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PHYSICS NOTES

Wave Optics
Wave front
The wave front at any instant is defined as the locus of all the particles of the medium
which are in the same state of vibration.
Or
Aan imaginary surface passing through particles oscillating with same phase is known as
wavefront
A point source of light at a finite distance in an isotropic medium emits a spherical wave
front (Fig a).
A point source of light in an isotropic medium at infinite distance will give rise to plane
wavefront (Fig. b).
A linear source of light such as a slit illuminated by a lamp, will give rise to cylindrical
wavefront (Fig c).

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE
Huygens principle states that,
(i) every point on a given wave front may be considered as a source of secondary wavelets
which spread out with the speed of light in that medium and
(ii) the new wavefront is the forward envelope of the secondary wavelets at that instant

Huygens construction for a spherical and plane wavefront:

Huygens construction for a spherical and plane wavefront is shown in Fig.a.
Let AB represent a given wavefront at a time t = 0. According to Huygens principle, every
point on AB acts as a source of secondary wavelets which travel with the speed of light c.
To find the position of the wave front after a time t, circles are drawn with points P, Q, R ...
etc as centres on AB and radii equal to ct.
These are the traces of secondary wavelets. The arc A1B1 drawn as a forward envelope of
the small circles is the new wavefront at that instant.
If the source of light is at a large distance, we obtain a plane wave front A1 B1 as shown in
Fig b.

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Reflection of a plane wave front at a plane surface

Let XY be a plane reflecting surface and AB be a plane wavefront incident on the surface at
A. PA and QBC are perpendiculars drawn to
AB at A and B respectively. Hence they represent incident rays. AN is the normal drawn to
the surface.
The wave front and the surface are perpendicular to the plane of the paper (Fig.).
According to Huygens principle each point on the wavefront acts as the source of
secondary wavelet.
By the time, the secondary wavelets from B travel a distance BC, the secondary wavelets
from A on the reflecting surface would travel the same distance BC after reflection.
Taking A as centre and BC as radius an arc is drawn.
From C a tangent CD is drawn to this arc. This tangent CD not only envelopes the wavelets
from C and A but also the wavelets from all the points between C and A.
Therefore CD is the reflected
plane wavefront and AD is
the reflected ray.

Laws of reflection
(i) The incident wavefront AB, the reflected wavefront CD and the reflecting surface XY all
lie in the same plane.
(ii) Angle of incidence i = PAN = 900 NAB = BAC
Angle of reflection r = NAD = 900 DAC = DCA
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B = D = 90O
BC = AD and AC is common
The two triangles are congruent
BAC = DCA
i.e. i = r
Thus the angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.

Refraction of a plane wavefront at a plane surface

Let XY be a plane refracting surface separating two media 1 and 2 of refractive indices 1
and 2 (Fig). The velocities of light in these two media are respectively v1 and v2.
Consider a plane wave front AB incident on the refracting surface at A. PA and QBC are
perpendiculars drawn to AB at A and B respectively. Hence they represent incident rays.
NAN1 is the normal drawn to the surface. The wave front and the surface are
perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
According to Huygens principle each point on the wave front act as the source of
secondary wavelet.
By the time, the secondary wavelets from B, reaches C, the secondary wavelets from the
point A would travel a distance AD = v2t, where t is the time taken by the wavelets to
travel the distance BC.
BC = C1t and AD = C2t
Taking A as centre and C2t as radius an arc is drawn in the second medium. From C a
tangent CD is drawn to this arc.
.
Therefore CD is the refracted plane wavefront and AD is the refracted ray

Laws of refraction
(i)
(ii)

The incident wave front AB, the refracted wave front CD and the refracting
surface XY all lie in the same plane.
From figure for ABC and ACD
1 1
=
=
=
=
= 21

2 2

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Constant n21 in above equation is known as refractive index of medium 2 with

respect to medium also represented as 12
This is Snells law of refraction
Further, if 1 and 2 denote the wavelengths of light in medium 1 and medium 2,
respectively and if the distance BC is equal to 1 then the distance AE will be equal to 2
(because if the crest from B has reached C in time , then the crest from A should have also
reached E in time ); thus
1 1
=
=
2 2
The above equation implies that when a wave gets refracted into a denser medium
(v1 > v2) the wavelength and the speed of propagation decrease but the frequency f (= v/)
remains the same.

Refraction of a plane wave by a thin prism

we consider a plane wave passing through a thin prism. Clearly, since the speed of light
waves is less in glass, the lower portion of the incoming wavefront (which travels through
the greatest thickness of glass) will get delayed
resulting in a tilt in the emerging wavefront as shown in
the figure.

(b) a convex lens.

We consider a plane wave incident on a thin convex lens; the central part of
the incident plane wave traverses the thickest portion of the lens and is
delayed the most. The emerging wavefront has a depression at the centre
and therefore the wavefront becomes spherical and converges to the point
F which is known as the focus.

(c) Reflection of a plane wave by a concave mirror

a plane wave is incident on a concave mirror and on reflection we have a spherical wave
converging to the focal point F.
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Coherent and incoherent sources

Two sources are said to be coherent if they emit light waves of the same wave length and
start with same phase or have a constant phase difference.
Two independent monochromatic sources, emit waves of same wave length. But the
waves are not in phase. So they are not coherent.
This is because, atoms cannot emit light waves in same phase and these sources are said
to be incoherent sources.

Superposition principle
When two or more waves simultaneously pass through the same medium, each wave acts
on every particle of the medium, as if the other waves are not present. The resultant
displacement of any particle is the vector addition of the displacements due to the
individual waves. This is known as principle of superposition. If Y1 and Y2 represent the
individual displacement then the resultant displacement is given by Y = Y1 + Y2

Thus, superposition principle describes a situation when more than one waves superpose
(i.e. interfere) at a point.
The effect produced by superposition of two or more wave is called interference.

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Interference due to two waves

Suppose two harmonic waves having initial phase 1 and 2 are emitted from two point
like sources S1 and S2 respectively. They superimpose simultaneously ( i.e. at the same
time t) at a point P as shown in figure.

Visible perception of light is produced only by electric field, and therefore, in the present
case we write light waves produced by source S1 and S2 in terms of electric fields (e) only.
Due to S1 source,
1 =

1 (1 1 1 + 1 )
And due to source S2
2 =

2 (2 2 2 + 2 )
Here E1 and E2 represent amplitude of electric fields, 1 and 2 denotes angular
frequencies of waves, and k1 and k2 are wave vectors.
Let 1 = 1t - k1r1+1 and 2 = 2t k2r2+2
Then e1 = E1 sin 1 and e2 = E2 sin 2
Now according to principle of superposition
e = e1 + e2
magnitude of resultant vector e
2 = 12 + 22 + 21
2
If at a instant of time E1 and E2 amplitude of waves then, resultant amplitude E is
2 = 12 + 22 + 21 2 (1 2 )
The average intensity of light is proportional to square of amplitude
I E2 thus equation becomes
= 1 + 2 + 21 2 (1 2 )
In above equation I1 and I2 are the average intensities due to each wave. They are
independent of time.
The last term in above equation is known as interference term which depends on time
Now
1 =
(1 2 ) = (1 2 )
=0
Here t is period of electric field oscillation. On substituting value of 2 and 1 in above
equation
1 =
(1 2 ) = =0 {(1 2 ) + (2 2 1 1 ) + (2 1 )} --(1)

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Case I: Incoherent sources

If angular frequency of both source is not same thus cos(1 2 ) is time dependent and
average value is zero. Thus superposed two waves produce the average intensity I1 + I2 at
point P
Case II: Coherent sources:
For sources to be coherent there angular frequency should be same thus 1 = 2 = (say)
Also since both waves are travelling in same medium there speed will be also same thus
wave length is same thus k1 = k2 = k (say) for sake of simplicity we will consider 2 = 1 .
From equation (1) ignoring negative sign of cos
1
(1 2 ) = { (2 1 )}
0

1
(1 2 ) = { (2 1 )}

0
(1 2 ) = { (2 1 )}-- eq(2)
Further we will assume that amplitude of both waves is equal I1 = I2 = I then
From equation (1) and eq(2) we get
= + + 2 (2 1 )
= 2 + 2 (2 1 )
= 2 {1 + (2 1 )}
= 2 [2 2 {
[ Use trigonometric identity 2 =

1+2
2

(2 1 )
}]
2

= 4 2 {

(2 1 )
}
2

Here r2 r1 = is known as the path difference between superposing waves

= 4 2 {

}
2

Special Cases
Case I : Constructive Interference
For I = 4I = I0 maximum intensity of light
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term 2 {

(2 1 )

} Should be equal to one, It is possible if

=
2
2
2
= =
2

=
Here n = 0, 1, 2, 3,
If the path difference between superposing waves is n ( n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..) intensity at a
superposing point is maximum. Such interference is called constructive interference
From equation
= 1 + 2 + 21 2 (1 2 )
For constructive interference cos(2-1) = 0 thus
= 1 + 2 + 21 2
Or
2

= (1 + 2 )

(1 + 2 )2

Case II: Destructive Interference

For intensity I = 0
term 2 {

()
2

Or

} Should be equal to zero, It is possible if

3 5
= ,
,
, .
2
2 2 2

As k = 2/

Here n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ..

= (2 1)
2
2
2

= (2 1)
2
2

= (2 1)
2

If phase difference between superposing waves is (2n-1) intensity at a

superposing point is minimum. This interference is called destructive interference
If path difference between superposing wave is (2n-1) (/2) intensity at
superposed point is minimum. Such interference is known as destructive
interference
Here n = 1, 2, 3, 4, .
From equation
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= 1 + 2 + 21 2 (1 2 )
For destructive interference cos(1 2 ) = -1 thus
= 1 + 2 21 2
Or
= (1 2 )

(1 2 )2

Condition for sustained interference

The interference pattern in which the positions of maximum and minimum intensity of
light remain fixed with time, is called sustained or permanent interference pattern. The
conditions for the formation of sustained interference may be stated as :
(i) The two sources should be coherent
(ii) Two sources should be very narrow
(iii) The sources should lie very close to each other to form distinct and broad fringes

Solved numerical
Q) Two sources of intensity I and 3I are used in an interference experiment. Find the
intensity at a point where the waves from the two sources superimpose with a phase
difference (1) Zero (2) /2
Solution:
In case of interference
= 1 + 2 + 21 2 (1 2 )
= 1 + 2 + 21 2 ( )
(1) As = 0, cos =1
= 3 + + 2(3)() 1
= 4 + 23
(2) As = /2, cos = 0
= 3 + + 2(3)() 0
= 4
Q) Ratio of the intensities of rays emitted from two different coherent sources is . For the
interference pattern formed by them, prove that
+ 1 +
=

2
Imax : Maximum of intensity in the interference fringe
Imin : Minimum of intensity in the interference fringe
Solution:
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Given I1 = I2
Since I A2
Thus A1 = A2
Now

(1 + 2 )2
2
(2 + 2 )
22 ( + 1)

And

(1 2 )2
2
22 ( 1)
2

+ 22 ( + 1) + 22 ( 1)
=
2 ( + 1)2 2 ( 1)2
2
2
2

+ ( + 1) + ( 1)
=
( + 1)2 ( 1)2
+ + 1 + 2 + + 1 2
=
+ 1 + 2 1 + 2
+ 2( + 1) + 1
=
=

4
2

Youngs double slit experiment

The phenomenon of interference was first observed and demonstrated by Thomas Young
in 1801. The experimental set up is shown in Fig.
Light from a narrow slit S, illuminated by a monochromatic source, is allowed to fall on
two narrow slits A and B placed very close to each other.
The width of each slit is about 0.03 mm and they are about 0.3 mm apart. Since A and B
are equidistant from S, light waves from S reach A and B in phase. So A and B act as
coherent sources.
According to Huygens principle, wavelets from A and B spread out and overlapping takes
place to the right side of AB. When a screen XY is placed at a distance of about 1 metre
from the slits, equally spaced alternate bright and dark fringes appear on the screen.
These are called interference fringes or bands.
Using an eyepiece the fringes can be seen directly. At P on the screen, waves from A and B
travel equal distances and arrive in phase. These two waves constructively interfere and
bright fringe is observed at P. This is called central bright fringe.
When one of the slits is covered, the fringes disappear and there is uniform illumination
on the screen. This shows clearly that the bands are due to interference.

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Expression path difference in terms of D and x

Let d be the distance between two coherent sources A and B of wavelength . A screen XY
is placed parallel to AB at a distance D from the coherent sources. C is the mid point of AB.
O is a point on the screen equidistant from A and B. P is a point at a distance x from O, as
shown in Fig. Waves from A and B meet at P in phase or out of phase depending upon the
path difference between two waves.

Draw AM perpendicular to BP The path difference = BP AP AP = MP

= BP AP = BP MP = BM
In right angled ABM, BM = d sin
If is small, sin =
The path difference = .d
In right angled triangle COP,

=
=

For small values of , tan =
The path difference

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PHYSICS NOTES

Location of bright and dark fringes on screen (x)

Bright fringes:
By the principle of interference, condition for constructive interference is the path
difference = n

n =

By substituting n = 0, 1, 2, 3
If n = 0 then we get location central bright fringe
n=1, we get then location of first bright fringe
n=2, we get then location of second bright fringe
n=3, , we get then location of third bright fringe etc
Dark fringes:
By the principle of interference, condition for destructive interference is the path
difference

= (2 1)
2

=
2

(2 1)
=
2

(2 1)

By substituting n = 1, 2, 3
n=1, we get then location of first dark fringe
n=2, we get then location of second dark fringe
n=3, we get then location of third dark fringe etc

Displacement of fringe pattern

If a thin transparent slab of thickness t and refractive index is placed in front of one of
sources, for example, in front of S1. This changes the path difference because light from S1
now travels more optical path than earlier. (Optical path in medium is equal to the product
of refractive index of the medium to geometrical path length in air)

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Path difference before placing slab = S2P S1P =r2 r1 =

On placing slab path length of thickness t effective path length S1P = (r1 t) +t
Thus effective path difference after placing slab = r2 [(r1 t) +t]
= ( r2 r1 ) + t( 1 )
From the geometry of figure r2-r1 = dsin, since is very small

2 1 = =

=
+ ( 1)

=
( 1)

th
In absence of slab, the m maxima is given by

Therefore, the fringe shift is given by

0 = = ( 1)

When a transparent slab is introduced, the fringe pattern shifts in the direction where the
slab is placed.

Solved numerical
Q) A ray of light travels through a slab as shown in figure. The refractive index of the
material of the slab varies as = 1.2 + x , where 0 x 1 m. What is the equivalent
optical path of the glass slab?

Solution
Consider a small geometric path dx then optical path = dx
Thus optical path op =
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PHYSICS NOTES
1

= 0 (1.2 + x) = [1.2 +

2 0

= 1.2 +

1 3.4
=
= 1.7
2
2

Distance between two consecutive bight or dark fringe

Or Width of fringe , Band width ()
The distance between any two consecutive bright or dark bands is called bandwidth.
The distance between (n+1)th and nth order consecutive bright fringes from O is given by

= +1 = ( + 1)
( )
=

Similarly, it can be proved that the distance between two consecutive dark bands is also

equal to

Angular fringe width or angular separation between fringes is

Since bright and dark fringes are of same width, they are equispaced on either side of
central maximum.

Solved numerical
Q) In Youngs double slit experiment, angular width of a fringe formed on a distant screen
is 0.1O. the wavelength of the light used is 6000 . What is the spacing between the slit.
If above setup is immersed in liquid it is observed that angular fringe width is decreased by
30% find refractive index of liquid
Solution
Angular fringe width or angular separation between fringes is

6000 1010
= =
= 3.44 104

0.1
180
(ii)Given that when set up with first light is immersed in liquid angular width decreases by
30% thus wave length of first light in liquid = 4200
From formula for refractive index
6000
=
=
= 1.428
4200
Q) In Youngs double slit experiment using monochromatic light the fringe pattern shifts
by certain distance on the screen when a mica sheet of refractive index 1.6and thickness
1.964 micron is introduced in the path of one of the interfering waves. The mica sheet is
then removed and the distance between the plane of the slit and the screen is doubled. It
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is found that the distance between successive maximum now is the same as the observed
fringe shift upon the introduction of mica sheet. Calculate the wavelength of the light.
Solution
Due to introduction of mica sheet, the shift on the screen

0 = ( 1)

Given that on removal of mica sheet and increasing the distance between screen and slit
two times, then it is observed that distance between successive maximum now is the
same as the observed fringe shift upon the introduction of mica sheet
Thus xo = fringe width when distance is doubled
Now fringe width
(2 )
=

Therefore
(2 )
( 1)
=

( 1)
=
2
(1.6 1)(1.964 106 )
=
= 5892
2
Q) In Youngs double slit experiment a beam of light of wavelength 6500 and 5200 is
used . Find the minimum distance from the central bright fringe where bright fringe
produced by both the wavelength get superposed. The distance between two slit is 0.5mm
and the distance between the slits and the screen is 100cm.
Solution
Let nth bright fringe due wavelength 6500 to and mth bright fringe due to 5200
superposed at distance x from central bright spot
Thus xn = xm
1 2
=

1 = 2
6500 = 5200
6500 5
=
=
5200 4
That is 4th bright fringe of 6500 and 3rd bright fringe of 5200 superpose
Taking n =4 in equation we get the minimum distance from the central bright fringe
where bright fringe produced by both the wavelength get superposed
1
=

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4 6500 108 100

= 0.52
0.05

Q) The ratio of the intensities at minima to maxima in the interference pattern is 9:25.
What will be the ratio of the widths of the two slits in youngs double slit experiment
Solution
Intensity is proportional to width of slit, so amplitude is proportional to the square root of
the width of the slit
1
w1
=
2
w2
W1 and w2 represent the width of the two slits
(1 2 )2
=
(1 + 2 )2
2 2
(1 1 )
=

2 2
(1 + )
1
2 2
(1
)

9
1
=
25
2
(1 + 2 )
1
2
3 1 1
=
5 1 + 2
1
2
8
=2
1
1 4
=
2 1
Thus from equation (1)
4
w1
=
1
w2
1 16
=
2
1

Condition for obtaining clear and broad interference bands

(i) The screen should be as far away from the source as possible.
(ii) The wavelength of light used must be larger.
(iii) The two coherent sources must be as close as possible.
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PHYSICS NOTES

Diffraction
When waves encounters obstacles or openings like slits, they bend round the edges. This
bending of wave is called diffraction. Diffraction is the effect produced by the limiting part
of the wavefront.
Smaller is the width of the slit, more will be diffraction for given wavelength. It is also
found that if the wavelength and the width of the slit are so changed that ratio (/d)
remains constant, amount of bending or diffraction does not change.
If ratio /d is more ,then more is the diffraction

Diffraction due to single slit

Central Maxima:
Consider a plane wavefront arrive at a plane of slit, according
to Huyens principle all the point on the slit like AOB acts as
secondary source having the same phase and produce
secondary waves.
Those waves originated from each points of a slit and diffracted
normal to the plane of the slit or we can say in the direction of
incident wave will be concentrated at point Po by lens.
In figure out of a many waves only three rays are shown in
figure.
Screen is at focal length of lens .
Ray emitted from A and B are in phase and passes equal distance through air and lens thus
they are in phase when get converged at Po .
Now ray emitted from O travel less distance in air but more distance in lens, in lens
velocity of light gets reduced thus optical path travelled by the ray emitted by O is equal
to optical path due to ray A and B.. Thus all rays meeting at Po are in phase produces
central bright fringe.
(Optical path in medium is equal to the product of refractive index of the medium to
geometrical path length in air)
First minimum
As shown in figure consider a waves which is diffracted an angle with respect to
perpendicular bisector XPo of the slit. Here, point X is the midpoint of slit AB. Therefore AX
= Xb = d/2.
Here secondary waves originated from all points A, X, B of slit are through to be divided in
two parts
Wave from AX and waves from X to B.
As per figure, all these waves diffracted at an angle are focused at point P1 of a screen.
Draw AM BL. It is obvious that all the rays reaching from AM to P1 have equal optical
path

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But rays going from A and X, and reaching to point P1 have path difference of XY
Let assume diffraction angle be is such that XY = /2
In this situation, waves from A and X will follow the condition of destructive interference
at point P1 and resultant intensity will be zero
Further for all point between AX there exists a point between XB ,such that ray from point
between XB have path difference of /2 with respect to rays from point between AX
Thus in totality, destructive interference will take place at point P1
Point P1 is known as first minimum

Condition for minima:

From geometry of figure dsin =
General equation is
dsin = n
For n = 1 we get first minima
n = 2 we get second minima

First Maxima:
As shown in figure suppose slit AB is assumed to be divided in three equal parts AX 1, X1 X2,
X2B . Here AX1 = X1 X2 = X2B = d/3.
Draw AM BL. Wave reaching from AM to P2 will have equal optical path
Waves starting from A and X1 and imposing at point P1 will have path difference X1Y1 .

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Let us assume that diffraction is such that

2
2 2 =
3
=
2
Since path difference between waves originated from A and X1 and superimpose at point
P2 is /2, they interfere destructively. And intensity at point P2 due to these waves will be
zero.
In the same way, waves from every pair AX1 and X1X2 will have path difference /2 and
resultant intensity at point P2 due to them is zero.
However, intensity of ray diffracted at an angle from section X1B is not vanishing at point
P2. Therefore due to this section of the slit intensity at point P2 will not be zero. And point
P2 will be bright
Here point P2 is known as first maximum. It is obvious that intensity at point P2 will be far
less than central bright spot
1 1 =

Condition for minima:

From geometry of figure for fist maxima
=
General formula
=

3
2

(2 + 1)
2

For n = 1 we get first maxima

n = 2 we get second maxima

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PHYSICS NOTES

Angular width
For first order minima dsin = or
=
For small angle
=
Also sin = tan
From geometry of figure

width of central maxima

2 =

Angular width of central maxima is given by

2 =

Comparison between Interference and diffraction

(i) The interference pattern has a number of equally spaced bright and dark bands. The
diffraction pattern has a central bright maximum which is twice as wide as the other
maxima. The intensity falls as we go to successive maxima away from the centre, on either
side.
(ii) We calculate the interference pattern by superposing two waves originating from the
two narrow slits. The diffraction pattern is a superposition of a continuous family of waves
originating from each point on a single slit.
(iii) For a single slit of width a, the first null of the interference pattern occurs at an angle
of /a. At the same angle of /a, we get a maximum (not a null) for two narrow slits
separated by a distance a.

Solved numerical
Q)Angular width of central maximum in diffraction obtained by single slit using light of
wavelength 6000 is measured. If light of another wavelength is used, the angular width
of the central maximum is found to be decreased by 30%. Find
(i)The other wavelength (ii) If the experiment is repeated keeping the apparatus in a liquid,
the angular width of central maxima decreases by the same amount ( 30%0, find its
refractive index
Solution:
(i)Angular fringe width or angular separation between fringes is
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2 =

1 =

2 =

For first light

For second light

But 2 is 70% of 1
That is , 2 = 0.7 1

2 2
=
1 1
2
1
2 = 0.7 6000 = 4200
0.7 =

Q) A slit of width d is illuminated by white light. For what value of d will the first minimum
for red light of wavelength R =6500 appear at =15O? What is the situation for violet
colour having wavelength V = 4333 at the same point. Sin15O = 0.2588
Solution:
Since the diffraction occurs separately for each wavelength, we have to check condition
for minia and maxima for each wavelength separately
For the first minimum of red colour n = 1, using condition
dsin = nR

1 6500 1010
=
=

15
d=2.51210-6 m
For violet colour wavelength is different. We have to check whether slit width above can
give us minima or maxima
Thus dsin = nV
2.512 106 0.2588

=
=
= 1.5

4333 1010
Here n should be integer. Thus, for violet colour condition for minima does not satisfy
Now using condition for maxima

= (2 + 1)
2
1
= 1.5 0.5 = 1.0

2
This result suggest that for violet colour first maximum is observed
=

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Resolving power of optical instrument

When a beam of light ( light waves) from a point like object passes through the objective
of an optical instruments, the lens acts like a circular aperture and produces a diffraction
pattern instead of sharp point image.
If there are two point objects kept closed to each other, their diffraction pattern may
overlap. Then it may be difficult to distinguish them as separate.
The criterion to get distinct and separate images of two closely placed point like objects
was given by Rayleigh
The images of two point like objects can be seen as separate if the central maximum in
the diffraction pattern of one falls either on the first minimum of the diffraction pattern of
the other or it is at grater separation
For the case of circular aperture diffraction due to lens of diameter D. Rayleighs criterion
is given by
1.22
=

Resolving power of telescope:

Consider a parallel beam of light falling on a convex lens. If the lens is well corrected for
aberrations, then beam will get focused to a point.
However, because of diffraction, the beam instead of getting focused to a point gets
focused to a spot of finite area. In this case the effects due to diffraction can be taken into
account by considering a plane wave incident on a circular aperture followed by a convex
lens.
Taking into account the effects due to diffraction, the pattern on the focal plane would
consist of a central bright region surrounded by concentric dark and bright rings.

If two stars are very close to each other separated by angle will be very small and the
diffraction pattern of both stars will mingle with each other. In this situation it is difficult
to see both the stars distinctly and clearly
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Ability of an optical instrument to produce distinctly separate images of two closely

placed objects is called its resolving power
It is clear that for optical instruments resolving power depends on angle . is a minimum
angle to see two images distinctly
1.22
=

Here D is diameter of lens and is wavelength

Width of the central maxima or radius is given by
1.22
=

Here min is known as angular resolution of the telescope, while its inverse is known as
resolving power or geometrical resolution
Thus resolving power of telescope
1

=
1.22

Solved numerical
Q) Calculate the useful magnifying power of a telescope of 11cm objective. The limit of
resolution of eye is 2 and wavelength of light used is 5000
Solution
The magnifying power of a telescope is given by
M = D/d, where D is diameter of the objective and d is diameter of eye piece
For normal (useful) magnification, diameter of eyepiece should be equal to the diameter
of the pupil de of the eye. Therefore, useful magnification is
M = D/de
From the equation of limit of resolution of telescope
1.22
=

1.22 5500 1010

=
= 6.1 106
11 102
Limit of resolution of eye is given d=2
2 3.14
=
= 5.815 104
60 180
Useful magnification
5.815 104
=
= 95.3

6.1 106
Q) Huble space telescope is at a distance 600 km from earths surface. Diameter of its
primary lens (objective) is 2.4m. When a light of 550nm is used by this telescope, at what
minimum angular distance two objects can be seen separately? Also obtain linear
minimum distance between these objects. Consider these objects on the surface of earth
and neglect effects of atmosphere.
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Solution:

1.22 1.22 550 109

=

2.4
= 2.8 107
Linear distance between objects= minL
Where L = distance between object telescope and object
Linear distance between objects = 2.810-7600103 = 0.17m
=

Resolving power of microscope:

Let the diameter of lens be D and its focal length be f. As object distance is usually kept
greater than that of f . Let the image distance be v. the angular width of central maximum
due to the effect of diffraction is ,
1.22
=

Width of central maximum

1.22
=

If image of two point like objects are at a separation les than v, then it will be seen as a
mixed single object. It can be proved that a minimum distance (dm) for which objects can
be seen separately is given by

Here m is magnification m=v/f substituting value of m we get dm

= =

Substituting value of we get

1.22
=

From figure D/2 =f (tan )

D = 2f (tan ) substituting value in above equation we get
1.22
1.22
=
=
2
2
For small angles tan = sin
Reciprocal of dm known as Resolving Power(RP) of microscope
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1
2sin
=
1.22
If some medium with large refractive index (n) is used between object and objective
resolving power of microscope increases n times
Formula for resolving power is given by
2sin
=
1.22
Here term nsin is known as Numerical Aperture. Resolving power is inversely
proportional to wavelength.
=

Polarization
The phenomena of reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction are common to both
transverse waves and longitudinal waves. But the transverse nature of light waves is
demonstrated only by the phenomenon of polarization.
Unpolarized light
In an ordinary light source like bulb, there are large numbers of atomic emitters. They all
emit electromagnetic waves with there Electrical vector E , vibrating randomly in all
directions perpendicular to direction of propagation.
It means that vector E of one wave is not parallel to Vector E of another wave.
Wave emitted by different atom is of source propagate in same direction constitute beam
of light.
If such beam is assumed to be coming out of paper, light vectors (E) of its waves will be
found in all random direction in a plane of paper. Such light is called Unpolarized light.
In a beam of light, if the oscillations of E vectors are in all direction in a plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation, then the light is called unpolarized light

Polarized light
If in beam of light all electric vector (E) are coplanar and parallel to each other is plane
polarized light
Process by which getting the plane polarized light from unpolarized light is called
polarization
The plane containing the direction of the
beam and the direction of oscillation of E
vectors is called the plane of oscillation
. In figure abcd is the plane of oscillation

A plane perpendicular to the plane of oscillation and

passing through the beam of light is called the plane
of polarization
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In figure lmno is the plane of polarization

When light passes through tourmaline crystal ,freely transmit the light components which
are polarized to a definite direction. While crystal absorbs light strongly whose
polarization is perpendicular to this definite direction. Thus emergent beam iof light only
coplanar and parallel E vectors are found. This definite direction in a crystal is known as an
optic axis

Malus Law
If the light from an ordinary source (like a sodium lamp) passes through a polaroid sheet
P1, it is observed that its intensity is reduced by half. Rotating P1 has no effect on the
transmitted beam and transmitted intensity remains constant.
Now, let an identical piece of polaroid P2 be placed before P1. On rotating P2 has a
dramatic effect on the light coming from P2.
In one position, the intensity transmitted by P2 followed by P1 is nearly zero. When turned
by 90o from this position, P1 transmits nearly the full intensity emerging from P2
An optic axis of plate P2 makes an angle of with that of the plate P1. In this situation
vector E emerging from plate P1 (E0) makes angle with an optic axis of plate B. therefore
we can resolve them into two components
91) E0cos parallel to the optic axis of plate P2 and
(2) E0sin perpendicular to the optic axis of plate P2

Thus, only E0cos components will emerge out of plate P2, while perpendicular
components are absorbed. Since intensity is proportional to the square of amplitude,
intensity of light incident on plate P2 is
02 2

= 2
0
= 0 2

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This equation is known as Malus Law. It is obvious from above equation that if plate P 2 is
completely rotated, twice the intensity of emerging light is zero , corresponding to =/2
and 3/2 and twice it become maximum corresponding to = 0 and =.
This procedure will help us to verify whether the given light is polarized or not. Since plate
P2 is used to analyze a state of polarization of incident light, it is known as Analyzer.

Solved numerical
Q) A ray of light travelling in water is incident on a glass plate immersed in it. What the
angle of incident is 51o the reflected ray is totally plane polarized. Find the refractive index
of glass. Refractive index of water is 1.33
Solution:
Angle of incidence P = 51o
Since at this incidence angle, reflected ray is totally plane polarized, using Brewsterslaw
refractive index of glass w.r.t. water is
n = tan P = tan51 = 1.235
But refractive index n =
. ( )
=
. . ( )
ng = n nw = 1.235 1.33 = 1.64

Polarisation by reflection
The simplest method of producing plane polarised light is by reflection. Malus, discovered
that when a beam of ordinary light is reflected from the surface of transparent medium
like glass or water, it gets polarised. The degree of polarisation varies with angle of
incidence.
Consider a beam of unpolarised light AB, incident at any angle on the reflecting glass
surface XY. Vibrations in AB which are parallel to the plane of the diagram are shown by
arrows. The vibrations which are perpendicular to the plane of the diagram and parallel to
the reflecting surface, shown by dots (Fig).

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A part of the light is reflected along BC, and the rest is refracted along BD.
On examining the reflected beam with an analyzer, it is found that the ray is partially plane
polarised. When the light is allowed to be incident at a particular angle, (for glass it is
57.5o) the reflected beam is completely plane polarised. The angle of incidence at which
the reflected beam is completely plane polarised is called the polarising angle (ip).

Brewsters law
Sir David Brewster conducted a series of experiments with different reflectors and found a
simple relation between the angle of polarization and the refractive index of the medium.
It has been observed experimentally that the reflected and refracted rays are at right
angles to each other, when the light is incident at polarizing angle.
From Fig, ip +900 + r = 1800
r = 900 ip
From Snells law,

where is the refractive index of the medium (glass)

Substituting for r, we get

=
=
(90 )
tan ip =
Tangent of polarizing angle is numerically equal to refractive index of medium

Polarisation by scattering
The light from a clear blue portion of the sky shows a rise and fall of intensity when viewed
through a Polaroid which is rotated. This is nothing but sunlight, which has changed its
direction (having been scattered) on encountering the molecules of the earths
atmosphere
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As shown in figure, the incident sunlight is unpolarised. The dots stand for polarisation
perpendicular to the plane of the figure. The double arrows show polarisation in the plane
of the figure. There is no phase relation between these two in unpolarised light.
Under the influence of the electric field of the incident wave the electrons in the
molecules acquire components of motion in both these directions.
We have drawn an observer looking at 90 to the direction of the sun. Clearly, charges
accelerating parallel to the double arrows do not radiate energy towards this observer
since their acceleration has no transverse component. The radiation scattered by
the molecule is therefore represented by dots. It is polarized perpendicular to the plane of
the figure. This explains the polarization of scattered light from the sky.

Fresnel distance, ray optics is a limiting case of wave optics

Fresnel distance is that distance from the slit at which the spreading of light due to
diffraction becomes equal to the size of the slit. It is generally denoted by Z F
We know that the first secondary minimum is formed at an angle 1 such that

1 =

After travelling a distance D, the width acquired by the beam due to diffraction is D/d
At Fresenel distance ZF

=

2
=

If the distance D between the slit and the screen is less than Fresnel distance Z F then the
diffraction effects may be regarded as absent. So, ray optics may be regarded as limiting
case of wave optics

Solved Numerical
Light of wave length 600nm is incident on an aperture of size 2mm. calculate the distance
upto which the ray of light can travel such that its spread is less than the size of the
aperture
Solution
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2 (2 103 )2
=
= 6.67

600 109

Doppler effect for light

If there is no medium and the source moves away from the observer, then later
wavefronts have to travel a greater distance to reach the observer and hence take a longer
time. The time taken between the arrival of two successive wavefronts is hence longer at
the observer than it is at the source.
Thus, when the source moves away from the observer the frequency as measured by the
source will be smaller. This is known as the Doppler effect.
Astronomers call the increase in wavelength due to doppler effect as red shift since a
wavelength in the middle of the visible region of the spectrum moves towards the red end
of the spectrum.
When waves are received from a source moving towards the observer, there is
an apparent decrease in wavelength, this is referred to as blue shift.
For velocities small compared to the speed of light, we can use the same formulae which
we use for sound waves. The fractional change in frequency / is given by Vradial/c,
where Vradial is the component of the source velocity along the line joining the observer to
the source relative to the observer; Vradial is considered positive when the source moves
away from the observer. Thus, the Doppler shift can be expressed as:

Solved numerical
Q) Certain characteristic wavelengths of the light from a galaxy in the constellation Virgo
are observed to be increased in wave length, as compaired with terrestrial sources, by
0.4%. What is the radial speed of this galaxy with respect to the earth? Is it approaching or
receding?
Solution
From formula

We know that

Thus
Given : / = 0.004

= 0.004 3 108 = 1.2 106 1

Since vradial is positive therefore galaxy is receding
=

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Q) the red shift of radiation from a distant nebula consists of the light known to have a
wavelength 434010-8 cm when observed in laboratory, appearing to have a wavelength
of 436210-8 cm. What is the speed of the nebula in the line of sight relative to the earth ?
Is it approaching or receding
Solution:
= 436210-8 - 434010-8 = 2210-8 cm thus
/ = 2210-8 /434010-8 =0.0004
Thus / = -0.0004

0.0004 =
3 108
Vradial = (0.0004)(3108) = 0.12852108 = 1.2105 m/s
Since Vradial is positive nebula is receding
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