The first characteristic of a living thing is that, they are made up of cells.

A cell is the basic

building block of all organisms. It is the smallest unit of organization in a living thing. They
contain the organism's hereditary information (DNA) and can make copies of themselves in a
process called mitosis.
Some organisms, like fungi, plants, and animals, are multicellular (made of many
cells).

Some organisms, like bacteria and protists, are unicellular (made entirely of one
cell).
TISSUES
cells similar in shape and function that work together

4 Basic Types of Tissues

Nerve tissue
carries impulses back and forth to the brain from the body
Muscle tissue
(cardiac, smooth, skeletal) contract and shorten, making body parts move

Epithelial tissue
covers the surfaces of the body, inside (as lining and /or covering of internal organs)
and outside (as layer of skin)
Connective tissue
connects all parts of the body and provides support (for example tendons,
ligaments, cartilage).
ORGANS
A group of two or more different types of tissue that work together to perform a
specific function.

ORGAN SYSTEM
A group of two or more organs that work together to perform a specific function.

ORGANISM
A complete, individual living thing.

The aboveground, conspicuous part of flowering plants constitutes the shoot system, which is
composed of erect stems on which are attached leaves, flowers, and buds. Leaves are attached
to the stem at regions called nodes.
The plant shoot system is a complex network of a number of different parts all working to keep the
plant healthy and growing. It is fascinating how much is involved in what we usually look at as a
simple living organism. We will investigate the shoot system here.

The Structure of the Shoot System

A plant has many complicated and complex systems that keep it living and growing, including the
shoot system. When referring to the shoot system in a plant, we generally refer to the leaves, buds,
flowering stems and flowering buds, as well as the main stem itself. The word 'shoot' generally is
used when talking about the main stem.
As we move from the ground surface to the terminal bud (end of the undeveloped shoot) we will
encounter nodes and internodes. Nodes are the points where leaves are attached,
and internodes are the places on the stem between the nodes. In the crux created by the node and
stem, there are axillary buds that lay dormant but have the potential to grow a vegetative branch.

The root system of a plant constantly provides the stems and leaves with water and dissolved
minerals. In order to accomplish this the roots must grow into new regions of the soil. The
growth and metabolism of the plant root system is supported by the process of photosynthesis
occurring in the leaves.

Th In mathematics, a root system is a configuration of vectors in a Euclidean space satisfying

certain geometrical properties. The concept is fundamental in the theory of Lie groups and Lie
algebras. Since Lie groups (and some analogues such as algebraic groups) and Lie algebras have
become important in many parts of mathematics during the twentieth century, the apparently special
nature of root systems belies the number of areas in which they are applied. Further, the
classification scheme for root systems, byDynkin diagrams, occurs in parts of mathematics with no
overt connection to Lie theory (such as singularity theory). Finally, root systems are important for
their own sake, as in spectral graph theory.[1]

The two basic types of root systems are the primary

root systems and the adventitious root system.
The primary root systems is formed of rootsand
their branches that arise from the primary root.
The primary root is the first-formed, main root, That
originates from the radicle of a seedembryo (the

portion of the embryo below thecotyledons).

Two primary root system types:

Taproot system - Single primary root dominates

over branch roots ( usually found
in Gymnosperms and mostDicotyledons)

Fibrous root system A network of fine roots

with no central dominant root.Fibrous root
systems don't go as deep as taproots, but they
spread laterally

The adventitious root system is typical of most Monocotyledons in which the primary root is
ephemeral and sort living and adventitious root soon arise from stem or leaf tissue. (At the
bottom of a grass plant, for example, are a number of these adventitious roots growing out from
the nodes above the seed near the ground level. ) These roots and their lateral branches make up
a fibrous root system.
Cell membrane: It is the outer lining of the cell which encloses all other cell organelles. The cell
membrane also known as the plasma membrane is semipermeable. It allows only specific molecules to
pass through and blocking others.
Cell wall: The cell wall is a rigid layer that surrounds the plant cells. Plant cell walls are primarily made
up of cellulose. It is located outside the cell membrane whose main function is to provide rigidity,
strength, protection against mechanical stress and infection.
Cytoplasm: It is the fluid substance that fills the cell. All the cell organelles are suspended in the
cytoplasm. The cytoplasm maintains the osmotic concentration of the cells and prevents them from
bursting or shrinking.
Nucleus: It is a membrane bound organelle, spherical in shape. Most of the activities of the cell is
directed by the nucleus.
All the cells in an animal has one complete set of genes in its nucleus. The genetic material DNA help in
protein formation.
Nucleolus: It is darkly stained are in the nucleus, it aids in protein formation and RNA synthesis.
Nuclear membrane: It is the porous double membrane layer surrounding the nucleus. It allows passage
of substances and is a distinctive characteristic of the eukaryotic cell.
Nucleoplasm: It is the semi-fluid substance inside the nucleus, contains the genetic material and the
nucleolus.
Mitochondria: Mitochondria is one of the largest organ of the cell and is known as the 'power house of
the cell'. It is a spherical or rod shaped organelles and is enveloped by a double membrane. The
mitochondria aids in conversion of glucose to high energy molecules (ATP) for the cell.
Ribosomes: Ribosomes are found on the endoplasmic reticulum. Together they help in manufacturing
proteins for the cell following instructions of the nucleus.

Lysosomes: Lysosomes are membrane bound organelles, they contain digestive enzymes. They break
down the waste products and detoxify the cell.
Centrosome: It is a small body located near the nucleus. Centrioles are made in the centrosomes.
During cell division the centromere organizes the assembly of the micro-tubules.
Endoplasmic reticulum: It is a large network of interconnecting membrane tunnels. It is composed of
both rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. The rough endoplasmic reticulum
is covered with ribosomes hence appears rough. They follow the instructions from the nucleus and make
proteins the cell needs. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is continuous with the outer nuclear
membrane. It transports material through the cell and produces and digests lipids and membrane
proteins.
Golgi apparatus: They are flattened stacks of membrane bound sacs. They function as the packaging
unit, the proteins formed by the endoplasmic reticulum are packed into small membrane sacs called
vesicles.
Vacuoles: They are organelles for storage. Small membrane bound vacuoles filled with fluids and water
are present in animals. In plant cells the vacuoles perform functions of secretion, excretion and storage.
Chloroplasts: It is an elongated or disc-shaped organelle containing chlorophyll. It is the site for
photosynthesis in a plant cell. The green pigment chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight.

1.

Eyepiece or Ocular lens:

An eyepiece is a magnifying lens attached to the microscope which helps in

magnifying the sample object. It is called an eyepiece as we need to place our
eye near it in order to see the magnifying image of the sample.
2.

Body Tube:

A body tube is an integral part of the microscope as it holds the eye piece and
connects it to the objective.
3.

Arm:

The arm is the part of microscope that connects to the base and helps carry the
microscope easily. One can hold the arm with on hand and put another hand
under the base of the microscope so that it can be carried easily.
4.

Base:

The base is the bottom part of the microscope, usually made up of durable

material as it supports the microscope to stand and provides stability. The base
is very important as stability is very important to gain accurate results. With an
unstable base, the results may not be as accurate as we require.
5.

Illuminator:

An illuminator is a source of light usually situated at the bottom/ base of the

microscope. It is a low voltage halogen bulb of about 110 volts to provide steady
light to the sample in order to facilitate the experiment/study.

6.

Stage:

A stage is an indispensable part of the microscope. It is a flat surface where the

slide with the specimen is placed. A mechanical stage is a stage used when
working with higher magnifications. It is moved by using knobs as even the
slightest moment can affect the results.
7.

Stage Clip:

Stage clips are used to hold the slides in place in the absence of a mechanical
stage. It is used in comparatively simpler experiments. But even in simpler
experiments, the movement of slides is crucial hence stage clips are used to
provide stability to the slides.
8.

Revolving Nosepiece or Turret:

A nosepiece is the part of the microscope which holds two or more objectives
simultaneously to provide various magnifications in order to view the same
specimen in various dimensions.
9.

Objective lens:

Objective lens is the part of microscope responsible for magnifying the image of
specimen. Usually there are three objective lenses in a standard microscope of

10X, 40X and 100X. Depending upon the aim of study and nature of the
specimen, the most suitable objective lens can be brought to use.
10. Rack Stop:
It is a part of the microscope responsible for adjusting and determining the
distance between the objective lens and the specimen. It is very important as it
avoids the ramming of objective lens into the slide, which can result in destroying
the slide and specimen.
11.

Condenser Lens:

The function of the condenser lens is to collect the light from the illuminator and
focus it on the specimen. A microscope with a condenser provides with a sharper
and clearer image than a microscope without a condenser.
12.

Diaphragm or Iris:

The diaphragm is used to control the amount of light reaching the specimen. In a
student scope it is a rotating disk under the stage and above the condenser.
There are various holes in the diaphragm in order to facilitate the variants in the
experiments carried on.
13.

Coarse adjustment knob:

A coarse adjustment knob is a knob present on the arm of a microscope. The

main function of this knob is to move the specimen back or forth to adjust the
slide containing specimen in order to bring it to focus and show the best image
possible. The coarse adjustment should be carefully moved and adjusted to
attain desired results.
14.

Fine Adjustment Knob:

This knob is a sub part of the Coarse adjustment knob. It is used to bring the
specimen into sharp focus.

EVERYTHING on a microscope is unbelievably expensive, so be careful.

Hold a microscope firmly by the stand, only. Never grab it by the eyepiece holder, for
example.

Hold the plug (not the cable) when unplugging the illuminator.

Since bulbs are expensive, and have a limited life, turn the illuminator off when not in use.

If used constantly on full power the bulb will overheat and blow (or gently melt the inside of
the housing). This is not a good idea!

Always make sure the stage and lenses are clean before putting the microscope away.

NEVER use anything but good quality lens tissue on any optical surface, with appropriate
lens cleaner or distilled water; organic solvents may separate or damage the lens elements or
coatings.

Cover the instrument with a dust jacket when not in use.

Focus smoothly; don't try to speed through the focusing process or force anything.

If it isn't working DON'T try to fix it unless you really know what you are doing. Make a note of
the symptoms and ask someone who knows.