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RADIATION PROTECTION
Module 2.2
Use of this material, acknowledging the IAEA as the source, is permitted for
non-profit training
Page 1
PART 2
RADIATION PROTECTION
MODULE 2.2
PROTECTION FROM EXTERNAL RADIATION HAZARDS
CONTENTS
OVERVIEW.................................................................................................... 4
LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................. 5
1.
SELF-CHECK 1 ............................................................................................. 8
2.
SELF-CHECK 2 ........................................................................................... 16
2.2 Administrative Controls ..................................................................... 17
2.2.1 Classification of areas ................................................................ 17
2.2.2 The radiation warning symbol .................................................... 20
2.2.3 Investigation levels..................................................................... 20
2.3 Physical Controls .............................................................................. 21
SELF CHECK 3 ........................................................................................... 21
3.
SELF-CHECK 4 ........................................................................................... 32
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Page 3
OVERVIEW
Radiological hazards are divided into external and internal radiation hazards
and both of these can lead to exposure. External radiation hazards are due
to radioactive materials outside the body. Internal radiation hazards exist
when there is the potential for radioactive materials to enter the body. The
radiation protection methods for each type of hazard are different and this
module covers the protection from external radiation hazards only. The next
module, Module 3.3, Protection from Internal Radiation Hazards, will deal
with the protection methods for internal radiation hazards.
In this module, you will learn about the three main methods of protection
against external radiation hazards those of time, distance and shielding.
You will also learn how to apply these methods for protection against the
common types of radiation emitted by sealed sources and by radiation
apparatus.
MATERIALS
A scientific calculator would assist with the calculations.
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
When you have completed this module you will be able to do the following:
1. Distinguish between external and internal radiation hazards.
2. State the effects of radiation type on the external radiation hazard.
3. Distinguish between radioactive materials and x-ray devices as external
radiation hazards.
4. State the three basic methods of external radiation control.
5. Give practical examples of how time and distance can be used to
minimize radiation exposure.
6. List appropriate shielding materials for the various types of ionizing
radiation.
7. Explain how areas may be classified according to dose rate
measurements and occupancy factors.
8. Recognise and draw the radiation warning symbol.
9. Explain the term investigation levels and state why they are necessary.
10. Give examples of physical and administrative controls that may be used
in the workplace.
11. Perform simple calculations for the shielding of beta particles.
12. Perform simple calculations for the shielding of x-ray and gamma
radiation using half-value and tenth value layers.
13. Perform point source dose rate calculations by applying specific
gamma-ray constants.
14. Compare the methods of distance and shielding by performing relevant
calculations.
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1.1 Introduction
External radiation is radiation from a source outside the body. An external
radiation hazard exists when ionizing radiation from a source outside the
body has the potential to cause harm.
radiation hazard which exists when there is a potential for exposure from
radioactive materials entering the body (see Module 2.3 Protection from
Internal Hazards).
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Table 1
Relative External Radiation Hazards
Radiation Type
Alpha Particles
None
Beta Particles
Slight
Gamma Rays
Severe
X-Rays
Severe
Neutrons
Severe
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Radioactive
SELF-CHECK 1
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook:
1. What is the difference between an external and internal radiation
hazard?
2. Why are alpha particles not considered to be an external radiation
hazard?
3. For which organs can beta particles be an external radiation hazard?
4. Which types of radiation can penetrate the body?
5. What is the major difference between X-ray generators and radioactive
materials as external radiation hazards?
Now check your answers with the model answers in the your workbook.
2.
Time.
b)
Distance.
c)
Shielding.
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[1]
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To ensure that
workers do not exceed the annual dose constraint, their exposure should be
controlled to an average of 5 Sv h-1.
The concept of time is also useful in planning work that may lead to external
radiation exposure. Often it may be useful to practice a technique without an
actual radiation source being present.
[2]
[3]
[4]
In practice, we can assume that physically small sources are, in effect, point
sources provided that the distance from the source is at least ten times the
largest dimension of the source.
In radiation protection, distance is often used to reduce exposure to ionizing
radiation, e.g. by restricting access close to sources or by using long
handling tools (e.g. tongs).
If we know the dose rate at a particular distance from the source, then it is
possible to calculate the distance at which dose rates are considered
acceptable. This concept is illustrated in Example 3.
Example 3
Question
The dose rate at 2 m from a gamma source is 125 Sv h-1. At what distance
will it give an acceptable dose rate of 5 Sv h-1?
Answer
Using Equation 4 and substituting the values gives:
125 x 22 = 5 x d22
Rearranging this equation gives:
d22 = 500 = 100
5
d2 = 100 m = 10 m
Hence, by increasing the distance from the source from 2 m to 10 m, we can
reduce the dose rate considerably.
A useful way of remembering the distance principle is:
Remember
When the distance from a radiation source is doubled, the dose rate is
reduced to a quarter of its original value.
Again, it is important to remember this rule in order to reduce exposure to
yourself and your colleagues.
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2.1.3 Shielding
Example 3 above gives a good illustration of how distance may be used to
reduce the dose rates and hence overall dose received. However, in many
situations it is not possible to work with a source if it is more than a metre
away from you. A more practical method for reducing exposure in workplace
situations is to shield the source. By using this method, dose rates may be
reduced whilst still allowing work to be performed.
The amount and type of shielding material required depend on the following
factors:
The type and energy of radiation.
The activity of the source (or intensity of radiation from a generator).
The acceptable dose rate outside the shielding.
In Section 1.2 you learnt about the penetrating power of different types of
radiation. This is summarized in Figure 1.
Figure 1
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recommended.
It is important not to underestimate the hazard of unshielded beta sources
as they are capable of imparting large doses (especially to the hands and
fingers) if they are handled directly. This is particularly important for people
handling vials or syringes containing beta emitters in solution. For example,
a small volume of solution containing a high level of activity of phosphorus32 may give dose rates at the surface of thin-walled plastic tubes in excess
of 1 mSv min-1.
X- and gamma rays are much more penetrating than either alpha or beta
particles. Shielding with materials of a high atomic number (e.g. concrete,
lead or iron) is necessary to attenuate the radiation and reduce the dose rate
to acceptable levels.
shielding material, its thickness and the energy of the incident photons.
Shielding for neutrons is more complex due to the wide range of energies
and the different reactions that may occur.
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down the neutrons plus boron to absorb them. Borated paraffin wax is the
name given to a mixture of paraffin wax and boron which may be used as a
small area shield. The capture reaction with boron-10 is written as follows:
10
B (n,) 7 Li
This means that the boron-10 nucleus absorbs a neutron, emits an alpha
particle and becomes a lithium-7 nucleus.
Fe (n, )
59
Fe
This reaction produces a gamma ray with a high energy of 7.6 MeV. Hence,
iron is not a good shield in a nuclear reactor environment.
Table 2 shows shielding materials which are recommended for different
types of radiation.
shielding required for beta particles, x- and gamma rays will be discussed in
Section 3 of this module.
Table 2
Recommended Shielding Material
Radiation Type
Alpha Particles
None
None
Neutrons
Note that the choice of shielding material is often related to cost, space and
convenience.
cheaper and easier to handle but large thicknesses may be required for
effective shielding.
SELF-CHECK 2
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook:
1.
What are the three basic methods that can be used to control the
external radiation hazard?
2.
3.
4.
5.
What factors are important when considering the amount and type of
shielding materials required for external radiation?
6.
Alpha particles.
b)
c)
d)
e)
Neutrons.
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Now check your answers with the model answers in the your workbook.
Classification of areas.
The controls of time, distance and shielding have already been discussed in
Section 2.1. The classification of areas, the international radiation warning
symbol and the use of investigation levels will be discussed in the next three
sections. The other methods of administrative controls will be discussed in
the relevant modules of Parts 4 and 5 of this distance learning material.
2.2.1 Classification of areas
Work areas can be classified according to the level of the external radiation
hazard. (They may also be classified according to the level of the internal
hazard.
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Hazards.)
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Table 3
Example of Area Classification with Respect to Annual Dose
Area Classification
Controlled
Greater than 6
Supervised
1 to 6
Unclassified
Less than 1
In practice, areas are usually classified according to the measured dose rate
at the boundary of the area. Dose rate values are determined by considering
the potential dose which is acceptable as an annual dose together with the
amount of time spent by workers in the classified area (occupancy time).
The occupancy time is often written as a fraction of the total work time and is
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Controlled
greater than 15
Supervised
2.5 to 15
Unclassified
The dose rate values given in Table 4 have been calculated by dividing the
annual dose (in microsieverts) given in Table 3 by 400 hours.
Note that the values given above are an example only and the dose rate
approach to area classification must be used very carefully, taking into
account the individual workplace conditions. It is very difficult to assess an
average dose rate, and information about the length of time the dose rate
stays at or above the defined levels along with the risk of potential exposure
should be considered.
For
example, local rules may include a written system of work which limits the
time spent in the area on a particular type of work.
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Yellow
Black
Figure 2
The Radiation Warning Symbol
This symbol can be used to warn radiological hazards in areas or on sources
themselves.
For
SELF CHECK 3
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook:
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1.
Draw the international radiation warning sign, indicating its colour and
background colour.
2.
3.
4.
Controlled area.
b)
Supervised area.
c)
Unclassified area.
Once an area has been classified, what should be done to ensure that
workers and visitors are aware of the classification in that particular
area?
5.
6.
7.
Give two examples of physical controls which can be used for the
protection from external radiation hazards.
Now check your answers with the model answers your workbook.
3.
SHIELDING CALCULATIONS
The information in this section will enable you to make estimations of the
thickness of shielding required for beta particles, x- and gamma rays. This
material is intended to be an introduction to shielding. Further information for
shielding in industrial and medical facilities (e.g dose rates from x-ray
generators) is given in the industry specific modules in Part 4 of this distance
learning course. Neutron shielding calculations are complex and beyond the
scope of this course.
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[5]
Page 24
Therefore, shielding of beta particles involves not only the shielding of the
particles themselves, but also involves the minimization of bremsstrahlung
radiation. The fraction of beta particle energy converted to bremsstrahlung
x-rays is given by Equation 6:
F = 3.3 x 10-4 ZE
[6]
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For low activity sources, this quantity of bremsstrahlung x-rays produced will
not be significant. However, at activity levels in the order of megabecquerels
(MBq), the bremsstrahlung radiation from a source such as yttrium-90 will
require additional shielding. This is usually in the form of a higher atomic
number absorber (e.g. lead). Hence, the most effective and commonly used
shielding for energetic beta particles is perspex (to shield the betas)
surrounded by lead (to shield the bremsstrahlung x-rays).
3.2 Shielding of X- and Gamma Rays
3.2.1 The attenuation of x- and gamma rays
When x- and gamma rays pass through material they are not totally
absorbed by that material.
intensity). X- and gamma rays are attenuated exponentially when they pass
through material. This attenuation can be represented mathematically by
Equation 7:
Rx = Ro e-x
[7]
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Equation 8:
[8]
Rx = R0
n
2
where n = the thickness of the shielding in terms of the number of HVLs
Rx = Dose rate after passing through a shield of thickness x
Ro = Dose rate when unshielded
The actual thickness (x) of the shielding can be written in terms of Half Value
Layers (HVLs) as shown in Equation 9:
x = nHVL
[9]
The relationship between the linear absorption coefficient () and the half
value layer (HVL) is represented by Equation 10:
HVL = 0.693
[10]
Another useful shielding value is known as the tenth value layer (TVL).
This is defined as the thickness of a shielding material required to reduce the
intensity of radiation to a tenth of its original value. Equation 11 can be used
with tenth value layers:
Rx = R0
n
10
where n = the thickness of the shielding in terms of the number of TVLs
Rx = Dose rate after passing through a shield of thickness x
[11]
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x = nTVL
The relationship between the linear absorption coefficient () and the tenth
value layer (TVL) is represented by Equation 13.
[13]
TVL = 2.303
Some typical values for HVL and TVL are shown in Table 5. Table 5 gives
the energies of the photons and the HVLs and TVLs for concrete and lead.
Notice that the values of HVL and TVL increase with increasing X- or gamma
ray energy.
source than for a caesium-137 source. Note also that the HVL or TVL is
larger for concrete than for lead. This means that concrete shielding will
need to be thicker than lead shielding.
Table 5
HVL and TVL Values for Several X- and Gamma Ray Sources
Source
Gamma Ray
Energy
HVL (cm)
TVL (cm)
(MeV)
Concrete
Lead
Concrete
Lead
226
Ra
0.047 to 2.4
6.9
1.66
23.4
5.5
60
Co
1.17, 1.33
6.2
1.20
20.6
4.0
0.66
4.8
0.65
15.7
2.1
0.13 to 1.06
4.3
0.60
14.7
2.0
137
Cs
192
Ir
50 kVp x-rays
0.43
1.50
1.6
5.3
The X-ray sources are described in terms of the maximum (or peak) voltage
(in kilovolts) applied to the tube. This is written as kVp. There will only be a
very few x-rays at the energy corresponding to peak voltage and so the
average x-ray energy will much less.
The values in Table 5 can be used to estimate the thickness of shielding
required in order to reduce x- or gamma radiation dose rates to workers.
Example 6 illustrates how half value layers may be used in practice.
Example 6
Question
The dose rate near a cobalt-60 source is measured at 160 Sv h-1. What
thickness of lead is needed to reduce this dose rate to 10 Sv h-1?
Answer
This question can be answered using either HVLs or TVLs. In this example
half value layers will be used. Using the HVL of lead for cobalt-60 from
Table 5 we have the following data:
HVL = 1.20 cm
Rx = 10 Sv h-1
R0 = 160 Sv h-1
Using equation 8
10 = 160
2n
2n = 160
10
2n = 16
Since
16 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 24
n=4
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10 = 40
10n
10n = 40
10
10n = 4
Using logarithms
nlog10 = log 4
n = log 4 = 0.6021
log 10
1
n = 20.6021
Hence, the thickness of concrete needed is 0.6021 x 15.7 = 9.5 cm.
Example 8
Question
a)
b)
What distance would achieve this lower dose rate, if no shielding was
available?
Answer
a) For shielding:
From Table 5, the lead HVL of lead for caesium-137 is
HVL = 0.65 cm
Rx = 25 Sv h-1
R0 = 390 Sv h-1
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Using equation 8
25 = 390
2n
2n = 390
25
2n = 15.6
Using logarithms
nlog2 = log 15.6
n = log 15.6
log 2
n = 1.193
0.3010
n = 3.96
Alternatively, since shielding calculations are used to provide estimates of
shielding requirements, 15.6 is approximately equal to 16.
Therefore,
2n = 16
n=4
Approximately 4 HVLs are required.
Therefore the thickness of lead needed is 4 x 0.65 = 2.6 cm.
b) For distance:
Using Equation 4 from Section 2.1.2 and substituting the values:
R1 = 390 Sv h-1
R2 = 25 Sv h-1
r1 = 1 m
390 x (12 ) = 25 x r22
Then
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Remember
SELF-CHECK 4
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook:
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1.
Page 33
What
a) What are the two important factors which control the amount of
bremsstrahlung produced in a shielding material?
b)
4.
4.
DOSE
RATES
FOR
4.1 Introduction
In many situations in radiation protection (e.g. when designing new plant or
increasing the amount of radioactive materials kept in a store), it is useful to
estimate what the dose rate would be at a particular distance from a
radioactive source. For this reason, values known as specific gamma dose
Page 34
Radionuclide
-1
Co
99m
Tc
131
370
33
77
Cs
103
137
192
Ir
160
Note: Values for are taken from Health Physics and Radiological
Heath Handbook, 1992
Answer
From Table 6:
for Tc-99m is 33 Sv h-1 per GBq at 1 metre.
That is, the dose rate at 1m from 1 GBq of Tc-99m is 33 Sv h-1.
We have only 100 MBq of activity:
100 MBq = 0.1 GBq
So for 100 MBq of Tc-99m, we multiply by 0.1:
33 x 0.1 = 3.3 Sv h-1
Hence, the dose rate at 1 m from 100 MBq of Tc-99m would be 3.3 Sv h-1.
In addition, the gamma ray dose constant for any radionuclide can be used in
conjunction with Equation 4 in Section 2.1.2 to calculate dose rates at
different distances. This calculation is shown in Example 10.
Example 10
Question
What is the dose rate at 0.5 m from an iridium-192 source with an activity of
250 MBq?
Answer
From Table 6:
for Ir-192 is 160 Sv h-1.
That is, the dose rate at 1 m from 1 GBq of Ir-192 is 160 Sv h-1.
We have only 250 MBq of activity:
250 MBq = 0.25 GBq
So for 250 MBq of Ir-192, we multiply by 0.25:
160 x 0.25 = 40 Sv h-1 at a distance of 1 m
Using Equation 4:
R1 = 40 Sv h-1
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r1 = 1 m
r2 = 0.5 m
40 x 12 = R2 x 0.52
Rearranging this equation gives:
R2 = 40 = 160 Sv h-1
0.25
Hence, the dose rate at 0.5 metre for 250 MBq of Ir-192 is 160 Sv h-1.
SELF-CHECK 5
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook.
1.
2.
What are the units of the specific gamma dose rate constant ()?
3.
4.
KEY POINTS
Beta particles, x-rays, gamma rays and neutrons are all external
radiation hazards.
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The greater the distance from a source of penetrating radiation, the less
the overall exposure.
When the distance from a radiation source is doubled, the dose rate is
reduced to a quarter of its original value.
The amount and type of shielding material depends on the type and
energy of radiation, the activity of the source (or intensity of radiation
from a machine) and the acceptable dose rate outside the shielding.
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signs,
training,
work
procedures,
local
rules,
source
For any
measured value above this level, an investigation into the cause should
take place.
Physical controls are essentially physical barriers which ensure that the
chance of accidental exposure is as low as possible.
When x-and gamma rays pass through a matter they are attenuated
exponentially.
Half value and tenth value layers can be used to estimate the thickness
of material necessary to shield a particular source of ionizing radiation.
Page 39
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Build-up factors
Controlled area
Investigation level
Occupancy factor
Occupancy time
Unclassified area
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