Karen Claire B.

Beler BS CEN IV
CE A100: Fluid Mechanics
August 18, 2016, Thursday (10:30 12:00)

Fluid Mechanics is that branch of mechanics which deals with the behavior
of fluids at rest and in motion.

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
1. Specific Weight,

It is defined as the gravitational force per unit volume of fluid or simply

the weight per unit volume and is given the symbol ( gamma ) . Water
at

20

has a specific weight of

9.79 kN /m

and at

equal to

9.81 kN /m3 .
=

weight of fluid
volume

2. Mass Density,

It is defined as the mass per unit volume and has units equal to
3
kg /m . It is obtained by dividing the specific weight by 9.81( g) . At
4

the mass density of water is

equal to
=

998 kg /m

1000 kg/m

and at

20

mass of fluid
volume
For gases:
=

p
RT
p

where,
R

absolute pressure of gas,

gas constant,

J /kg K

Pa

it is

For air:

R=287 J /kg K
R=1716 lb ft /slug R

absolute temperature,

K = C +273
K = F +460

3. Specific Volume,

Vs

It is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid. Specific volume is the

reciprocal of density,
V s=

4. Specific Gravity,

It is defined as the ratio of the specific weight of a given liquid to the

specific weight of water at a standard reference temperature. The
standard reference for water is taken as 4 where specific weight
of water at atmospheric pressure is

9810 kN /m3 . Specific gravity is just

a ratio of specific weights therefore it is dimensionless and is

independent of the system of units used.
s=

specific weight of object fluid

=
specific weight of water water

s=

weight of object
weight of equal volume of water

s=

density of object fluid

=
density of water water

For water:
3

=62.4 lb / ft =98.1 kN /m

=1.94 slugs/ ft 3=1000 kg / m3

s=1.0

5. Viscosity of Fluids
It is the property which determines the amount of its resistance to a
shearing force. A perfect fluid would have no viscosity. The shear stress
in a viscous fluid is proportional to the time rate of strain. The
proportional factor for the viscous fluid is known as the dynamic or
absolute viscosity.

Shear Stress of Fluid,

Shear stress of fluid near a wall

F
A

dV
dy
where,

( tau ) the shear stress

(mu)
dV
dy

dynamic or absolute viscosity

time rate of strain or velocity gradient

Dynamic or Absolute Viscosity,

Dynamic or absolute viscosity is also defined as the ratio of shear

stress to the velocity gradient.

dV
dy

Kinematic Viscosity,

The ratio of dynamic viscosity of the fluid ( ) to its mass

density ( ).

absolute viscosity ,
mass density ,

 (upsilon)

where,

kinematic viscosity (

m2 /s )
(mu)

absolute viscosity

(rho)

6. Bulk Modulus of Elasticity,

1000 kg/m

(N /m2 s )

Unit weight of water

9.81

Ev

When pressure is applied to a fluid, it contracts and when the pressure

is released it expands. The elasticity of the fluid is related to the
amount of deformation (expansion or contraction) for a given pressure
exchange. The elasticity is called the compressibility of the fluid and is
expressed as the bulk modulus of elasticity.
Ev =

dP
dV
v

where,

Ev
dP
dV
v

bulk modulus of elasticity

change in unit pressure
volume change per unit

volume
The bulk modulus of elasticity of water is approximately
which corresponds to

0.05

change in volume for a change of

2.2 x 10 kPa
1 MPa

in

pressure.

7. Surface Tension,

The surface tension of a fluid is the work that must be done to bring
enough molecules from inside the liquid to the surface to form a new
2
2
unit area of that surface in ft lb/ft or N m/m .

For pressure inside a droplet of liquid:

=

4
d

where,

surface tension,

N /m

diameter of the droplet,

gage pressure,

Pa

Based on the theory of molecular attraction, molecules of liquid

considerably below the surface act on each other by forces that are
equal in all directions, but molecules near the surface have a greater
attraction for each other that they do for molecules below the surface.
This produces a surface on the liquid that acts liked a stretched
membrane. Due to this membrane, each portion of the liquid surface
exerts tension on adjacent portions of the surface or on objects that
are in contact with the liquid surface. This tension acts in the plane of
the surface and its magnitude per unit length is defined as surface
tension ( sigma) .
=

F
L

where,
F
length

surface tension in

N /m

elastic force transverse to a

=0.0756 N /mat 0
=0.0742 N /mat 10

=0.0728 N /mat 20

8. Capillarity,

The rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube which is caused by surface

tension and depends on the relative magnitudes of the cohesion of the
liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the containing
vessels. Liquids rise in tubes they wet (adhesion > cohesion) and fall in
tubes they do not wet (cohesion > adhesion). Capillary is important
when using tubes smaller than about 3/8 inch (9.5 mm) in diameter.

h=

4 cos
d

When the end of a small diameter tube is put into a reservoir of water,
the curve water surface occurs within the tube. The relatively great
attraction of the water molecules for the glass causes the water
surface to curve upward in the region of the glass wall. Then the
surface tension force acts around the circumference of the tube in the
direction shown. It is assumed that is equal to zero for water
against glass and

140

for mercury against glass.

For mercury and water on clean glass:

h=

4
d
h

where,

height of capillary rise or

depression

surface tension


140

wetting angle

for water,

for mercury

specific weight of liquid

diameter of tube

9. Compression of Gasses (Boyles Law)

For the same mass of gas subjected to different conditions, the product
of absolute pressure and volume divided by its absolute temperature is
constant.
p1 v 1 p 2 v 2
=
T1
T2
p1

where,

initial absolute pressure of

gas
p2

final absolute pressure of

gas

of gas,

v1

initial volume of gas

v2

final volume of gas

T1

initial absolute temperature

K
T2

of gas,

final absolute temperature

For Isothermal condition: (constant temperature,

T 1 =T 2 )

p1 v 1= p2 v 2

For Adiabatic or Isentropic condition: (no heat exchanged)

k

p1 v 1 = p2 v 2

w 1 k p1
( ) = =constant
w2
p2

T1
p2 (k1)/ k
=( )
T2
p1
where,

ratio of the specific heat at

constant
pressure to the specific heat at
constant volume. Also known as
adiabatic exponent.
10.

Pressure Disturbances

Pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid move in waves. The velocity

or celerity is expressed as:
c=

EB

in

m/s

or

where,

ft /s

celerity or velocity of pressure

wave
EB

bulk modulus of elasticity of the

fluid,
Paft /s 2

E=

dp
dV
V
dp p2 p1 , change in pressure

where,

dV V 2V 1 , change in volume
V =V 1
p
lb/ ft

mass density of fluid,

kg /m3

or

11.

Vapor Pressure of Liquids

This is the pressure at which a liquid will boil. All liquids tend to
evaporate or vaporize, which they do by projecting molecules into the
space above their surfaces. If this is a confined space, the partial
pressure exerted by the molecules increases until the rate at which

molecules reenter the liquid is equal to the rate at which they leave.
For this equilibrium condition, we call the vapor pressure the
saturation pressure.
Molecular activity increases with increasing temperature and
decreasing pressure, and so the saturation pressure does the same. At
any given temperature, if the pressure on the liquid surface falls below
the saturation pressure, a rapid rate of evaporation results, known as
boiling. Thus we can refer to the saturation pressure as the boiling
pressure for a given temperature, and it is of practical importance for
liquids.
If boiling occurs in flowing liquids, vapor bubbles start growing in local
regions of very low pressure and then collapse in regions of higher
pressure downstream. This phenomenon is called cavitation.
12.

Ideal Fluids

An ideal fluid is usually defined as a fluid in which there is no friction; it

is inviscid (its viscosity is zero).
13.

Newtonian Fluids

Fluids for which shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of

strain.
A fluid for which the constant of proportionality does not change with
rate of deformation.
14.

Non-Newtonian Fluids

Fluids for which shear is not directly proportional to the rate of strain.

Introduction to Pressure in Fluid Mechanics

Pressure is the result of compacting the molecules of a fluid into a

smaller space than it would otherwise occupy.
Pressure always acts inward normal to any surface (even imaginary
surfaces as in a control volume).

Pressure is a normal stress, and hence has dimensions of force per unit
area.
In the English system of units, pressure is expressed as "psi" or
lbf/in2.
In the Metric system of units, pressure is expressed as "pascals"
or N/m2.
1 kPa = 103 N/m2
1 Mpa = 106 N/m2
1 bar = 105 N/m2
1 mb = 100 N/m2
Standard atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa (0.1013 MPa) or 14.69 psi.
Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure.

Pressure Terminology
There are three different kinds of pressure reported in the literature, and it is
important to know the terminology:

Absolute pressure is measured relative to absolute zero on the

pressure scale, which is a perfect vacuum. (Absolute pressure can
never be negative.) Absolute pressure is indicated by p, and is identical
to the familiar thermodynamic pressure.

Gage pressure (sometimes written as "gauge pressure") is measured

relative to the local atmospheric pressure. Gage pressure is thus zero
when the pressure is the same as atmospheric pressure. (It is possible
to have negative gage pressure.) Gage pressure is indicated by p g, and
is related to absolute pressure as follows: pg = p - pa, where pa is the
local atmospheric pressure.
o Example: A car tire gauge measures a tire pressure of 32.0 psi.
The local atmospheric pressure is 14.2 psi. What is the absolute
pressure
of
the
air
in
the
tire?
Solution: The tire gauge measures gage pressure, relative to the
local value of atmospheric pressure. Thus, p = p g + pa = 32.0 +
14.2 psi = 46.2 psia. Note that in the English system, absolute
pressure in psi is often denoted "psia", while gage pressure in psi
is often denoted "psig". There is no such distinction in the metric
system.
o Example: Does gage pressure change with elevation?
Solution: No. Since gage pressure is always relative to the local
value of atmospheric pressure, the gage pressure of the
atmosphere is always zero, regardless of elevation. Note that
absolute pressure decreases with elevation, just as water
pressure increases with depth.

Vacuum pressure is also measured relative to the local atmospheric

pressure, but is used when the gage pressure is negative, i.e. when the
absolute pressure falls below the local atmospheric pressure. (Positive
vacuum pressure means that the gage pressure is negative.) Vacuum
pressure is indicated by pvacuum, and is related to absolute pressure as
follows: pvacuum = pa - p, where pa is the local atmospheric pressure.

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
PRESSURE INSIDE PIPES AND VESSELS
Pressure results when a liquid is compacted into a volume. The
pressure inside vessels and pipes produce stresses and strains as it tries to
stretch the material. As an example of this is a pipe with flanged joints. The
pressure in the pipe tries to separate the flanges. The force is the product of
the pressure and the bore area.

PRESSURE DUE TO THE WEIGHT OF A LIQUID

Consider a tank full of liquids as shown. The liquid has a total
weight W and this bears down on the bottom and produces a pressure p.
Pascal showed that the pressure in a liquid always acts normal (at 90C) to
the surface of contact so the pressure pushes down onto the bottom of the
tank. He also showed that the pressure at a given point acts equally in all
directions so the pressure also pushes up on the liquid above it and sideways
against the walls.

The volume of the liquid is

The mass of liquid is hence

V = Ah
m=V = Ah

The weight is obtained by multiplying by the gravitational

constant, g.
W =mg=Ahg
The pressure on the bottom is

=W / A

It follows that the pressure at a depth

given by

in a liquid is

p=gh

PRESSURE HEAD
When

is made the subject of the formula, it is called the

pressure head,
h=p / g
Pressure is often measured by using a column of liquid. Consider
a pipe carrying liquid at pressure p. If a small vertical pipe is attached to it,
the liquid will rise to a height h and at this height, the pressure at the foot
of the column is equal to the pressure in the pipe.

This principle is used in barometers to measure atmospheric pressure and

manometers to measure gas pressure.

In the manometer, the weight of the gas is negligible so the height

represents the difference in the pressure

p1

and

p2 .

p1= p2=gh
In the case of the barometer, the column is closed at the top so that
and

p1= pa . The height

p2=0

represents the atmospheric pressure. Mercury

is used as the liquid because it does not evaporate easily at the near total
vacuum on the top of the column.
pa= gh