Journal of Oil Palm &The Environment

An official publication of the Malaysian Palm Oil Council (MPOC)

Review

Open Access

Journal of Oil Palm & The Environment 2013, 4:1-16

doi:10.5366/jope.2013.1

Managing Marginal Soils for Sustainable Growth of Oil Palms

in the Tropics
S. Paramananthan
Abstract
There are a number of problematic soils in the
Tropics. They are soils on steep terrain, soils
of the dry regions,highly weathered soils,
lateritic soils, acid sulfate soils, saline soils,
sandy soils, organic soils and soils after
specific land use change.
This paper discusses the various problems
that each of these groups of soils have and the
various management practices that can be
taken to overcome these problems so that they
can produce oil palms on a sustainable basis.
Each of these problem soil groups have their
own limitations, some of which are difficult or
costly to overcome. Sometimes oil palm may
not be the best crop for the area. However,
economic and labour considerations will
determine the final decision.

Soils on steep terrain

Soils of the dry regions
Highly weathered soils
Lateritic soils
Acid sulfate soils
Saline soils
Sandy soils
Organic soils
Soils after specific land use change

Address: Param Agricultural Soil Surveys (M) Sdn. Bhd.,

A4-3 Jalan 17/13, 46400 Petaling Jaya, Selangor Darul
Ehsan

Email: passparam@gmail.com, passparam@yahoo.com

Published: 18 January 2013

Keywords
tropical soils, soil management, oil palm,
marginal soils, soil limitations

Received: 22 August 2012

Accepted: 4 December 2012

JOPE 2013,4:1-16
1. Introduction
Tropical soils are often considered to be
problematic soils due to their:
Acidic nature pH<5.5
Low cation exchange capacity (< 12
cmol(+)kg-1clay)
Low base saturation (< 10%)
Deep profiles high leaching losses
Situated in high rainfall areas (> 200
mm/month high leaching and
erosion)

2013 S. Paramananthan
This is an Open Access article which permits unrestricted
use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.

However, certain groups of Tropical soils are

considered to be really problematic. They
need special management techniques or
practices to have sustainable productivity.
These soils include:

2. Objective of Paper
This paper discusses the characteristics and
problems that each of these groups of soils
have and the various management practices
that can be taken to overcome or minimize
these problems. The objective is to produce a
crop such as oil palm on a sustainable basis.
3. Need for Semi-Detailed Soil Survey
The first step that needs to be taken is to
identify the problems that these soils have.
This is achieved by carrying out a semidetailed soil survey of the area. Such a survey
at an intensity of one auger examination for
every twenty hectares will result in a soil map
at a scale of 1:50,000 or 1:25,000. Such a
map and accompanying report with selected
profile descriptions and analytical data will
delineate the various problem soils found in
the area. Such a report should include the
topographic map, geology, climatic data and
also a soil management group map of the
area.
The yield potential of the various
management groups can also be given. Thus
the soil map becomes the key to sustainable
and productive use of the soils.
4. CHARACTERISTIC AND MANAGEMENT
OF PROBLEM SOILS
4.1. Soils on Steep Terrain
There is no clear and precise definition of
steep terrain. The Land Conservation Act
1
1960-Revised 1989
suggests that the
Government can gazette any land above 18
slope as hill land for conservation and
protection from soil erosion. However this Act
has seldom been enforced especially in Sabah
and Sarawak2.
Topography is an important land characteristic
that determines the suitability of a piece of land
for agricultural purpose. Today in Malaysia,
the Departments of Agriculture generally
designates any land above 25 or 50% as
steepland. Thus no land above this slope
should be cleared and planted for plantation
agriculture.
Land clearing by native and
indigenous population is a notable exception
as these involve small pockets of land used for
shifting cultivation.
Land on steep terrain is often strongly
dissected with long slopes and narrow vshaped valleys and they often occur at
elevations above 75 m. Depending on the
aspect (direction in which the slope faces) the
land can have either the morning or evening
sun If the number of sunshine hours that the

crop will receive is short, this will result in lower

photosynthesis and lower yields. In the case
of oil palm, the overlapping fronds are
etiolated resulting in smaller fruit bunches.
With increasing steepness of slope, soil
erosion becomes a problem and land slips can
be common. Soils on steep slopes also tend to
be shallow (<50cm). This will result in limited
root development, poor anchorage and the
crop will be prone to wind damage. On such
terrain, terracing and cover crop establishment
is mandatory to minimize soil erosion. A high
road density is required to evacuate the
produce and allow easy access for farm
operations. The effect of slope on yield of oil
palm on hilly to steep terrain is given in Table
3.
1
Ideally any land above 25 slopes should not
be alienated for plantation crops. However if a
plantation already exists on such land,
2
Paramananthan recommends the following
corrective measures:
a)
b)
c)
d)

ensure that terraces are well constructed.

ensure that cover crops are established.
use empty fruit bunches.
stack oil palm fronds around the palms or
along the interrow to minimise runoff and
soil erosion.
e) inspect the terraces, roads, roadcuts
regularly for evidences of soil erosion and
take quick remedial action.
f) carry out selective thinning of the palms to
allow better sunlight and plant husbandry.
g) apply the correct fertilisers.
h) ensure that crop harvested is evacuated
and not left in the ravines etc.
i) explore the different evacuation methods
and select the most efficient and
economical one.
4.2. Soils of the Dry Region
Most tropical areas have a good annual rainfall
with a relatively even distribution of rain
throughout the year. However as one moves
away from the equator, dry months (< 100cm)
become a problem. Thus while areas in
Sabah, Sarawak (Table 2) and the southern
part of Peninsular Malaysia have high and
evenly distributed rainfall, states like Kedah
and Perlis have two three dry months per
year. The length of the dry months increases
to almost five months in Cambodia (Table 3).
This prolonged dry period will have a
pronounced effect on the performance and
yield of many plantation crops such as oil palm
and rubber. Thus the cultivation of plantation
crops is to a large extent controlled by the
length of dry season.

Table 1: Estimated potential yields from oil palm for different regions in Malaysia (tonnes FFB/ha).3

Wet Region

Moderately Wet Region

Dry Region

Year of
Harvest

Level to
Undulating
(0-12%)

Rolling
(1224%)

Hilly and
Somewhat Steep
(24-50%)

Level to
Undulating
(0-12%)

Rolling
(12-24%)

Hilly and
Somewhat Steep
(24-50%)

Level to
Undulating
(0-12%)

Rolling
(12-24%)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

9-11
16-18
23-25
28-30
31-32
31-32
31-32
31-32
30-31
30-31*
30-31*
29-30
29-30
29-30
28-29
28-29
27-28
27-28
26-27
25-26
24-25
23-24
22-23
21-22
20-21

7-9
14-16
20-22
25-27
28-29
29-30
29-30
29-30
28-29
28-29
28-29*
27-28*
27-28
27-28
26-27
26-27
25-26
25-26
24-25
24-25
23-24
22-23
21-22
20-21
19-20

5-6
10-12
14-16
18-20
21-22
23-24
24-25
24-25
24-25
24-25
23-24
23-24*
23-24*
23-24
22-23
22-23
21-22
21-22
20-21
19-20
19-20
18-19
17-18
17-18
16-17

7-9
14-16
20-22
25-27
28-29
29-30
29-30
29-30
28-29
28-29
28-29*
27-28*
27-28
27-28
26-27
26-27
25-26
25-26
24-25
24-25
23-24
22-23
21-22
20-21
19-20

5-7
11-13
17-19
22-24
25-26
27-28
27-28
27-28
26-27
26-27
26-27
25-26*
25-26*
25-26
24-25
24-25
23-24
23-24
22-23
22-23
22-23
21-22
20-21
19-20
18-19

4-5
8-10
12-14
16-18
18-20
20-21
22-23
22-23
22-23
22-23
22-23
21-22
21-22*
21-22*
20-21
20-21
19-20
19-20
18-19
18-19
18-19
17-18
16-17
16-17
15-16

4-5
7-8
10-11
13-15
16-18
18-20
20-22
22-23
22-23
22-23
22-23
22-23
21-22
21-22
20-21*
20-21*
20-21
19-20
19-20
18-19
18-19
17-18
17-18
17-18
16-17

3-4
5-6
8-10
11-13
14-16
16-18
18-19
20-21
20-21
20-21
20-21
20-21
19-20
19-20
18-19
18-19*
18-19*
17-18
17-18
17-18
17-18
16-17
16-17
16-17
15-16

Note:
* Recommended age for thinning (if yield starts to decline).
First year of harvesting at 31 months after planting.
Yields are approxim ate and obtained based on standard agronomic management and good soils.

Hilly and
Somewhat
Steep
(24-50%)
2-3
4-5
6-7
9-10
12-13
14-15
16-17
17-18
18-19
18-19
18-19
18-19
18-19
18-19
17-18
17-18
17-18*
16-17*
16-17
16-17
16-17
15-16
15-16
14-15
14-15

Table 2: Total monthly rainfall (mm) and raindays in Tradewinds Melor Estate, Kuching (2007-2011).

Year

2007

2008

2009

2010

5-Year Mean
(2007-2011)

2011

Month

mm

days

mm

days

mm

days

mm

days

mm

days

mm

days

Jan

912

27

403

18

1,044

24

641

18

718

19

744

21

Feb

764

22

375

18

344

10

281

13

410

10

435

15

Mar

485

18

451

25

242

16

193

17

507

21

376

19

Apr

260

14

44

324

19

408

17

405

18

288

15

May

234

11

188

10

289

14

234

12

212

12

231

12

Jun

401

11

211

144

99

11

176

206

Jul

396

17

276

16

62

302

17

159

239

12

Aug

261

11

309

325

16

242

15

192

13

266

13

Sept

410

12

156

13

101

251

19

390

14

262

13

Oct

514

21

219

19

415

16

602

16

432

21

436

19

Nov

313

24

344

20

372

21

397

18

442

17

374

20

Dec

485

25

402

24

698

22

289

15

526

22

480

22

5,435

213

3,378

188

4,360

177

3,939

188

4,568

182

4,337

190

Total:

Dry month (<100 mm)

Table 3: Climatic data for Preah Vihear, Cambodia (2007-2010).

RAINFALL (mm)
MONTH
2007
Jan

2008
5

2009
0

3-Year Mean
(2007-2009)

2010
4

Feb

Mar

14

32

179

75

Apr

86

16

60

71

54

May

320

318

205

136

281

Jun

131

147

113

241

130

Jul

447

101

107

248

218

Aug

583

205

241

333

343

Sept

217

366

639

260

407

Oct

38

73

183

220

98

Nov

64

106

23

na

64

Dec
Total:

33

29

12

1,938

1,393

1,766

na
(1,511)

25
1,698

na not available
Dry month (<100 mm)

Areas with more than three dry months are not

suitable for oil palm4. Crops belonging to the
family of Euphorbiaceae such as rubber and
jatropha are subjected to wintering during such
drought periods. In spite of this, rubber has
been planted in areas with a dry season of up
to 5 months and a total annual rainfall of 1,500
mm/annum. The effect of this marginal rainfall
on tree performance is confounded with that of
temperature and increased solar radiation.
Consequently, there is an increase in dry
5
matter production away from the Equator .
This has beneficial effects on tree performance
6
for rubber . Cultural practices for rubber need
to be modified under such climatic conditions.
Away from the equator, the period of wintering
and low yield of mature rubber coincides with
that of low temperatures so that any adverse
effects are minimised. On the other hand
during the wet summer season with no
constraints due to drought or low temperature,
potential for latex production should be high
provided that the trees are not put under
excessive tapping stress during the dry
season. The overall productivity may even be
higher when compared with that near the
Equator. However, the immature period may
be longer.
It is obvious that under adverse climatic
conditions crop selection is important. Oil
palm does not appear to be the best choice.

Rubber could be more tolerable. Crops such

as sugarcane, tapioca and mango could be
alternative crops which can take advantage of
the pronounced dry period.
Thus it is
important to select the crop and do a cash flow
analysis before deciding on the best crop to be
planted.
4.3. Highly Weathered Soils
The rapid weathering in the tropical
environment,
especially
over
highly
weatherable iron-rich parent materials, results
in soils that are dominated by kaolinite, iron
oxides and aluminium oxides. Such soils have
been classified as Oxisols according to Soil
7
Taxonomy . These soils are often deep, red
friable soils which appear at a glance to be
excellent for agriculture. However, they are
often rich in iron and aluminium oxides, are
somewhat excessively drained and have low to
very low cation exchange capacity (CEC).
Most of their physico-chemical properties of
these soils are related to their predominantly
8
oxidic mineralogy . The high iron content
giving the red colour causes these soils to fix
large amounts of phosphates. The high iron
content also causes the clay to aggregate to
form pseudosands and pseudosilts resulting in
these soils having a high porosity and hence
prone to moisture stress. The low CEC implies
that these soils have a low nutrient retention
capacity and hence suffer from low fertility and
high leaching losses of added nutrients. Thus,

low base saturation values are common.

Where the soils are developed over
serpentinites, they can have trace element
toxicities of nickel, chromium and cobalt but
very low in boron, fluorine and sulphur.

can occupy more than 60% by volume and can

be rounded, angular or even platy and
occasionally they occur in large blocks as
capping of low hills. The presence of these
gravels form an impediment to root penetration
and cause moisture stress due to lower
effective soil volume.
These soils are
particularly problematic if the gravel layer has
its upper boundary within 50 cm of the soil
surface. This inhibits root penetration and can
result in wind damage.
A good cover crop should be maintained and
EFB mulching be carried out. Oil palm fronds
can be spread around the palms and on the
terrace lips or between the palm rows. The
terraces should also have a back-slope to trap
and conserve moisture. Additional fertilizers
especially P can be applied. On these shallow
lateritic soils the time of the first harvest after
planting is often delayed by a year and the
yields generally lower. With a high level of
management, however, productivity can be
9
fairly good (Fig. 1)

Figure 1: Comparison of yield performance of oil

palms on Malacca and Bungor Series soils
Notes: Malacca is a shallow lateritic soil
- Bungor is a deep soil

In spite of these adverse characteristics, these

soils have been extensively planted with oil
palm, rubber and cocoa.
A number of
management practices are necessary to
ensure good sustainable yields.
Crop
selection based on climate and time of field
planting to avoid the drought season is
essential. Where dry periods are common,
rubber is the preferred crop. To overcome P
fixation, band placement or application on the
frond heap should be practised. Organic
mulching especially with empty fruit bunches
(EFB) helps P availability and moisture status.
High rates of fertilizer in split applications are
also recommended. Frond placement around
the palms can also be practised. With such
management practices, good yields of rubber
10,11
and oil palm are obtainable (Fig. 1).
4.4. Lateritic Soils
Some highly weathered soils in the Tropics
also contain large (>35%) of hardened plinthite
or petroplinthite or lateritic gravels. These
gravels may occur in various quantities and at
various depths within the profile but they often
occur at the surface. These gravels/stones

4.5. Acid Sulfate Soils

Acid sulfate soils can be divided into two
groups:
Potential
acid sulfate soils
Sulfaquents
True acid sulfate soils Sulfaquents
and Sulfic Endoaquepts
Acid sulfate characteristics are also known to
be present in some organic soils i.e.
Sulfihemists and Sulfohemists.
They are
better discussed with the organic soils.
The potential acid sulfate soils are common
along the coastal areas and are inundated by
sea water or in areas adjoining undrained peat
swamps. They occur as a narrow coastal belt
outside the coastal bund in Peninsular
Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak, Indonesia and
Thailand. The soils near the coast are often
saline, have a bluish colour, high water table
and a sticky consistence. Organic matter is
low and often confined to old roots and a few
pieces of buried wood. Potential acid sulfate
soils which fringe the peat swamps have an
organic layer (histic epipedon) less than 50 cm
thick overlying the bluish sulfidic marine clay.
The potential acid sulfate nature is recognized
in the field by the presence of mangrove
vegetation, gelam (Melaleucea leucodendron),
and the smell of rotten eggs (hydrogen
sulphide).
Common soils are the Kranji,
Rajang and Linau Series. Chemically these
soils contain sulfides.

Table 4: Key to the identification of potential (sulfidic materials) and true acid sulfate (sulfuric horizon) soils in Malaysia
Depth to
Sulfuric Horizon/
Sulfidic Materials

Sulfidic Materials
within 50 cm

Depth to
Underlying C
Horizon

No Diagnostic Horizon
High
Moderate to Low
Conductivity
Conductivity
>4 dSm-1
<4 dSm-1
High n value
Low n value

No Diagnostic
Horizon

Cambic Horizon

<50 cm

>50 cm

50-100 cm

>100 cm

Non-Acid Sulfate
Soils

AC/OAC/OC

OAC/AC1C2/
OC 1C2

ABwC/OABwC

ABjC/OABjC

ABjC/OABjC

ABwBjC

ABwBj

ABwC

Horizonation
Subsoil
Properties
Clayey
(>35% clay)
Gray B matrix
Moderate to strong
structures
Moist sticky dry
hard
Clayey
(>35% clay)
Brown B matrix
Weak to moderate
structures
Friable
Fine Loamy
(18-35% clay)
Coarse Loamy
(15-18% clay)

Sulfidic Materials
between 50-100 cm

AC/OAC/OC

Sulfuric Horizon
within 50 cm

Sulfuric Horizon between 50-100

cm underlying Cambic Horizon

No Sulfidic or
Sulfuric Horizon
within 100 cm

Rajang
(Kranji)
(Weston)

Punda
(Merbok)

Kalibong

Kluang
(Moyan)
(Chenaam)

Kuala Perlis

Parit Botak

Telok

Tongkang

Bernam
Tualang
Briah

Bergosong
Linau/sh

Metah
Linau/mod.

Kemang
Tebuan (cosc)

Guar

Sedu

Jawa/sh
Juru/sh (cosc)

Jawa
Juru (cosc)

Selangor

Paloh

Nagor

Lari (calcaric)

Tambun

Carey (fscl)

Jugra (fscl)

Tumpat

Pandak

Belat
Sandy
(<15% clay)
(>70% sand)
Notes: Textural Variant
(cosc) = coarse sandy clay
(fscl)
= fine sandy clay loam

Timun

Mersan

Phases
sh
= shallow
mod
= moderately deep

Others
calcaric = underlain by calcareous materials

Figure 2: Effect of increased drainage and subsequent raising of water table on yield of oil palms on severe
acid sulphate soils 18

Drainage of these unripe soils results in the

sulfides being oxidised to sulphuric acid and
the formation of true acid sulfate soils with their
characteristic yellow jarosite mottles and a pH
of less than 3.5.
In Malaysia a soil is
considered to be an acid sulphate soil if the
12
soil has a sulfuric horizon within one metre of
the soil surface. The horizon considered to be
a sulfuric horizon must have pH (1:1 soil:
water) of less than 3.5 and has jarosite
mottles.
Two soil sequences have been
identified according to the origin of the
materials (marine or brackish water)13,14. Soils
formed from marine deposits have a light gray
matrix colour, a sticky consistence, coarse
structures
and
moderate
levels
of
exchangeable Ca and Mg. These soils are
difficult to drain and cannot be ploughed after
rain due to their sticky consistency. Soils
developed over brackish water deposits often
have a friable, well structured brown coloured
B horizon and much lower exchangeable
cations. These soils rich in organic matter can
be drained fairly easily and cultivated readily.
The utilization and management of these soils
are strongly related to the depth of the sulfuric
horizon, the amount of organic matter in the B
horizon and the depth at which the unripe

marine clay in encountered. The soils are

classified according to whether the sulfuric
horizon is less than 50 cm or between 50-100
cm from the soil surface. Two groups based
on the colour consistency and structure of the
B horizon are recognized. The third criterion,
which is considered least important, is the
15
depth at which the marine clay occurs (Table
4).
Generally speaking, all soils on coastal clays
where the water table and also Ca and Mg
levels are high are considered to be marginal
or unsuitable for rubber. Oil palm, cocoa and
coconut are extensively cultivated on these
soils. In the early part of the century, little was
known about the management of acid sulfate
soils, and consequently deep drainage to
remove excess water was practised. This
practice resulted in the soils being more acid.
The key to the management of these soils is
the control of the water table, by the use of a
series of drains and simple structures to
control and trap the water in the drains during
periods of low rainfalls, so that oxidation is
minimised. During the rainy season, the control
gates are opened and the drains are flushed.
This technique has improved the yield of oil
16,17
18
palm
( Fig. 2) .

Another practice which helps to improve these

soils is the application of oil palm bunch ash.
This not only helps to improve the soil pH but
is also a source of potassium. In the case of
cocoa, the organic rich soils do not appear to
give good yields. Cocoa is also not suitable on
soils where the sulfuric horizon occurs within
50 cm of the surface. Oil palm, on the other
hand, has been cultivated successfully on all
these soils, particularly if the water table can
be controlled. Today since bunch ash is not
readily available, the prudent application of
empty fruit bunches (EFB) is practised. Fairly
good yields can be obtained for oil palms on
these soils.
4.6. Saline Soils
All saline soils in Malaysia occur along the
coast and are inundated by sea water. The
salinity is caused by the sea water and these
soils have high conductivity values within 50
cm of the soil surface. Saline soils have
salinity values of more than 4 dSm-1 . These
soils have a high exchangeable sodium and
often also have high soluble sulphates. Saline
soils can be clayey or sandy depending on the
location.
The use and management of these soils
involve bunding and reclamation of these
areas by cutting off the sea water inundation

and lowering the salinity levels at least in the

upper 50 cm. For reclamation a few factors
need to be considered:
The land should be higher than high tide
levels so that no pumping is required.
Materials for making the bunds are
available.
Area should be sufficiently large to recover
reclamation costs.
Rainfall should be at least 1,700 mm/year
to flush the salinity.
Even after reclamation, sea water incursion
may occur during high tides and neap tides.
Preferably crops that can tolerate salinity such
as coconuts are best selected for planting.
Before field planting, the salinity levels at 50
cm depth should be measured to ensure that
-1
the levels are below 4 dSm .
4.7. Sandy Soils
Soils with a loamy sand or sandy textures (clay
content of less than 10%) are considered to be
sandy soils. Two main types of sandy soils
can be recognized.
Soils with a bleached albic horizon
overlying a cemented or non-cemented
spodic horizon with its upper boundary
within 100 cm of the soil surface.

Figure 3: Construction of scupper drains in sandy soil

Soil Type

Table 5: Classification of the sandy soils

FAO/UNESCO Soil
7
Soil Taxonomy
Map of the World
19

Revised Legend

Malaysian Soil
18
Taxonomy

Shallow (<50 cm)

Spodic (humus-rich)

Typic Haplaquod
Typic Haplohumod

Gleyic Podzol
Carbic Podzol

Aquic Haplohumod
Leptic Haplohumod

Moderately deep (50-100 cm)

Spodic (humus-rich)

Typic Haplohumod

Carbic Podzol

Typic Haplohumod

Deep sandy soil

(spodic >100 cm)

Typic Quartzipsamment
Typic Tropopsamment
Typic Haplohumod

Haplic Arenosol
Albic Arenosol

Typic Quartzipsamment
Typic Tropopsament

Table 6:Yield potential of oil palm in Sarawak, Sabah and Kalimantan Tengah
Region

Climate
(Rainfall)

Parent Material

SARAWAK
(Miri)

Miri Airport
Total annual
rainfall 2,677
mm
No dry month

Sedimentary
rocks
(Sandstones)

SABAH

Estate near
Telupid
Total annual
rainfall 3,682
mm
No dry month

KALIMANTAN
TENGAH
(Sampit)

Estate near
Sampit
Total annual
rainfall 2,625
mm
1-2 months dry

Dominant
Slope

Soil Series

Hilly to steep
12-30 slopes

Tika
Sibuga
Silantek
Bako
Baiayo
(Buso weakly
cemented)

Sandy Terraces

Sandy Terraces

within 100 cm depth Podzols or

Spodosols.

Soils with deep (>100 cm) sand

Arenosols
or
Quartzipsamments,
Tropopsamments.

A spodic horizon is a subsurface horizon

formed by the accumulation of translocated
humus, iron or both. The spodic horizon can
be strongly or weakly or non-cemented. They
are often overlain by a bleached white sandy
albic horizon. The spodic horizon can occur
within 50 cm or between 50-100 cm of the soil
surface. Where the spodic horizon occurs
below 100 cm depth, the soil is considered to
be a deep sandy soil. Both these two types of
sandy soils can occur over in-situ parent
materials (granites, thick bedded sandstone,
sub-recent terrace alluvia and over sandy
beach ridges). The identification of these
19
soils is shown in Table 5. The original
vegetation on these soils is poor and consists
of gelam (Melaleuca leucodendron) while
Fibrimstylis sp and sheet lallang are common
secondary vegetation.
Sandy soils, due to their low clay content,
present many problems in their utilization and
management. They have very low moisture
and nutrient retention capacities and, hence,
crops grown on these soils are susceptible to

Level to
undulating
0-6 slopes

Level to
undulating
0-6 slopes

Krah
Serai
(compacted
phase)
(mapped as
Krah)

Current or
(Estimated)
Yield
(mt/ha/yr)
16-24
(18-24)
(18-24)
(18-24)
22-32
(Mixed Fields)
14-20
(Baiayo/Serai)
(24-28)

(24-28)

Serai

(18-22)

Buso

(18-22)

Miri

(18-22)

moisture stress and multiple nutrient deficiency

problems. High surface temperatures are also
common.
Soils with a cemented spodic
horizon are often flooded in the rainy seasons
but have moisture stress in the dry season.
On sloping land, soil erosion, collapse of
drains are common problems.
The key to the management of these soils is to
reduce surface temperature and to increase
moisture in these soils. This is often achieved
by maintaining good ground cover and
mulching. Land clearing should be confined to
the woody shrubs and other small vegetation
slashed and only cleared for the planting hole.
Rock phosphate should be applied in the
planting hole to encourage rooting. Where the
shallow cemented spodic horizon results in
flooding, scupper drains every four or eight
rows of oil palms can be constructed using the
19
inverted backfill technique (Fig. 3) . Mucuna
is a good cover crop that should be planted
along the stack row for it to establish and cover
the area. Depending on the crop planted, high
rates of fertilizers in split applications should
be used. Trace elements are also required.
Crop selection is also a common practice on
these soils. Thus tobacco, coconuts, water
melons and mango are common smallholder
crops. In East Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak)
and Indonesia where extensive areas of such

10

soils are common, oil palm has been planted

19
with reasonable success (Table 6).
4.8. Organic Soils
A soil is considered to be an organic soil in
Malaysia if the cumulative thickness of the
organic soil layers up to a depth of one metre
totals more than 50 cm. Lowland organic soils
commonly occur between the coastal plain and
the uplands, and are found in large
waterlogged areas in Peninsular Malaysia,
Sabah and Sarawak.
In Sarawak they
20
distinctly occupy peat domes . Six vegetation
types or phasic communities have been
mapped on these domes 20,21,22 .
The organic soils of Malaysia used to be
mapped according to their state of
decomposition (as reflected by their weight
loss after ignition) in Peninsular Malaysia. This
state of decomposition was determined in the
field after rubbing the sample between the
fingers,
to
determine
how
much
undecomposed, partly decomposed and
completely decomposed material is left. The
loss after ignition is then used to confirm this:

Organic clay <35% loss on ignition

Muck 35-60% loss on ignition

Peat

>60% loss on ignition

In Sabah soil reaction as proposed by the

23
FAO/UNESCO Soil Map of the World
was
used. In Sarawak the depth of the organic
soils was used.

Mukah Family
50-100 cm
Anderson 1
100-200 cm
Anderson 2
200-300 cm
Anderson 3
>300 cm

Depth of peat

Depth of peat

Depth of peat

Depth of peat

24

Paramananthan
proposed
a
Unified
classification for the Organic Soils of Malaysia
using the structure of Soil Taxonomy 7 but
modified to soil local conditions. Under this
system, seven categoric levels are recognized
(Table 7).
Many of the inherent characteristics of the
organic soils can result in problems for crops
planted on peat. The fact that organic soil
materials dominate the soil implies a complex
soil nutritional problems both for major
nutrients (N, K) and micro nutrients (Cu, B,

Table 7: Differentiae used at the different categoric levels of organic soils

Category
Order
Sub-Order
Great-Group

Sub-Group

Differentiae
Presence/Thickness of OSM

Histosols

Drainage Class/Moisture Regime

Folists, Gambists

Thickness of OSM
Thick (> 150 cm) Ombro
Thin (< 150 cm) Topo
Central concept.
Dominant material in subsurface tier (50-100 cm).
Presence of Sulfuric Horizon/Sulfidic Material.
Nature of Substratum:
Residuum (Lithic/Paralithic)

Ombrogambist
Topogambists
Fibric (Typic), Hemic, Sapric, Mossic, Mineral
(Terric), Sulfidic, Sulfuric, Fluventic

Fine-earth (Soil/Riverine/Marine)

Acidic, Basic, Sedimentary, Calcareous, Ironstone,

Fragmental
Sandy/clayey/clayey sulfidic

Soil Temperature Regime

Isom esic/Isothermic/Isohyperthermic

Mode of Origin of OSM

Allochthonous transported (layered)

Autochotonous in situ

Presence/absence of wood/decomposition
stage.

Non-woody/Undecomposed/Decomposed

Salinity Classes (Surface Tier) ground water

Ash Content (Surface Tier)

Reaction Class
(pH CaCl2 0.01 M)
Nature of Surface Tier

Drainage Status

Drained/Undrained Phases

Depth Phases

Shallow (50-100 cm), Moderately deep (100-150

cm)
Deep (150-300 cm), Very deep (300+ cm)

Soil Family

Soil Series

Remarks (examples)

-1

Soil Phase

Non-saline
<1 dSm
-1
Weakly saline 1-4 dSm
-1
Strongly saline >4 dSm
Low <10%
High >10%
Dysic < 4.5 in all parts of surface tier
Euic > 4.5 in some part of surface tier
Fibric, Hemic, Sapric, Terric (clayey, loamy,
sandy)

11

Zn). Organic soils are naturally waterlogged

resulting in poor aeration and hence require
drainage.
Subsidence and shrinkage will
result on drainage which also causes palms to
lean in different directions and even fall over
causing problems for harvesting.
Over
drainage will result in irreversible drying. The
dome-shape makes the drainage design
difficult. The presence of wood in peat can
cause palms planted over them to be stunted
25.
and may even result in death
Organic soils,
due to their waterlogged nature, have poor
accessibility and restrict the use of heavy
machinery.
As such the cost of drain
construction and development of peat areas
are more costly than on mineral soils.
Maintenance costs after planting are also high.
The development and management of organic
soils require a soil survey to delineate the
different soil types with their different
characteristics, the drainability of the peat. A
development plan of the area is made with
these data. All of these studies should be
incorporated in the Environmental Impact
Assessment Study which is a statutory
requirement.

Type of drain

In designing the drainage for the area the

whole peat swamp area should be considered.
Ideally the main drains should be constructed
and the area drained for one year before
development begins. This will allow for the
initial subsidence to take place. Subsequently
the field and collection drains can be
constructed. The layout plan of the drainage
system for a peat swamp and the drain
26,27
30
dimensions
are given in Figure 4 .. While
such a layout appears to work in most areas,
this may not be the best design for peat domes
where the topography of the dome needs to be
taken into consideration. Once the drains
have been constructed together with water
control structures, the planting rows and
harvesting paths need to be compacted (Fig.
5). The drains in the peat areas need to be
regularly desilted and the drains flushed during
the rainy season to remove excess acidity.
Monitoring to prevent peat fires in the area
also needs to be carried out. A planting
density of 160 palms/ha is recommended and
where palms are stunted, supplies need to be
carried out. The major and minor nutrients
need to be monitored.
This particularly
involves K, Cu, Zn and B. Rates for P can be
low. The yields of oil palm based on United

Width (m)

Depth (m)

Top

Bottom

Field

1.0-2.0

0.5-0.6

0.9-1.0

Collection

1.8-2.5

0.6-0.9

1.2-1.8

Main

3.0-6.0

1.2-1.8

1.8-2.5

Figure 4: Layout plan of the drainage system in peat swamp

12

Figure 5: System of consolidation of harvesting paths and planting rows in peat swamp.

Figure 6: FFB yields on deep peat in United Plantation

13

Figure 7: Oil palm yields on deep peat

Plantations experience are shown in Figure 6

28
27
and Figure 7 ).
4.9. Soils After Specific Land Use Change
Large areas of level to undulating terrain in the
north-west of Peninsular Malaysia which
experience a clear dry season were planted
with sugarcane since the 1980s. These areas
include the Perlis Plantation Berhad area
(Perlis) now under Gula FELDA Chuping, the
Gula Padang Terap (Tradewinds) and the
Laka-Taman Area (FELDA) in Kedah. These
areas have now been planted with rubber and
oil palm. Due to this land use change a
number of problems have been encountered.
The cultivation of the sugarcane in these areas
involved the ploughing of the land and the
application of large amounts of lime
(CaCO3/MgCO3). Due to the regular ploughing
over 30 years of sugarcane cultivation a
ploughsole or ploughpan has developed on
these soils at a depth of around 20-30 cm from
the soil surface (Fig. 8). The soil above this
impervious pan is also high in calcium. During
the rainy season, these areas often suffer from
waterlogging while in the dry season (Dec-Jan)
the soils are dry due to their sandy loam
textures and low rainfall. The roots of rubber
trees, especially the tap roots are unable to
penetrate this hardpan.
Oil palm roots
experience the same problem but to a lesser
extent. Thus both these crops suffer from
waterlogging in the rainy season and moisture

stress in the dry season. Wind damage of the

rubber is also experienced due to the poor
anchorage.
In an effort to improve the situation, deep
planting holes have been used. This did not
help as the water above the surrounding
hardpan layers flowed into the planting hole
and the rubber experience wet feet in the
rainy season. Subsequently shallow scupper
drains were dug in the interrows. This helped
improve the situation. It is recommended that
in future planting the hardpan in the planting
line be broken using a deep plough or ripper.
This can be accompanied by scupper drains.
The spoil from the drains should be mounded
at the base of the rubber trees.
Both the early plantings of rubber and oil palm
are just being opened for tapping or
harvesting. Growth of rubber is poorer than
expected. Leaf analysis indicates high calcium
levels. This is expected to lower rubber latex
yields due to precoagulation. Soil samples
have been sent recently for soil analysis to
determine the level of calcium and magnesium
in the soil. The effect of these problems
associated with the hardpan and calcium on
the yields of rubber are yet to be seen. Early
growth of oil palms seems to be good but the
effects on the long term yield are yet to be
seen.

14

10.

11.

12.

Figure 8: Soil showing the ploughsole

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16