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Garment washed
jeans
43
Received May 2005
Accepted September 2005
Mary Ankeny
Cotton Incorporated, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
Abstract
Purpose This paper reports on the effects of laundering on physical properties (pilling and edge
abrasion) of washed denim fabrics.
Design/methodology/approach Garment washed denim blue jeans were subjected to repeated
launderings; the effects of the cycles on pilling and edge abrasion were determined. Data were collected
by means of a laboratory experimental factorial design. Analysis of variance was used to determine
significant differences in the three garment washed treatments; pre-washed, stone washed and enzyme
treated blue jeans. Duncans test of multiple range determined the source of significance.
Findings The pre-washed jeans were more prone to pilling than the enzyme and stone washed
jeans. On the other hand, the pre-washed jeans experienced the least amount of edge abrasion while the
stone washed experienced the most.
Practical implications The results can be used by the denim garment manufacturers to design
and engineer their products to suit the customer demands.
Originality/value Jeans are an important part of a consumers wardrobe and a large portion of
denim garments are manufactured with some type of garment wash treatment. Results of this study
will provide denim garment manufacturers with pilling and abrasion information regarding garment
washing treatments to allow them to utilize the garment treatment that best meets their needs.
Keywords Clothing, Abrasion, Wear resistance
Paper type Research paper
1. Introduction
Denim jeans evolved into a part of the fashion gamut during a time when the median
age of the American population was declining (Behling, 1985-1986) and popular culture
has embraced denim since its inception into the fashion world in the 1960s (Magiera,
1989). The success of denim is due to its ability to change with every social
and cultural evolution (Spevack, 1997, p. 7). Denim jeans evolved into a fashion icon
and the universal uniform [that] could simultaneously express the highest level of
individualism (Wilson, 1991, p. 124). Currently, denim jeans are still a major part of
Americas consumer wardrobe. Cotton Incorporated Lifestyle Monitore (2004)
reported for 2003 that . . .consumers reported that they owned, on average, eight pairs
of jeans and 16 denim garments. For the 2004, 25 percent said they would likely buy
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several more denim items, while nearly half (47 percent) admitted they might buy one
or two.
Denim garment manufacturers are interested in producing garments that
consumers want to purchase. Consumers demand for blue jeans with a distressed
or aged look began a revolution in denim processing (Hargraves et al., 1991).
Consumers are interested in broken in finishes and want all the aging work done to
the jeans now, by the manufacturer, instead of doing it themselves (Cone Denim, 1996,
p. 2). Noting this increase in demand, the idea of garment washing was initiated with
pre-washed jeans in the mid 1980s (Cotton Incorporated, 1992; OGrady, 1991). The
pre-washed treatment removed sizing applied during the manufacturing process. In a
garment, many layers are sewn together in areas making them rigid, and thus more
susceptible to abrasion (p. 2) than the adjacent single layers because of their tendency
to hold position while being subjected to abrading forces in garment washing. On
indigo denim, as abrasion occurs, the surface of the yarn is worn away exposing the
un-dyed core of the yarn (Hatch, 1993). The decreased amount of dyed fiber on the
surface of the fabric gives the illusion of an aged look.
By the late 1980s, 60 percent of all domestically produced denim garments received
some type of garment wash treatment (Hargraves et al., 1991). Not long after the
introduction of pre-washed jeans, the idea of using abrasive stones to accelerate the
aging process was developed and stone washing was born, creating an even more
broken-in look (Cotton Incorporated, 1992, p. 1). Stones were incorporated in the
manufacturing process after the garment had been desized and laundered. Abrasion
resulted by removing fibers from the fabrics surface. However, the use of pumice
stones created many problems and the process was very labor intensive (Zimmerman,
1993). Because the stones were a product of volcanic eruptions, they were not always
available in abundance and were expensive to acquire (Hoffer, 1993). The removal of
used stones from stitching and pockets, as well as removal of sediments from the wash
water had to be incorporated into the manufacturing process. Problems with the
machinery and the environment resulted from the use of the stones. The interior of the
laundry machines wore out prematurely and sediments from the stones clogged sewer
lines (Hargraves et al., 1991; Mock and Rucker, 1991).
By the early 1990s, 90 percent of all domestically produced garments received some
type of garment wash treatment (Hargraves et al., 1991). Given these percentages, it is
likely that consumers own or will own denim garments that have been processed
through a wash treatment. With this increased use of garment washes, solutions to
some of the manufacturing problems were developed. To avoid waste-water
contamination from impurities found in pumice stones, manufacturers began to use
synthetic stones as an alternative to natural ones. Since synthetic stones are able to be
manufactured into consistent sizes and shapes, reproducibility of the garment
treatment was improved. Synthetic stones seemed to solve many of the problems, but
still created some of their own. The stones, made of ceramics, coal or other materials,
were very expensive and required a longer drying period than pumice stones
(Hargraves et al., 1991; Sullivan, 1997).
As technologies advanced, denim garment manufacturers discovered that the stone
washed look could be achieved with cellulase enzymes (Cotton Incorporated, 1992). Use
of cellulase enzymes was more appealing to denim manufacturers than the use of
stones due to the alleviation of many problems the stones created (Zimmerman, 1993).
Life of the garment washing equipment was not lessened and the liquor ratio required
was decreased, allowing more garments to be processed at one time (Kochavi et al.,
1990). In addition, there were no stones or grit to remove from the garments,
wastewater or sewer lines.
Enzymes are naturally occurring, specialized proteins that catalyze biochemical
reactions in all living cells (Stewart, 1996). Over 3000 enzymes have been discovered
(Pedersen et al., 1992). Each enzyme works on one specific reaction for one specific
organic material. Cellulase enzymes are a mixture of multiple enzymes that
depolymerize cellulose to glucose and other lower molecular weight polysaccharides
(Clarkson et al., 1994; Stewart, 1996). Cellulase enzymes are added to the bath with the
garments in the same manner as stones (Cotton Incorporated, 1992). In fabrics that
contain cellulosic fibers, the cellulase enzymes remove surface fibers, including those
that hold dye, by partially hydrolyzing the surface of the fabric (Kochavi et al., 1990).
Cellulase enzymes were introduced to gradually replace the use of stones and
therefore the problems stones created (Cavaco-Paulo and Almeida, 1995; Lantto et al.,
1996); however, the enzymes also had negative attributes. To gain desired results, the
garment washing process-using enzymes had to be carefully controlled (Zimmerman,
1993). According the Hargraves et al. (1991), the amount and temperature of the water
used, the time of garment exposure to the enzymes and the pH of the liquor had to
remain at specific settings. Any fluctuation in these settings could cause an increase or
decrease in surface fiber.
Once in the consumers possession, denim jeans are subjected to repeated
launderings. Laundering significantly alters the appearance of garments and accounts
for 50 percent of abrasion damage to garments (Bresee et al., 1994). According to Annis
and Bresee (1990), fuzz is formed during the abrasion process when fibers partially
separate from the surface of the garment. Lint is formed when the fibers completely
separate and pills are formed when those separated individual fibers tangle together
and remain on the fabric surface; therefore, pills affect the appearance of garments.
Wilcock and Van Delden (1985) found that pilling increased to a point and then
decreased with repeated launderings in 100 percent cotton momie (or granite weave)
cloth. The researchers attributed this finding to the possibility that the fibers holding
the pills to the surface of the garment weakened with subsequent launderings. Given
these results, it can be purported that repeated launderings can therefore increase
pilling (Bhavani and Shailaja, 1997; Raheel and Dever Lien, 1982).
Edge abrasion is another form of abrasion that alters the appearance of the
garments surface. Edge abrasion is best described as wear occurring at fabric folds
producing a frayed appearance (Hatch, 1993). This form of abrasion is commonly seen
in all garments but especially in denim jeans because of the rigid areas such as seams
and cuffs. Areas that are layered are firm and tend to hold their position during
laundering more so than the adjacent flat areas. This held position or rigid area also
leads to an increase in abrasive damage during laundering (Morris and Prato, 1975).
Ruppenicker et al. (1972) found that repeated home launderings increased edge
abrasion in durable press and untreated cotton twill fabrics. Likewise, Morris and
Prato (1975) found that laundering resulted in some edge discoloration on all of the
cotton samples regardless of the treatment used (p. 397). Morris and Harper (1994)
when evaluating the influence of repeated launderings on the cuffs of durable press
cotton twill trousers, also found that repeated launderings increased edge abrasion.
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Garment washed
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47
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by a decrease in pilling rating) while the stone washed experienced a decrease. After
25 launderings, the amount of pilling was similar to the controls for all three garment
washed denim treatments. A possible explanation is that after 25 cycles, the surface
fibers were weakened by the mechanical abrasion action of laundering and were
removed so that there was nothing available to form pills. Overall, both the enzyme
treated and the stone washed garments experienced less pilling than the pre-washed
garments. Therefore, both enzyme and stone wash treatments offer serviceable denim
blue jeans with respect to pilling.
4.2 Edge abrasion
There was a significant difference found for the main effects of denim treatment
( p 0.000) and laundering cycles ( p 0.000) for edge abrasion (Table IV). The
two-way interaction between fabric and laundering was not significant ( p 0.130).
Duncans multiple range test (Table V) shows that the three garment washed
treatments were significantly different from each other. The pre-washed garments
experienced the least amount of edge abrasion (mean 2.86) followed by the enzyme
treatment (mean 2.42) while the stone washed samples had the most edge abrasion
(mean 1.91). There was no significant difference between the amount of edge
abrasion after 5 cycles (mean 2.33) compared to after 25 cycles (mean 2.171) as
presented in Table VI. Overall laundering did have a significant effect on edge
abrasion compared to the controls whose mean was 2.96.
There was significantly more edge abrasion in the stone washed control jeans
because processing with stones results in torn surface fibers. The high level of
mechanical action generated through stone washing accelerates the edge abrasion
activity. The stones aggressively removed fibers from the fabric surface thereby
exposing lower yarn surfaces that can be worn away further. Further abrasion from
laundering aggravates the torn fibers, causing a more worn appearance. The desizing
process of pre-washing removes the sizing agents from the blue jeans after
Sources
Table I.
Analysis of variance for
effect of cycles on pilling
Table II.
Duncans multiple range
test for pilling by denim
treatment
Main effects
Treatment (T)
Laundering (L)
2 2
TL
Explained
Residual
Total
SS
dF
MS
2.62
2.42
0.208
0.309
0.309
2.93
9.40
12.3
4
2
2
4
4
8
81
90
0.656
1.21
0.104
0.077
0.077
0.367
0.116
0.139
5.65
10.4
0.896
0.665
0.665
3.16
0.000
0.000
0.412
0.618
0.618
0.004
Denim
Pre-washed
Enzyme washed
Stone washed
Mean
Subset
4.21
A
4.47
B
4.61
B
Sig.
10.40
0.000
Variable
Overall
Control
Pre-washed
Stone washed
Enzyme washed
5 Launderings
Pre-washed
Stone washed
Enzyme washed
25 Launderings
Pre-washed
Stone washed
Enzyme washed
Sources
Main effects
Treatment (T)
Laundering (L)
TL
Explained
Residual
Total
Denim type
Mean
Standard deviation
Variance
398.67
134.50
43.00
45.83
45.67
131.02
40.67
46.50
43.83
133.19
42.67
45.83
44.67
4.43
4.48
4.30
4.58
4.57
4.37
4.01
4.65
4.38
4.44
4.27
4.58
4.67
0.37
0.29
0.32
0.24
0.32
0.33
0.38
0.21
0.39
0.38
0.36
0.35
0.44
0.14
0.09
0.10
0.06
0.10
0.11
0.14
0.05
0.15
0.15
0.13
0.13
0.19
SS
dF
MS
17.68
13.41
4.27
1.33
19.01
14.74
550.56
4
2
2
4
8
81
90
4.42
6.71
2.14
0.33
2.38
0.18
23.37
35.45
11.29
1.83
13.05
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.130
0.000
Stone washed
Enzyme washed
Pre-washed
Sig.
1.91
A
2.42
B
2.86
C
35.45
0.00
Mean
Subset
Laundering interval
Mean
Subset
Sum
25
Control
Sig.
2.171
A
2.33
A
2.69
B
35.45
0.00
construction. Pre-washing removes the starch by reducing the starch to a simple sugar
that is water-soluble; therefore, this results in little fiber damage (Table VII).
5. Conclusions
Denim jeans as well as denim garments have a strong presence in todays fashion
world; denim has a stable and viable foundation. And garment washing is a technology
incorporated by garment manufacturers to be able to provide a product in response to
Garment washed
jeans
49
Table III.
Summary of pilling by
denim treatment and
laundering interval
Table IV.
Analysis of variance for
effects of cycles on
edge abrasion
Table V.
Duncans multiple range
test for edge abrasion by
denim treatment
Table VI.
Duncans multiple range
test for edge abrasion by
laundering cycles
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Table VII.
Summary of edge
abrasion by denim
treatment and laundering
cycles
Variable
Overall
Control
Pre-washed
Stone washed
Enzyme washed
5 Launderings
Pre-washed
Stone washed
Enzyme washed
25 Launderings
Pre-washed
Stone washed
Enzyme washed
Sum
Mean
Standard deviation
Variance
215.67
80.67
32.67
20.67
27.33
70.00
29.00
18.33
22.67
65.00
24.00
18.33
22.67
2.3963
2.69
3.27
2.07
2.73
2.33
2.90
1.83
2.27
2.17
2.40
1.83
2.27
0.6160
0.33
0.38
0.34
0.26
0.36
0.23
0.28
0.58
0.52
0.60
0.28
0.56
0.3790
0.11
0.14
0.12
0.07
0.13
0.05
0.08
0.34
0.27
0.37
0.08
0.32
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Garment washed
jeans
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Further reading
American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) (2003), Technical Manual,
AATCC, Research Triangle Park, NC.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) (2003), Annual Book of ASTM Standards
(Vol. 7.01 and 7.02), ASTM, Philadelphia, PA.
Corresponding author
Ayanna Card is the corresponding author.