Presentation 15.

Diagnostic Measurements on Instrument Transformers

Florian Predl, OMICRON, Australia / Dr. Michael Freiburg / Dr. Martin Anglhuber, OMICRON, Austria

Abstract
Instrument transformers are the eyes and ears of the
supply system. Although they are less expensive and
can be replaced much faster than power transformers
or generators, a catastrophic failure can cause serious
danger to people and significant damage to the
surrounding equipment, putting the system at risk.
Without these eyes and ears the key components such
as transmission lines, power transformers, and
generators cannot operate, causing loss of revenue or
supply interruptions.
This paper discusses the most common diagnostic
measurements on instrument transformers used to
assess the condition and reliability of the very same
asset. Case studies are discussed to underline the
importance of conducting regular diagnostic tests.

1 Diagnostic Measurements on
Instrument Transformers An
Overview
In general, diagnostic measurements on instrument
transformers can be subdivided into two main
diagnostic tools: diagnostic measurements on the
electro-magnetic
circuit
and
diagnostic
measurements on the insulation system.
The measurement on the electro-magnetic circuit
involves the magnetic iron core, the primary and
secondary winding and in case of a capacitive voltage
transformer (CVT) the compensation reactor and the
capacitor stack. A measurement of the accuracy (ratio
error and phase displacement) involves the electrical
circuit of an instrument transformer. Instrument
transformers which are used in metering applications
require a high accuracy. Inductive current and voltage
transformers and capacitive voltage transformers can
develop ratio and phase deviations after some time in
service. Shorted turns in current transformers and
broken capacitive layers in the capacitor stack of a
CVT are often undetected. This can lead to readings
errors, loss in revenue, and in some cases a complete
breakdown. The integrity of the electro-magnetic
circuit can be verified with either a conventional
measurement approach often referred to as primary
injection method [1]. The ratio error and phase
displacement is therefore verified by injecting rated
primary current, resp. applying rated voltage to the
instrument transformer. The transformation ratio
and phase displacement is obtained while rated load
is applied to the secondary winding(s).

Modern test equipment [2] allows for measuring the

load dependent ratio error and phase displacement
using a so-called modeling approach or often
referred to as an unconventional measurement
method. The instrument transformer is therefore
considered as a black-box. The test instrument is
utilizing low voltage and current signals to verify the
electrical circuit diagram. The parameters of the
equivalent circuit diagram are determined by
measurements from both the primary and secondary
side. This modeling method enables on-site
calibration of voltage transformers and current
transformers with high accuracy in a much shorter
time and with less risk, saving many man-hours and
substantially reducing the outage time needed.
The second main diagnostic tool on instrument
transformers is the measurement on the insulation.
The insulation properties of instrument transformers
are very similar to the bushings of a power
transformer. New methods have been developed for
determining the water content in oil-paper
insulations by using the dielectric response
measurement such as polarization and depolarization
currents (PDC) or frequency domain spectroscopy
(FDS) by extending the approach developed for
power transformers.
Partial discharge (PD) helps to detect and locate
insulation defects. PD testing is the only meaningful
diagnosis for epoxy (dry) type medium voltage
instrument transformers. With advanced software
filtering methods, sensitive measurements are
possible even in noisy testing environments.
Table 1 below gives an overview of the most common
diagnostic measurements on instrument transformers and the type of faults which can be detected
using this very method.

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Table 1:

Diagnostic Measurements on Instrument

Transformers

Electrical part
of the
instrument
transformer

Detectable fault

Diagnostic
measurement

Winding

Short-circuits, open
circuits

Accuracy
measurement
(conventional and
unconventional),
winding resistance
measurement,
Turns ratio
measurement,
Excitation
measurement

Magnetic core

Capacitive
voltage divider
(only in CVTs)

Mechanical
deformation, floating
core ground,
magnetostriction

Accuracy
measurement
(conventional and
unconventional),
Excitation
measurement

Partial breakdown of
capacitive layers

Accuracy
measurement
(conventional and
unconventional),
Capacitance and
dissipation factor
measurement

Reactance coil
(only in CVTs)

Short-circuits of
single turns

Accuracy
measurement
(conventional and
unconventional),
Short-circuit
impedance
measurement

Insulation
materials

Partial discharge,
moisture in solid
insulation, aging,
contamination of
insulation fluids

Partial discharge
measurements,
dissipation factor and
capacitance
measurement,
Frequency domain
spectroscopy (FDS),
Polarization and
depolarization
currents (PDC)

1.1 Winding
1.1.1 Winding Resistance Measurement
A well-established measurement method for
detecting any shorten turns or open circuits is the DC
winding resistance measurement. The approach is
very simple: A DC current (IDC) is injected into the
winding while the resulting DC voltage drop (UDC) is
measured across the winding. Due to the inductive
nature of the core, both the current and voltage have
to stabilize and settle first. The resistance profile over
time will have a profile as indicated in Figure 1.

Figure 1:

Winding Resistance Profile Over Time

One measure to consider a stable resistance reading

is to look at the resistance deviation over time. If the
deviation drops below a certain threshold the
resistance reading is considered to be stable. The DC
winding resistance can then be derived using Formula
1.
(1 )

In terms of assessing the test results, one can compare

the on-site resistance reading with either reference
results from the factory or with instrument
transformers from the other two phases (same class
ratings). It is important to correct the measured
resistance (Rmeas) measured at ambient temperature
(Tmeas) in temperature. Typically, a reference
temperature of 75C (Tref) is used when comparing
results [1].
The temperature correction for a copper winding is
indicated in Formula 2.
=

235 +
235 +

(2)

1.1.2 Turns Ratio Measurement

A very effective measurement method for detecting
any shorten turns on instrument transformers is the
turns ratio measurement.
On current transformers a voltage is applied across
the secondary winding (Vsec) and the resulting
induced voltage is measured at the primary side
(Vprim). Important is to compensate the voltage drop
across the winding resistance due to the no-load
losses (Iexc). The turns ratio (N) can be derived as
indicated in the formula below.
=

(3)

Modern test equipment allows a very precise voltage

and current measurement. This allows to detect even
single turn to turn short-circuits.
Sometimes a turn to turn short circuit only activates
at a certain voltage level. The secondary voltage
applied can be increased to check for any highimpedance turn to turn short circuits. By doing so the
test frequency should be increased as well in order to
prevent any core saturation effects affecting the turns
ratio measurement accuracy.
On inductive and capacitive voltage transformers, a
direct measurement of the turns ratio is not possible
due to no-load losses inside the VT which have to be

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mathematically considered. On inductive voltage

transformers a no-load voltage ratio can be measured
by applying a voltage across the primary winding and
measuring the induced voltage across the secondary
winding using a high-impedance voltage meter.
1.1.3 Excitation Measurement
The measurement of the excitation curve can also be
used to detect turn to turn short-circuits. The
measurement method will be discussed further in the
chapter about the magnetic core.
1.1.4 Accuracy Measurement
The accuracy measurement involves the measurement of the ratio error and the phase displacement.
This paper will focus more on the novel approaches
for measuring the performance of instrument
transformers. These approaches are based on a
modeling approach.
The modeling approach is based on the measurement
of the equivalent circuit diagram of an instrument
transformer.
For current transformers this alternative measurement method is described in Annex B.204 in the new
IEC 61869-2 standard for current transformers [3].
The standard states that the alternative measurement
method delivers test results which are very close to
the results obtained in the direct test (conventional
measurement method) for low leakage reactance
current transformers. However, every current
transformer shall be tested once by the conventional
measurement method before putting into operation.
For the modeling method the losses of a current
transformer have to be measured according to its
equivalent circuit diagram. The losses can be
subdivided into copper losses and iron losses. The
copper losses are described as the winding resistance
RCT of the current transformer. The iron losses are
described as the eddy losses as represented by the
eddy resistance Reddy and the hysteresis losses as
hysteresis resistance RH of the core.
Using the values of the total losses of the core, a
mathematical model is able to calculate the current
ratio error and the phase displacement for any
primary current and for any secondary burden.
Therefore, all operating points described in the
relevant standards for current transformers can be
ascertained.
Additionally, other important parameters can be
obtained such as the residual magnetism, the
unsaturated and saturated main inductivity, the
symmetrical short-current factor, the over-current
factor, and also the transient dimensioning factor
according to the IEC 60044-6 standard for transient
fault current performance calculations.
Figure 2 shows the equivalent circuit diagram of a
current transformer at rated frequency and Figure 3
shows the corresponding vector diagram for a linear
main inductivity.

Figure 2:

Equivalent Circuit Diagram of a Current

Transformer

Where:

Ie
IS
IP
Xm
Rm
NP,NS
RCT
EMF
US
RB
XB
B

Figure 3:

exciting current
secondary current
primary current
main inductivity of the core
magnetic losses of the core
amount of turns of the ideal core
ohmic resistance of secondary turns
Electro-Motive Force secondary
core voltage
secondary terminal voltage
ohmic part of complex burden
inductive part of complex burden
phase angle of burden

Vector Diagram for a Linear Main Inductivity

The following measurements have to be performed

consecutively to measure the parameters according
to the equivalent circuit diagram:
Measurement of the secondary winding
resistance
Measurement of the initial magnetization curve
Measurement of eddy losses and hysteresis losses
Measurement of the turns ratio N (core ratio)
Calculation of the current ratio error and phase
displacement at desired burden and primary
current values based on the vector diagram for a
current transformer
The modeling approach is a very powerful tool, not
just for regular calibration of current transformers,
but also for diagnostic measurements as it involves all
diagnostic tests on the electrical circuit diagram
discussed so far in the this very paper.

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Cps

PRIMARY

n1

Ls1

R1

n2

SECONDARY
Ls2

I1
Iex

V1

Cp

LH

RFe

I2

VZ2

VZ1
V1HV

R2

VCore

Cs

Vb

-u
cos

jI2(Xs1 +Xs2)
(winding correction)

The equivalent circuit of an inductive voltage

transformer is indicated in Figure 4. The ideal
transformer which does not consider any losses is
indicated on the very left of the equivalent circuit
diagram. The losses of a voltage transformer are
indicated by the core losses and the primary and
secondary stray losses.

Sn

I2(R1 +R2)

jIexXs1

V1
0

Zb

IexR1

-u
ideal transformer
w=n1/n2

Figure 4:

Equivalent Circuit Diagram of a Voltage

Transformer

Where:

n1/n2
V1HV
V1
CP
R1
Ls1
R2
Ls2
Zb
LH
RFE
VZ1
VZ2
I1
I2
Iex
Vb
Vcore
Cps
CS

turns ratio of ideal VT

primary voltage
transformed primary voltage
primary stray capacitance
primary winding resistance
primary leakage inductivity
secondary winding resistance
secondary leakage inductivity
complex secondary load
main inductivity of the core
magnetic losses of the core
voltage drop across primary leakage
impedance
voltage drop across secondary
leakage impedance
primary current
secondary current (load current)
exciting current
voltage drop across secondary load
core voltage or E.M.F
primary to secondary stray
capacitance (negligible)
secondary stray capacitance
(negligible)

The vector diagram of a voltage transformer is

indicated in Figure 6.

Vb
I1

I2
Iex

Ir

Figure 5:

Vector Diagram of a Voltage Transformer

according to Mllinger and Gewecke

The following measurements have to be performed

consecutively to measure the parameters according
to the equivalent circuit diagram:
Measurement of the short-circuit impedance
Measurement of the secondary winding
resistance
Measurement of the primary stray capacitance
Measurement of the initial magnetization curve
Measurement of eddy losses and hysteresis losses
Measurement of the turns ratio, respectively the
no-load ratio
Calculation of the voltage ratio error and phase
displacement at desired burden and primary
voltage values based on the vector diagram for a
voltage transformer
On a capacitive voltage transformer the voltage ratio
of the capacitive stack is measured additionally.
Case study I
A capacitive voltage transformer producing a
secondary voltage that is too low, has been
investigated. The suspect CVT has been measured and
analyzed with VOTANO 100. VOTANO measures the
primary voltage and load dependent ratio error and
phase displacement of inductive and capacitive VTs
using an alternative modeling approach.

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The CVT has the following nameplate specifications:

Voltage ratio: 110kV / 100V
Nominal capacitive ratio: 7.5
Class: 1 metering
Rated load: 120VA @ power factor of 0.8
The results for the ratio error and phase displacement
are indicated in the Figures below.

Figure 6:

way to low voltage. This way the iron core is

demagnetized after the test.
It is possible to excite the iron core at lower
frequencies in order to saturate the core. This makes
the entire measurement safer in terms of inducted
primary voltages on a voltage transformer.
Furthermore, the effect of any stray capacitance can
be reduced to a minimum.
The principle of using lower frequencies to saturate
the iron core is illustrated in Figure 8.

Ratio Error of the CVT Under Test

Figure 8:

Figure 7:

Phase Displacement of the CVT Under Test

VOTANO confirmed that the voltage ratio error of the

VT is too negative, leading to a secondary voltage
which is lower than the rated voltage. A closer look at
the measured capacitive voltage ratio confirmed a
ratio of 8.37. The rated ratio of the capacitor stack is
7.5 indicated partial breakdown of capacitive layers
of C2.

1.2 Magnetic Core

1.2.1 Excitation Measurement
The excitation measurement, often referred to as the
measurement of the initial magnetization curve is a
very effective measurement method to detect any
electrical or magnetic issues related to the magnetic
core.
The magnetic core is therefore excited by applying a
voltage across the secondary winding with all other
windings remaining open-circuited. On voltage
transformers the primary stray capacitance has to be
considered mathematically as otherwise a capacitive
current is measured rather than an inductive exciting
current.
Voltage over current and phase angle between
voltage and current are measured over a wide voltage
range, ranging from low exciting voltages all the way
to saturation voltage. Preferably the measurement is
conducted starting from saturation voltage all the

Hysteresis Loop Family

In regards to the physical behavior of the magnetic

flux density in the core; this is well explained in
Formula 4. A decrease in frequency at a constant
excitation voltage causes an increase of the magnetic
flux density in the core. This has the same effect as
using a constant frequency and increasing the applied
excitation voltage instead.
=

!2"#$

(4)

For the exact representation of the initial

magnetization curve at line frequency the non-linear
core losses have to be considered accordingly.
In terms of analyzing the test results, one can
compare the initial magnetization curve with
reference data from the FAT (only for current
transformers). If the FAT report is not available at the
time, a cross comparison between the phases can be
done. It is important to only compare instrument
transformers of the same type and class together.
On PX class protection CTs the rated knee point
voltage and the exciting current at the rated knee
point voltage is specified on the nameplate. This is a
reference point which can be used to assess the initial
magnetization curve. The assessment is done as
follows:
As an example a class 0.02PX100R25 is used here. The
class designation actually means that the rated knee
point voltage is 100V. The measured knee point
voltage must be greater than 100V. The rated exciting
current at 100V is 0.02A. The measured exciting
current at 100V must be lower than 0.02A.

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Furthermore, the measured DC winding resistance

corrected to 75C has to be less than 25.
Case study II
Two current transformers of the same type and class
have been investigated. One CT produced a much
higher ratio error and phase displacement. As both
ratio and phase error were affected, it was assumed
that the issue was related to the core. Any increase in
the core losses will always affect the ratio error and
phase displacement. A measurement of the initial
magnetization curve on both CTs confirmed the issue
to be related to the magnetic core, see Figure 9.

Figure 10: Insulation and its Losses

Figure 9:

Comparison of the Initial Magnetization Curve

The faulty CT shows much higher exciting currents at

the same exciting voltage compared to the healthy CT.
The root cause of the issue was found to be a shorten
screen.

1.3 Capacitive Voltage Divider (CVTs

only)
1.3.1 Capacitance and Dissipation Factor
Measurement
The capacitance and dissipation factor measurement
is a well-established test to evaluate the condition of
the insulation. An ideal (loss free) insulation consists
of a vacuum capacity also referred to as the
geometrical capacity C0. If insulation material other
than vacuum is being used there are one or more
polarization processes present. These represent the
electrical behavior of the used insulation material(s).
Polarization processes are causing losses for example
due to rotation of dipoles. This will furthermore
increase the capacitance measured due to a dielectric
constant greater than 1. Furthermore, the insulation
material has a certain conductivity which creates
conductive losses [6]. A dissipation factor
measurement measures a combination of these
losses, see Figure 10.

A capacitance and dissipation factor measurement on

the capacitive stack of a CVT can reveal any possible
insulation degradation or even shorten capacitive
layers. The physical construction of the capacitive
stack is similar to condenser bushings. If a capacitive
layers should break down, the overall capacitance of
the stack will increase.
Likewise, if the dissipation factor increases it is an
indication of aging process taking place (moisture
ingress, partial discharge, etc.).
A voltage tip-up test can be used to check whether or
not there is any partial discharge activity happening.
An increase in the dissipation factor at a certain
inception voltage indicates partial discharge activity.
This is a common diagnostic tool on rotating
machines and motors. A dissipation factor
measurement however does not allow for an exact
localization of PD. It can only give an overall
representation of the insulation condition.
On CVTs there may be difficulties in obtaining a
balance of dissipation factor as leakage currents
through the insulation of the transformer winding
will cause apparent dissipation factor readings below
the true value, or even a negative value, although
capacitance value obtained will be correct [7].
A change on the result of the measured capacitance
(C1 in series with C2) from one routine test to another
would be an indication that additional investigations
are required.
The practicability of a capacitance and dissipation
factor measurement on inductive voltage transformers needs to be discussed. The main insulation of
an inductive VT is between the individual turns of the
primary winding. This portion of the insulation
cannot be accessed for measurement purposes.
Therefore a dissipation factor measurement can only

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be performed between primary winding and

secondary winding, or between primary winding and
ground. If the current transformer is equipped with a
screen electrode, the measurement between primary
winding and screen is the preferred measurement
method.

1.4 Reactance Coil (CVTs only)

1.4.1 Short-Circuit Impedance Measurement
A CVT has to have a compensation reactance, or often
called reactance coil (Lcomp). This coil compensates
the phase shift caused by the capacitor stack. Hence,
the reactance of the coil is tuned to the reactance of
the capacitor stack at line frequency. The coil is
typically operated at around 10kV 30kV, depending
on the manufacturer. In Figure 11 a simplified
electrical diagram of a CVT is shown. Shorted coil
turns cause the inductance to drop. The capacitor
stack is therefore not compensated properly
anymore, leading to a drift in the phase displacement.

Figure 12: Nameplate Information on the CVTs Under Test

The CVT confirmed to have elevated dissolved gases

on the oil sample, it also confirmed to have a much
higher ratio error and phase displacement. A closer
look at the short-circuit impedance test result, which
is part of the measurement procedure of VOTANO
confirmed that the reactive part of the faulty CVT
shows capacitive behavior.
This confirmed that the reactance coil produced
shorten turns. The capacitor stack was not
compensated anymore at line frequency.
The ratio error and phase displacement of the faulty
CVT are indicated in Figure 13 and 14.

Figure 11: Capacitive Voltage Transformer Simplified

Electrical Diagram

A short-circuit impedance test at line frequency can

be used to check the integrity of the coil. An AC
current is injected in the secondary winding while the
voltage drop and the phase angle between voltage
and current is measured across the secondary
winding. The primary side (capacitor stack) has to be
short-circuited to ground. The reactive part of the
complex short-circuit impedance should be close to
0 indicating the capacitor stack is properly
compensated.

Figure 13: Ratio Error of the Faulty CVT Investigated

Case study III

Two CVTs have been investigated after one of the two
units revealed high gas levels after oil sampling. The
DGA result indicates partial discharge and arcing.
Both units have been measured with VOTANO to
check the integrity of the electrical circuit. The
nameplate information is shown in Figure 12.
Figure 14: Phase Displacement of the Faulty CVT
Investigated

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1.5 Insulation Materials

1.5.1 Frequency Domain Spectroscopy (FDS)
A high water content in the oil-paper insulation of
instrument transformers can lead to a failure of the
insulation and as a consequence as far as to a
complete destruction of the asset. Therefore it is
important to be able to assess the water content of
instrument transformers. This proves quite
challenging as, in contrast to power transformers,
measurement techniques like oil sampling are quite
difficult to conduct due to the rather small oil volume
and often a lack of simple and easy access to it.
Over the last years, the frequency domain
spectroscopy (FDS) has been well established to
assess the moisture in the solid paper insulation.
The measurement of the dielectric response in a wide
frequency range (e.g. 100 Hz up to 5 kHz) provides
information about the insulation condition and
especially for oil-paper insulations about the water
content in the solid insulation.
For calculating the water content the measured
dielectric response curve is compared to a modeled
curve (Figure 15). The curve modeling is done with
help of a database including material properties of
cellulosic material with different water contents and
temperatures. Using the so called XY model [8] a
dielectric response is calculated under consideration
of the insulation geometry, temperature, oil and
moisture content. A fitting algorithm aligns the
modelled response of the database to the measured
curve of the real insulation and automatically delivers
the water content of the cellulose material as well as
the water saturation or the oil conductivity.

Figure 16: Test Setup for a CT Having an Accessible Screen

Electrode; Measured Insulation HV to Screen;
Guard Applied to Ground

Figure 17: Test Setup for a CT Having a Screen Electrode

which is not Accessible; Measured Insulation HV
to Ground; no Guard Applied

Figure 15: Calculation of the Water Content Based on the

XY Model

The appropriate test setup on current transformers

depends on whether or not the CT has a screen
electrode and whether or not the screen electrode is
accessible. Figure 16 to 18 show proposed setups for
these cases [9].

Figure 18: Test Setup for a CT Having no Screen Electrode;

Measured Insulation HV to Secondary Winding;
Guard Applied to Ground

Case study IV
Two combined instrument transformers have been
investigated as one unit showed a high concentration
of hydrogen in an oil sample. The concentration was
699 ppm. There was no methane involved. Therefore
it is not very likely that the root cause of the high H2
concentration is caused by partial discharge activity.

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The test results in the table below show a summary of

the dielectric response quantities measured. CT2 is
the instrument transformer having the high
concentration of H2.
CT1

CT2

Tan() @ 50Hz

0,28%

0,29%

Oil conductivity

23fS/m

22fs/m

Moisture content

1,6%

1,8%

C_10mHz/C_50Hz

1,02

1,03

The ratio of the complex capacitance measured at

10 mHz and 50 Hz provides further information on
the insulation conditions of instrument transformers.
Field studies have shown that the capacitive ratio
should be below 1.05 for a healthy and dry insulation
[10]. The advantage of the capacitive ratio is that this
parameter is not depending on the geometry of the
insulation.
The dielectric parameters obtained on both
instrument transformers do not indicate any aged
insulation. The very high concentration of H2 was
most likely caused due to stray gas.
1.5.2 Partial Discharge Measurements
Partial discharge is a localized dielectric breakdown
of a small portion of a solid or liquid electrical
insulation system under high voltage stress. PD only
partially bridges the insulation between conductors
[11]. PD activity deteriorates the insulation material
over time, which can eventually lead to a total
breakdown of the insulation.
PD releases parts of the energy as an electromagnetic
impulse.
Figure 19 shows a PD measurement setup according
to IEC 60270. It involves a blocking impedance, a
coupling capacitor, and a coupling device which is
attached to the PD measurement instrument.

Figure 19: PD Measurement Setup According to IEC 60270

Instrument transformers for medium voltage

applications typically have a cast resin insulation.
Voids or cavities can be a result of shock and vibration
or manufacturing faults. If the electrical field strength
in the insulation becomes higher than the dielectric
strength of the gas inside the void, a total breakdown
will appear inside the void. At this very moment the
electrical field in the void extinguishes. The dissipated
energy will be recharged by the coupling capacitor.
The coupling device connected to the coupling
capacitor is able to measure the recharge current. The
recharge process depends on the voltage gradient of
the applied voltage. The process is the fastest at the
steepest part of the voltage gradient. Therefore PD
often occurs close to the zero crossing of the applied
voltage (Figure 20 and 21).

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Figure 22 shows a typical phase resolved partial

discharge pattern (PRPD pattern) for a void discharge
happening inside a solid insulation of a medium
voltage VT.

Figure 22: PRPD Pattern of Void Discharges

2 Conclusion

Figure 20: Recharge Process Explained on the Principle of a

Void Discharge

This paper discusses various measurement methods

for assessing the condition of instrument transformers. Although instrument transformers are not
seen as a very expensive asset, a catastrophic failure
can cause an outage. Therefore it is important to
regularly assess the condition of instrument
transformers in the field by utilizing electrical
measurements. Each measurement method discussed
in this paper is looking at a particular electrical part
of an instrument transformer. By combining the test
results of the various diagnostic tests together an
overall picture of the health condition of the
instrument transformer can be derived.

Figure 21: Recharge Process Explained on the Principle of a

Void Discharge

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Literature

About the Author

[1] IEC 60044-1 Edition 1.2 / 2003-02 "Instrument

Transformers, Part 1: Current Transformers",
Reference
number
CEI/IEC
600441:1996+A1:2000+A2:2002

Florian Predl (12 November

1986)
commenced
with
OMICRON in 2007 as an
application engineer with
special focus on advanced
instrument
transformer
diagnostics
within
the
Engineering Services team.
Florian also provided technical support to worldwide users of OMICRON products and was heavily
involved in special projects and the development of
new products, including VOTANO 100, the VT and
CVT test instrument. In 2013 Florian joined the
OMICRON team in Australia as he thought it is much
nicer to have Christmas and New Years Eve in
summer. He is currently employed as a Field
Application Engineer.
Before starting at OMICRON he attended the Federal
Higher Technical Institute in Rankweil, Austria,
where he graduated in 2007 with a focus on high
frequency technology. His final thesis focused on
range extension of RFID systems for business
applications by using high frequency amplifiers.

[2] A new approach for on-site calibration of

voltage transformers, Part I and Part II, Michael
Freiburg, Florian Predl, ITMF 2013
[3] IEC 661869-2 Edition 1.0 / 2012-09 "Instrument
Transformers, Part 2: Additonal requirements
for current transformers"
[4] IEC 60044-6 First Edition / 1992-03
"Instrument transformers, Part 6: Requirements
for protective current transformers for transient
performance" Reference number CEI/IEC 446:1992
[5] IEEE "Standard Requirements for Instrument
Transformers" IEEE Std C57.13TM-2008
[6] Andreas Kchler, Hochspannungstechnik,
Heidelberg 2009
[7] Trench Instruction Manual Coupling Capacitor
Voltage Transformers, Bulleting 20 95 05,
Revision 03, 02/2012
[8] M. Koch. "Reliable Moisture Determination in
Power Transformers (PhD thesis, Institute of
Energy Transmission and High Voltage
Engineering, University of Stuttgart, Sierke
Verlag Gttingen, Germany, 2008)
[9] DIRANA application note: Measuring and
analyzing the dielectric response of current
transformers
[10] Isolationsdiagnose an Messwandlern mit
dielektrischer Antwortmessung, Martin
Anglhuber, Diagnosewoche 2015 in Austria
[11] IEC 60270 Third Edition / 2000-12 "Highvoltage test technique Partial discharge
measurement" Reference number CEI/IEC
60270:2000

OMICRON 2015 Instrument Transformer Measurement Forum