Index

Introduction
What is Geothermal Energy
How does geothermal energy works
Applications
Types
Uses of Geothermal Energy
Advantages
Disadvantages
Future of Geothermal Energy
Conclusion
References

Abstract
The search and utilization of geothermal energy commenced in Italy in the early 1900s. Today, Italy
produces sufficient power from geothermal energy to operate its entire network of electric railroads.
This amounts to approximately 400,000 kw.
One hundred areas in 15 different countries are being explored for geothermal energy. Other countries
which are currently utilizing geothermal energy are: Iceland, for domestic and industrial heating; Japan,
for electrical power and recovery of salt from sea water; and New Zealand, U.S.A., and Mexico for
electrical power.
The Geysers area of northern California was first investigated for its geothermal potential in 1922. The
project was not successful as there was sufficient electrical power being produced from fossil fuel and
by hydroelectric plants.
The rapid industrialization and population explosion in the western states have led to an increase in
demand for energy. From 1945 to 1960, electrical power production increased 239% for the nation and
252% in the western states. The FPC predicts a 275% rise nationally by 1980, based on 1960 power
demands, with a forecast of 320% rise for the western states. To meet these demands for electrical
power, all forms of energy known to man must be harnessed.
The first commercial geothermal power production, in the United States, began at The Geysers in 1960
at the rate of 12,500 kw. In April 1967 the capacity was increased to 56,000 kw. It is estimated that the
capacity can be increased to 1,000,000 kw.
Recognizing geothermal energy as a source of power, the U.S. Geological Survey is conducting a
nation-wide investigation of all geothermal areas which may have this potential. The state Bureaus of
Mines of California, Oregon, Nevada, Utah, and New Mexico have conducted their own studies to
evaluate their geothermal areas.
Locating a geothermal area which may have commercial power potential is difficult. The most obvious
areas of hot springs and geysers currently are being investigated. It is conceivable the areas which may
hold the greatest potential cannot be detected at the surface.
The drilling and development of a geothermal area are extremely hazardous and expensive, but
technical problems will be solved, and costs reduced, as future increased power demands escalates the
exploration for geothermal power.

Introduction
Geothermal energy is the earths natural heat available inside the earth. This thermal energy
contained in the rock and fluid that filled up fractures and pores in the earths crust can profitably
be used for various purposes. Heat from the Earth, or geothermal Geo (Earth) + thermal (heat)
energy can be and is accessed by drilling water or steam wells in a process similar to drilling
for oil. Geothermal energy is an enormous, underused heat and power resource that
is clean (emits little or no greenhouse gases), reliable (average system availability of 95%),
and homegrown (making us less dependent on foreign oil).
Geothermal resources range from shallow ground to hot water and rock several miles below the
Earth's surface, and even farther down to the extremely hot molten rock called magma. Mile-ormore-deep wells can be drilled into underground reservoirs to tap steam and very hot water that
can be brought to the surface for use in a variety of applications.
Historically , the first application of geothermal energy were for space heating , cooking and medical
purposes . The earliest record of space heating dates back to 1300 in Iceland .In the early 1800s ,
geothermal energy was used on what was then a large scale by the conte Franceso de Laderel to recover
boric acid . The first mechanical conversion was in 1897 when the steam of the field at Larderallo, Italy
, was used to heat a boiler producing steam which drove a small steam engine . The first attempt to
produce electricity also took place at Larderello in 1904 with an electricity generator that powered four
light bulbs. This was followed in 1912 by a condensating turbine ; and by 1914, 8.5 MW of electricity
was being produced.
Geothermal energy is also the one of the renewable energy sources, which are defined as those resource
that draw on the natural energy floors of the earth (another term THE ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
SOURCES is also common in use). Renewable energy sources are so named because they recur , are
seemingly inexhaustible, and are free for the taking . geothermal energy as practically no intermittency,
has the highest energy density,& is economically not far removed from the conventional
technologies .geothermal energy classified as renewable because the earths interior is and will
continue in the process of cooling for indefinite future.
Thus there is a vast scope to use geothermal energy for low temperature applications . There is an
ample scope to develop geothermal power in India, but still development in geothermal field is in
initial stage . There are about 340 known thermal areas in India , each represented by hot/warm spring .
About 113 spring area, discovered so far where geothermal power is available . 46 of these systems are
of high temperature type , which could be generate 1838 MW for a period of 30 years .

WHAT IS GEOTHERMAL ENERGYGeothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy
that determines the temperature of matter. The geothermal energy of the Earth's crust originates from
the original formation of the planet and from radioactive decay of materials (in currently uncertain[1]
but possibly roughly equal[2] proportions).
Geothermal energy is defined as heat from the Earth. It is a clean, renewable resource that
provides energy in the U.S. and around the world in a variety of applications and resources.
Costs for geothermal electricity generation are 4.5-7 cents per kilowatt-hour. This is
competitive with some fossil fuel facilities, but one must keep in mind the drastic reduction
of pollution.
Delivered costs depend on ownership arrangements, financing, transmission, the quality of
the resource, and the size of the project.
Geothermal plants are relatively capital-intensive, with low variable costs and no fuel costs.
Usually financing is structured so that the project pays back its capital costs in the first 15
years, delivering power at 5-10/kWh. Costs then fall by 50-70 percent, to cover just
operations and maintenance for the remaining 15-30 years that the facility operates (World
Bank Group, 2004).
Heat has been radiating from the center of the Earth for some 4.5
billion years. At 6437.4 km (4,000 miles) deep, the center of the Earth
hovers around the same temperatures as the sun's surface, 9932F
(5,500C) (Figure 1). Scientists estimate that 42 million megawatts
(MW) of power flow from the Earths interior, primarily by conduction
Geothermal energy is a renewable resource. 1 One of its biggest
advantages is that it is constantly available. The constant flow of heat
from the Earth ensures an inexhaustible and essentially limitless
supply of energy for billions of years to come.

How Does Geothermal Energy Work

The heat from the earth's core continuously flows outward. It transfers (conducts) to the surrounding
layer of rock, the mantle. When temperatures and pressures become high enough, some mantle rock
melts, becoming magma. Then, because it is lighter (less dense) than the surrounding rock, the magma
rises (convects), moving slowly up toward the earth's crust, carrying the heat from below.
Sometimes the hot magma reaches all the way to the surface, where we know it as lava. But most often
the magma remains below the earth's crust, heating nearby rock and water (rainwater that has seeped
deep into the earth) - sometimes as hot as 370 degrees C. Some of this hot geothermal water travels
back up through faults and cracks and reaches the earth's surface as hot springs or geysers, but most of
it stays deep underground, trapped in cracks and porous rock. This natural collection of hot water is
called a geothermal reservoir.
Nature of Geothermal Energy Field

APPLICATIONS OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES

There are many different classifications of exploitable geothermal resources with
different possible applications. The general method for extracting energy from a geothermal
system is to pump a fluid which has been heated by hot rock to the surface and then to utilize the
heat energy within that fluid. These can vary widely in chemical composition of hydrothermal
fluid, amount of fluid present, geothermal gradient of the region, and many other factors. No two
sites are exactly alike, but many share similar characteristics which are useful for classifying
them. Among the most important of these are water dominated fields, steam dominated fields,
and hot dry rock systems. Economic viability is a very important part of determining whether or
not a geothermal resource is worth developing, and is generally measured by the comparative
cost of production of a unit of energy against other sources.
1.
Water Dominated Fields
Water dominated fields are defined by pressure within the fluid reservoir coming mostly

from liquid water. These fields can exist at both high and low temperatures, though higher
temperature fields require high pressure to maintain the liquid phase of the water [Barbier, 2002].
There are two primary types of water dominated fields; hot water fields and wet steam fields
[Barbier, 2002]. The distinction between these two is that hot water fields have water in a liquid
phase as a result of low temperature while wet steam fields have water in a liquid phase as a
result of high pressure. Typically, the reservoirs of hot water fields will contain liquid water at all
depths due to low temperature and geothermal gradient. Hot water fields are generally only
considered economically viable if they are near the surface, have low salt content, and have high
flow rates [Barbier, 2002]. Wet steam fields on the other hand can have temperatures far
exceeding the boiling point of water while still containing liquid water due to intensely high
pressure.
2.
Steam Dominated Fields
Steam dominated fields are high temperature high pressure underground reservoirs of
steam and other gases. Steam dominated fields are generally much higher in temperature than
wet steam fields. Because of the pressure necessary to maintain this body of steam, an
impermeable cap rock covering the reservoir is necessary to prevent rapid depressurization and
loss of the fluid within the reservoir [Barbier, 2002]. When a well penetrates the steam reservoir
it creates a depressurized area by connecting the high-pressure reservoir with the low-pressure
surface, essentially using the pressure difference as a pump. This creates a pressure gradientKersey 6
surrounding the well which draws steam towards the well from within the reservoir. Use of these
fields for geothermal energy extraction necessarily depletes the pressure of the reservoir which
can take decades without energy production to recuperate [Rybach, 2007].
3.
Hot Dry Rock
Hot dry rock systems are regions of rock without a usable amount of fluid within them
for geothermal energy capture by typical methods. Frequently, the lack of a fluid reservoir is a
result of the rock being impermeable. These systems present the largest source of potentially
accessible geothermal energy as they are not limited to fault zones and can be found almost
anywhere at sufficient depth. The cost of drilling geothermal wells increases exponentially with
depth, however, meaning that these systems will not always be economically viable for energy
production [Mock et al., 1997]. It is for this reason that hot dry rock systems with steep
geothermal gradients are better suited for human use.
To exploit a hot dry rock system, hydraulic fracturing must be employed to create a

connected system of fractures through which fluid can be pumped to extract heat from the rock.
Essentially, this is the creation of an artificial fluid reservoir to be used to take advantage of the
high temperatures found in underground rock. This is a much more expensive process than
simply using a pre-existing fluid reservoir. The real strength of hot dry rock systems is that they
do not require as specific of geologic conditions and are much more ubiquitous than traditional
geothermal resources.
4
High Temperature Applications
High temperature geothermal resources are typically used for the generation of
electricity. This is accomplished through the use of heat and pressure differences between the
reservoir and the surface to produce mechanical energy which is then used to turn turbines andKersey 7
generate electricity. Steam-based electricity generation is the most effective geothermal
electricity generation method as steam dominated fields tend to contain the most energy per unit
volume of fluid [Barbier, 2002]. Some relatively low temperature hot water geothermal resources
can be used to generate electricity by transferring heat from the reservoir fluid to a fluid with a
lower boiling point such as isobutene [Barbier, 2002]. These systems tend to be less efficient, but
are less site-specific and can be developed in many more areas than steam-based systems.
5.
Low Temperature Applications
A geothermal resource is considered low temperature if its temperature is less than 150C
[Mock et al., 1997]. Low temperature geothermal resources are typically used for direct heating
in both industrial and non-industrial applications. This energy is used in industrial settings for
increasing the efficiency of refining ore, dehydration of foods, drying of timber, and many other
applications [Mock et al., 1997]. The use of geothermal heat pumps can warm houses in the
winter, cool them in the summer, and provide hot water year round [Mock et al., 1997.
6. Space/District Heating: Schemes utilizing geothermal heat provide over 80% of the

central heating needs of Reykjavik city in Iceland and are employed in many towns in USA,
Poland and Hungary. The World Bank is currently supporting a program in Poland for using hot
water from unsuccessful oil wells to displace the use of coal for district heating (World Bank
Group, 2004).
7. Agriculture and Aquaculture: In temperate and colder climates, greatly improved
plant and fish growth can be achieved by heating soils, greenhouses and fish ponds using
geothermal heat. One example of this is the largely successful Osearian Farm, Kenya (World
Flowers, 2005).
3. Power Generation: With over 8000 MW of installed capacity, geothermal electric
power generation is a well-proven technology that has been especially successful in countries
and islands that have a high reliance on imported fossil fuels (World Bank Group, 2004).

Types of Geothermal Power Plants

There are three types of geothermal steam plants depending on the way the energy is generated:

1. Dry Steam Power Plant : The first is the dry steam power plant which is used to generate power
directly from the steam generated inside the earth.
In this case, we do not need additional heating boilers and boiler fuel, as steam or water vapour fill the
wells through rock catcher and directly rotates the turbine, which activates a generator to produce
electricity.
This type of power plant is not common since natural hydrothermal reservoirs dry steam are very rare.
2. Flash Steam Power Plant : The most common type of geothermal power plant, flash steam plants use
waters at temperatures greater than 360F.
As this hot water flows up through wells in the ground, it is collected in a flash tank where drop in
pressure causes the liquid to boil into steam.
The steam is separated from the liquid which is then used to run turbines which in turn generate power.
The condensed steam is returned to the reservoir.
3. Binary Steam Power Plant : This type of plant uses high temperature geothermal water to heat
another fluid which has a lower boiling point than water.
This fluid vaporizes to steam, drives the turbines, then condenses to liquid to begin the cycle again.
The water, which never comes into direct contact with the working fluid, is then injected back into the
ground to be reheated. Since the most resources are with lower temperature the binary steam power
plants are more common.

Uses of geothermal energy1. Aquaculture and horticulture: Geothermal renewable energy is used in aquaculture, and horticulture,

in order to raise plants and marine life that require a tropical environment. The steam and heat is all
supplied by geothermal energy.
2. Industry and agriculture: Geothermal power generation is playing an increasing role in industry and
agriculture. Timber is dried using heat acquired from geothermal energy, and paper mills use it for all
stages of processing. The potential uses of geothermal energy in industry are huge.
3. Food Processing: The earth naturally contains an endless supply of heat and steam, which can be
utilized to sterilize equipment and rooms. This would put an end to the use of chemicals for this
purpose. There are many potential uses of geothermal energy in food processing, but as yet, this
renewable energy source has yet to be utilized to a large degree in this sector.
4. Providing heat for residential use: Geothermal renewable energy has in the last few years caught the
interest of an increasing number of house owners. Geothermal power generation provides more than
just heat in summer; but a complete temperature control system which enables you to cool your home
in winter as well. This significantly reduces heating and cooling bills, and keeps the home at a
comfortable temperature year round.
5. Electricity generation: A geothermal power station works in a very different way to the geothermal
power generation that would be used in the examples above. It provides not just heat and steam, but
electricity itself. Geothermal power generation is completely clean, and releases no harmful gas
emissions whatsoever.

Advantages of Geothermal Energy:

1. Significant Cost Saving : Geothermal energy generally involves low running costs since it saves 80%
costs over fossil fuels and no fuel is used to generate the power. Since, no fuel is require so costs for
purchasing, transporting and cleaning up plants is quite low.
2. Reduce Reliance on Fossil Fuels : Dependence on fossil fuels decreases with the increase in the use
of geothermal energy. With the sky-rocketing prices of oil, many countries are pushing companies to
adopt these clean sources of energy. Burning of fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases which are
responsible for global warming
3. No Pollution : This is one of the main advantage of using geothermal energy since it does not create
any pollution and help in creating clean environment. Being the renewable source of energy,
geothermal energy has helped in reducing global warming and pollution. Moreover, Geothermal
systems does not create any pollution as it releases some gases from deep within the earth which are
not very harmful to the environment
4. Direct Use : Since ancient times, people having been using this source of energy for taking bath,
heating homes, preparing food and today this is also used for direct heating of homes and offices. This
makes geothermal energy cheaper and affordable. Although the initial investment is quite steep but in
the long run with huge cost saving it proves quite useful
5. Job Creation and Economic Benefits : Government of various countries are investing hugely in
creation of geothermal energy which on other hand has created more jobs for the local peopleges

Disadvantages Of Geothermal Energy

Energy created from geothermal power is safe, clean, simple, reliable and environment friendly as it is
extracted from deep within the earths surface. But despite these advantages, geothermal energy is not
being used widely. Geothermal energy suffers from its disadvantages as described below.
1. Not Widespread Source of Energy : Since this type of energy is not widely used therefore the
unavailability of equipment, staff, infrastructure, training pose hindrance to the installation of
geothermal plants across the globe. Not enough skilled manpower and availability of suitable build
location pose serious problem in adopting geothermal energy globally.
2. High Installation Costs : To get geothermal energy, requires installation of power plants, to get steam
from deep within the earth and this require huge one time investment and require to hire a certified
installer and skilled staff needs to be recruited and relocated to plant location. Moreover, electricity
towers, stations need to set up to move the power from geothermal plant to consumer.
3. Can Run Out Of Steam : Geothermal sites can run out of steam over a period of time due to drop in
temperature or if too much water is injected to cool the rocks and this may result huge loss for the
companies which have invested heavily in these plants. Due to this factor, companies have to do
extensive initial research before setting up the plant.
4. Suited To Particular Region : It is only suitable for regions which have hot rocks below the earth and
can produce steam over a long period of time. For this great research is required which is done by the
companies before setting up the plant and this initial cost runs up the bill in setting up the geothermal
power plant. Some of these regions are near hilly areas or high up in mountains.
5. May Release Harmful Gases : Geothermal sites may contain some poisonous gases and they can
escape deep within the earth, through the holes drilled by the constructors. The geothermal plant must
therefore be capable enough to contain these harmful and toxic gases.
6. Transportation : Geothermal Energy can not be easily transported. Once the tapped energy is
extracted, it can be only used in the surrounding areas. Other sources of energy like wood, coal or oil
can be transported to residential areas but this is not a case with geothermal energy. Also, there is a fear
of toxic substances getting released into the atmosphere.

Environmental Benefits-

In an international community increasingly worried about worsening

effects of climate change, geothermal can play an important role in
reducing air emissions. Experts generally agree that effects of climate
change pose significant environmental dangers, including flood risks,
drought, glacial melting, forest fires, rising sea levels, loss of
biodiversity, and potential health dangers. 47 Geothermal involves no
combustion, and most geothermal plants being developed will
produce nearly zero air emissions. So, using geothermal helps to
offset energy-related carbon dioxide, which accounted for 82% of
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the U.S. in 2011. 48
Using geothermal also eliminates the mining, processing, and
transporting required for electricity generation from fossil fuel
resources; and, it has among the smallest surface land footprint per
kilowatt (kW) of any power generation technology. 49
Geothermal power plants are designed and constructed to minimize
the potential effects on wildlife and vegetation in compliance with a
host of state and federal regulations. A thorough environmental
review is required before construction of a generating facility can
begin. Subsequent monitoring and mitigation of any environmental
impacts continues throughout the life of the plant.

2.2.

What non-conventional technologies are used for geothermal

production?
Additional non-conventional technologies being developed and used
today are discussed in section 3.2., What technologies will expand

geothermal energy uses in the short term?

2.2.1. Working Fluids
Advances in working fluids for binary power systems make it possible
to achieve greater heat transfer efficiency while producing power at
lower temperatures. The Kalina Cycles ammonia-water mix increases
production by up to 50% and has been used in applications since the
1990s. 17 ElectraTherm developed the Green Machine, and Turbine Air
Systems provided the unit at Beowawe Flash Plant, Nevada.
2.2.2. Distributed Generation
Distributed generation facilities produce geothermal on a smaller
scale to provide local or on-site electricity needs of a facility. Energy
not being used by the facility can sometimes be sold to the grid.
Distributed generation benefits remotely located systems such as
Wendel-Amedee in northeastern California; Chena Hot Springs in
Alaska; the Oregon Institute of Technology in Klamath Falls; and the
Rocky Mountain Oil and Gas Testing Center in Wyoming.
2.2.3. Combined Heat and Power
Combined heat and power plants, also used in fossil fuel technologies,
efficiently use low-temperature resources in combination with binary
or Organic Rankine Cycle power units. The use of energy is cascaded,
which in turn improves the economics of the entire system.

Figure 1: Temperatures in the Earth

The uses
of

geothermal for heat and other purposes were indigenous

practices across a variety of world cultures: The Maoris in New
Zealand and Native Americans used water from hot springs for
cooking and medicinal purposes for thousands of years. Ancient
Greeks and Romans had geothermal heated spas. The people of
Pompeii, living too close to Mount Vesuvius, tapped hot water from
the earth to heat their buildings. Romans used geothermal waters for
treating eye and skin disease. The Japanese have enjoyed geothermal
spas for centuries. 2

Figure
3:
First

Geothermal Plant, 1904, Larderello, Italy

1.3. How does a conventional geothermal power plant work?

After careful exploration and analysis, wells are drilled to bring
geothermal energy to the surface, where it is converted into
electricity. Figure 4 shows the geothermal installed capacity in the
U.S. from 1975 to 2012, separated by technology type.
Figure 4: Total U.S. Geothermal Installed Capacity by Technology
(MW) 19752012

. How do geothermal heat pumps work?

Animals burrow underground for warmth in the winter and to escape
the heat of the summer. The same basic principle of constant,
moderate temperature in the subsurface is applied to geothermal
heat pumps (GHPs). 8 GHPs utilize average ground temperatures

between 40 and 70 F. 9 In 1948, a professor at Ohio State University

developed the first GHP for use at his residence. A groundwater heat
pump came into commercial use in Oregon around the same time. 10
Figure 9: Geothermal Heat Pumps

GHP heating and cooling systems circulate water or other liquids to

pull heat from the Earth through pipes in a continuous loop through a
heat pump and conventional duct system. For cooling, the process is
reversed; the system extracts heat from the building and moves it
back into the Earth loop. The loop system can be used almost
everywhere in the world at depths below 10 ft to 300 ft. GHPs are
used in all 50 states and are over 45% more energy efficient than
standard heating and cooling system options. 11
Homeowners who install qualified GHPs are eligible for a 30% federal
tax credit through December 31, 2016. They can be buried
conveniently on a property such as under a landscaped area, parking
lot, or pond, either horizontally or vertically (Figure 9). A GHP system
can also direct the heat to a water heater unit for hot water use.
. How do direct use applications work?
Geothermal heat is used directly, without a power plant or a heat
pump, for applications such as space heating and cooling, food
preparation, hot spring bathing and spas (balneology), agriculture,
aquaculture, greenhouses, snowmelting, and industrial processes.
Geothermal direct uses are applied at aquifer temperatures between

90 F and 200 F. 12
Examples of direct use applications exist all across the U.S. Boise,
Idahos Capitol Building uses geothermal for direct heating and
cooling. President Franklin D. Roosevelt frequented Georgias healing
hot springs and founded the Roosevelt Warm Springs Institute for
polio treatment in 1927. And the City of Klamath Falls, Oregon began
piping hot spring water to homes as early as 1900.

2.3. How much geothermal energy is used internationally?

GEA estimates that the international geothermal power market is
growing at a sustained rate of 4% to 5% (Figure 12). Almost 700
geothermal projects are under development in 76 countries. Many
countries anticipating the threats caused from by climate change

realize the values of geothermal power as a baseload and sometimes

flexible source of renewable energy. These countries are on every
continent and range from small island nations to large developed
economies like China or the United States.
Figure 12: International Geo Power Nameplate Capacity (MW)

Countries around the world also utilize geothermal direct use

applications. Including GHPs, direct use capacity reached 51 GWt in
2010. 20, 21
Opportunities for U.S. geothermal companies abound in the global
market. In the near term, exports from the United States are likely
to increase in the subsectors that currently enjoy a competitive
advantage, including the drilling, financing, and engineering sectors,
as well as the growing geothermal heat pump industry, with
estimated U.S. exports totaling $70.1 million worth of geothermal
equipment in 2009. 22
Known potential estimates of geothermal resources in the East
African Rift System range between 10,000 and 20,000 MW and
remain largely undeveloped. The African Rift Geothermal Energy
Development Facility underwrites drilling risks in six African nations
and is backed by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
Kenya and Ethiopia both have installed geothermal capacity already,
and both have plans for projects that will be greater than 100 MW.
The average geothermal power plant in the U.S. is about 25 MW.

Many countries in Central and South America have developed a

portion of their geothermal resources for utility scale power
production. El Salvador and Costa Rica are seasoned users of
geothermal energy. Chile, Argentina, Columbia, and Honduras have
significant amounts of geothermal potential; however, these
countries are still in the early stages of exploring and identifying their
resources.
Countries within Asias geothermal sector including Indonesia, the
Philippines, and Japan are incentivizing the development of
geothermal resources. Indonesia alone contains over 27,500 MW of
potential geothermal resources, the largest known in the world.
In early 2014, GEA estimated Europe and Turkey had a total installed
capacity of 1,996 MW for geothermal energy, and there were 111
new power plants under construction or under investigation in EU
member states. Within Europe, Italy was the market leader with over
50% of the European capacity. Iceland derived between one-quarter
and one-third of its electricity, and 90% of its heating, from
geothermal resources; Icelands geothermal history is considered a
model for transitioning indigenous practices to modern technology
use. World Bank and the geothermal initiatives of the European Bank
for Reconstruction and Development are supported by European
Union climate policies.

Conclusion
Hot, dry rock (HDR) is widespread and offers new resources in areas where geyser activity is un
known .Direct low-temperature heat transfer for home systems is practical as long as low maintenance

is designed into the system .Geothermal energy is limited in extent as extracting the heat usually
exceeds the replenishment rate. Sources of high temperature water or steam are limited and the cost of
extraction, maintenance, and operation will remain high in comparison with other sources of energy.