealand, a permissive signal has the lower set of lights offset
(usually to the right) from the upper lights; in Victoria and New Zealand, an absolute signal
displaying a red or white "A" light is also treated as a permissive signal.[1] Some types of
signal display separate permissive and absolute stop aspects.
Approach lighting leaves the signal dark (or dimmed) when a train is not present. This may
be applied for sighting reasons, or simply to extend the life of the lamp and save the batteries.
The first such application was on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway on their two
arm, lower quadrant Union Switch & Signal (US&S) Style "B" semaphores at the turn of the
20th century.
Operating rules generally dictate that a dark signal must be interpreted as displaying
its most restrictive aspect (generally "Stop" or "Stop and Proceed").

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Chapter 12
ADVANTAGES
1. One advantage of electrification is the lack of pollution from the locomotives
themselves.
2. Electrification also results in higher performance, lower maintenance costs and lower
energy costs for electric locomotives.
3. Power plants, even if they burn fossil fuels, are far cleaner than mobile sources such a
locomotive engines. Also the power for electric locomotives can come from clean
and/or renewable sources, including geothermal power, hydroelectric power, nuclear
power, solar power and wind turbines.
4. Electric locomotives are also quiet compared to diesel locomotives since there is no
engine and exhaust noise and less mechanical noise.
5. The lack of reciprocating parts means that electric locomotives are easier on the track,
reducing track maintenance.
6. Power plant capacity is far greater than what any individual locomotive uses, so
electric locomotives can have a higher power output than diesel locomotives and they
can produce even higher short-term surge power for fast acceleration.
7. Electric locomotives are ideal for commuter rail service with frequent stops. They are
used on high-speed lines, such as ICE in Germany, Acela in the US, Shinkansen in
Japan, China Railway High-speed in China and TGV in France.
8. Electric locomotives are also used on freight routes that have a consistently high
traffic volume, or in areas with advanced rail networks.
9. Electric locomotives benefit from the high efficiency of electric motors, often
above90%. Additional efficiency can be gained from regenerative braking, which
allows kinetic energy to be recovered during braking to put some power back on the
line.
10. Newer electric locomotives use AC motor-inverter drive systems that provide for
regenerative braking.

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Chapter.13
DISADVANTAGES
1. The chief disadvantage of electrification is the cost for infrastructure (overhead power
lines or electrified third rail, substations, control systems). Public policy in the US
currently interferes with electrificationhigher property taxes are imposed on
privately owned rail facilities if they have electrification facilities. Also, US
regulations on diesel locomotives are very weak compared to regulations on
automobile emissions or power plant emissions.
2. In Europe and elsewhere, railway networks are considered part of the national
transport infrastructure, just like roads, highways and waterways, and therefore are
often financed by the state. Operators of the rolling stock pay fees according to rail
use.
3. This makes possible the large investments required for the technically and in the longterm also, economically advantageous electrification. Because railroad infrastructure
is privately-owned in the US, railroads are unwilling to make the necessary
investments for electrification.

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Chapter.14
CONCLUSION
A railway electrification system supplies electrical energy to railway locomotives and
multiple units so that they can operate without having an on-board prime mover
AC and DC type of electrified train systems operate today. A 1,500 V DC based train
system is only operating in the Mumbai area. It is being converted to the 25kV AC system.
The rest of the India, where routes are electrified fully, operates under the25 kV AC overhead
wire. As of 2006, Indian railways haul 80% of freight and 85% of passenger traffic with
electric locomotives.
Steam is steam under pressure, obtained by heating water in a boiler. The steam is
used to operate stationary or moving equipment.A live steam machine or device is one
powered by steam, but the term is usually reserved for those that are replicas, scale models,
toys, or otherwise used for heritage, museum, entertainment.
The modern diesel locomotive is a self-contained version of the electric locomotive.
Like the electric locomotive, it has electric drive, in the form of traction motors driving the
axles and controlled with electronic controls. It also has many of the same auxiliary systems
for cooling, lighting, heating, braking and hotel power (if required) for the train.

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REFERENCES

Armstrong, John (1957). "All About Signals" (Two-article series). Trains Magazine, June
and July 1957.

Calvert, J.B. "The Origin of the Railway Semaphore." 2007-05-04.

Kichenside, G. and Williams, A., (1998), Two Centuries of Railway Signalling, Oxford
Publishing Co., ISBN 0-86093-541-8

Vanns, M.A., (1995), Signalling in the Age of Steam, Ian Allan, ISBN 0-7110-2350-6

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