Frontiers of Architectural Research (2015) 4, 318329

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RESEARCH ARTICLE

Does the smartest designer design better?

Effect of intelligence quotient on students
design skills in architectural design studio
Sajjad Nazidizajin, Ana Tom, Francisco Regateiro
CERIS, DECivil, Instituto Superior Tcnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa 1049-001, Portugal
Received 14 October 2014; received in revised form 5 August 2015; accepted 13 August 2015

KEYWORDS

Abstract

Architectural design
studio;
Intelligence quotient
(IQ);
Design education;
Human factors;
Design thinking

Understanding the cognitive processes of the human mind is necessary to further learn about design
thinking processes. Cognitive studies are also signicant in the research about design studio. The aim
of this study is to examine the effect of designers intelligence quotient (IQ) on their designs.
The statistical population in this study consisted of all Deylaman Institute of Higher Education
architecture graduate students enrolled in 2011. Sixty of these students were selected via simple
random sampling based on the nite population sample size calculation formula. The students IQ
was measured using Ravens Progressive Matrices. The students scores in Architecture Design Studio
(ADS) courses from rst grade (ADS-1) to fth grade (ADS-5) and the mean scores of the design
courses were used in determining the students design ability. Inferential statistics, as well as
correlation analysis and mean comparison test for independent samples with SPSS, were also
employed to analyze the research data.
Results indicated that the students IQ, ADS-1 to ADS-4 scores, and the mean scores of the students
design courses were not signicantly correlated. By contrast, the students IQ and ADS-5 scores were
signicantly correlated. As the complexity of the design problem and designers experience
increased, the effect of IQ on design seemingly intensied.
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1.

Corresponding author. Tel.: +351218418344.

E-mail address: sajjad.nazidizaji@ist.utl.pt (S. Nazidizaji).
Peer review under responsibility of Southeast University.

Introduction

Design studio is considered the core of the design curriculum

(Demirba and Demirkan, 2003). Researchers have described
design studio as the center of architecture education (Schn,
1985; Ochsner, 2000; Vyas et al., 2013). Starting from an illdened problem (Schn, 1983), the development of ideas

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Effect of intelligence quotient on students design skills

and solutions is evaluated through different types of critique
(Oh et al., 2013). These procedures are common in all design
studios. Social interaction and interpersonal interactions
among design studio participants, including studentstudent
and studenttutor, are signicant. The importance of collaboration (Vyas et al., 2013), teamwork, and decision making
in design studio has been studied as well (Yang, 2010).
Architecture students should also develop a set of design
thinking (Dorst 2011) and creative skills (Demirkan and
Afacan, 2012), which are increasingly prioritized in workplaces and in society as a whole. A set of problem solving
skills is among the abilities that design studio students
required to manage a growing spectrum of new complex
ranges of problems and situations caused by societal changes
in students future careers. Learning theories in design studio
have also been discussed (Demirba and Demirkan, 2007).
Considering the importance of design thinking in the
design process (Dorst, 2011) and in design studio (Oxman,
2004), researchers have emphasized the necessity to understand the cognitive processes of the human mind to enhance
the understanding of design thinking (Oxman, 1996, Nguyen
and Zeng, 2012) and to view design as a high-level cognitive
ability. Design cognition studies are conducted via experimental and empirical methods (Alexiou et al., 2009).
According to Gregory and Zangwill (1987), Design generally implies the action of intentional intelligence. Meanwhile, Cross (1999) introduced the natural intelligence
concept in design with the assumption that design itself is
a special type of intelligence. Papamichael and Protzen
(1993)discussed the limits of intelligence in design. Other
studies emphasized the signicance of spatial ability as a
type of intelligence in graphic-based courses (Potter and
van der Merwe, 2001; Sorby, 2005; Sutton and Williams,
2010a). Furthermore, Allison (2008) concluded that spatial
ability is crucial in learning and problem solving.
However, effective and measurable predictive mental
factors, and tools that can inuence the design process in
design studio are insufciently studied.
Ravens Matrices tests are originally developed to measure the eduction (from the Latin word educere, which
means to draw out) of relations(Mackintosh and Bennett,
2005); moreover, these tests are some of the best indicators
of the g factor (Snow and Kyllonen, 1984, Kunda et al..
2013). The g factor assesses the positive correlations among
various cognitive abilities and implies that individual performances on a certain type of cognitive task could be
compared with those on other types of cognitive tasks
(Kamphaus et al., 1997).
Raven tests directly measure two major elements of the
general cognitive ability (g), namely, (1) eductive ability,
which is the capacity to make meaning out of confusion,
easing the manner of dealing with complexity; and (2)
reproductive ability, which is the capacity to process,
remember, and recreate explicit information, and those
who communicate interpersonally(Raven, 2000).
Raven tests have been extensively applied in research
and in practice, and a vast pool of data has been accumulated thus so far (Raven, 2000).Given the independence
of language skills in Raven tests, the three versions of these
tests (Advanced, Colored, and Standard Progressive
Matrices) have been among the most widely applied intelligence tests(Brouwers et al., 2009).

319
The current study reects a hypothesis of the correlation
between students intelligence quotient (IQ) and design
abilities in architectural design studio. The IQ indicator is
based on Ravens Progressive Matrices applied to the sample
of Deylaman Institute of Higher Education architecture
students enrolled in 2011. The architecture design skill
indicator is obtained according to scores during the rst
year of Architecture Design Studio (ADS-1) to the nal year
(ADS-5). This study initially considers a theoretical framework that includes six components, namely, (1) a design
studio in architecture education; (2) design thinking in
design studio; (3) a cognitive approach in design; (4) spatial
ability and design studio; (5) design, problem solving and IQ;
and (6) creativity, design, and IQ. Subsequently, hypotheses
are formed. Descriptive and inferential statistics are employed to test the hypotheses using the SPSS software.

2.
2.1.

Theoretical framework
Design studio in architecture education

According to the learning by doing philosophy(Schn,

1983), design studio is widely recognized as an indispensable component of the design curriculum(Shih et al., 2006)
and as the heart of architectural education(Oh et al., 2013).
Demirba and Demirkan (2007) regarded design studio as
the core of the design curriculum, and noted that all other
courses in the curriculum should be related to design studio.
Demirba and Demirkan (2003) contended that design studio
is related to design problems sociologically and to design
education relations with other disciplines epistemologically.
By bridging mental and social abilities, Redi (1996)
viewed design as a mediator between invention (mental
activity) and realization (social activity). Design is an openended problem-solving process, and the functions of design theories support designers cognitive abilities (Verma,
1997). Hence, design studio helps in the free exchange of
ideas (Tate, 1987)through an information process that may
be assumed as a social and organizational method for both
tutors and students (Iivari and Hirschheim, 1996).
Regarding the signicance of designers experiences
compared with regulations and facts (Demirkan, 1998), a
design studio in architectural education is the rst environment where the initial experiences for future professions
can be obtained (Demirba and Demirkan, 2003).
Schn (1985) concluded that the design studio learning
process starts with ill-dened problems and is developed
through the reection-in-action approach. In design studio, the knowledge learnt in different courses should be
applied in the design process to determine an optimal
solution for the design of an ill-dened problem. In design
education, teaching and learning methods are intended to
balance critical awareness and the creative process
(Demirba and Demirkan, 2007). Schn (1983) also emphasized that the studio-based learning and teaching method
can be extended to other professional educations in other
disciplines. In design studio, students communicate with
one another, and receive comments from other students and
a tutor (Kvan and Jia, 2005), which is a process called
critique. Oh et al. (2013) reviewed different types of critiques in design studio.

320

S. Nazidizaji et al.

Figure 1

Connections between cognitive approaches of design and intelligence approaches.

Aside from the importance of the cognitive ability of

design studio students, the other inuential factors in
design studio are social and interpersonal communication
(Cross and Cross, 1995), encounter with open-ended problems (Schn, 1985), and collaborative design (Vyas et al.,
2013). Oxman (2004) introduced the concept of think maps
to teach design thinking in design education. Additionally,
the signicance of emotion and motivation was considered
by Benavides et al. (2010). Demirkan and Afacan (2012)
analyzed creativity factors in design studio. The major
factors that inuenced design studio performance were
reviewed in our previous work (Nazidizaji et al., 2014),
including social interaction and collaboration. The importance of emotional intelligence for design studio students
was also investigated.

2.2.

Design thinking in design studio

After Rowe (1987) used the term design thinking in his 1987
book, the term has been widely used and has been a part of
the collective "consciousness of design researchers (Dorst,
2011). Design thinking has received increasing attention and popularity in the research about the cognitive
aspects of design as a base for design education (Oxman,
2004), and has been considered a new paradigm for addressing
design problems in different disciplines (Dorst, 2011).
Oxman (1995) classied different types of design thinking
studies into seven categories, namely, (l) design methodology; (2) design cognition; (3) design for problem solving;
(4) psychological aspects of mental activities in design;
(5) collaboration, which is the social and educational aspect
of design; (6) articial intelligence in design; and (7) computational methods, models, systems, and technology.
Oxman (2001) suggested that the cognitive aspect of
design thinking should be regarded as a key educational
objective in design education. The two major broad directions of this study are experimental and empirical approaches. Empirical approaches that include protocol analysis
in certain special design processes are repeatedly applied.
These studies are normally related to the clarication of
thinking processes in specic activities that formulate
problems and generate solutions (Cross, 2001).
Schn (1985) highlighted the importance of design thinking. He also emphasized the signicance of empirical
research and cognitive studies in improving design pedagogy. In investigations on design teaching, cognitive studies

are signicant because these studies encourage a clear

approach in the design pedagogy development (Schn,
1985) (Eastman et al. 2001).

2.3.

Cognitive approach in design

Design is typically regarded as a high-level cognitive ability, and

numerous computational and empirical studies have focused on
design cognition (Alexiou et al., 2009). Oxman (1996)concluded
that the potential importance of the relationship between
cognition and design has received increasing attention among
design investigators. Design has been viewed as probably one
of the most intelligent human behaviors. Design has a solid
connection to cognition. Cognition is the study about all forms of
human intelligence, including vision, perception, memory,
action, language, and reasoning. Expanding the knowledge about
human cognitive processes is necessary for understanding the
nature of the mind, and consequently the nature of design
thinking. In other studies, Nguyen and Zeng (2012) emphasized
the importance of understanding design cognitive activities to
develop design technologies and provide an effective design.
Additionally, studies about creativity and design cognition have
concluded that different types of design cognition in the design
process affect the outcomes of both low and high creativity (Lu,
2015).
Kim and Maher (2008) considered the following two major
approaches for the cognitive approach of design:
1) The symbolic information-processing approach (SIP), which
was introduced by Simon, emphasizes the rational problemsolving process of designers, with more attention provided
to both design problems and designers (Eastman, 1969; Akin,
1990; Goel, 1994).
2) The situativity approach (SIT), which was introduced by
Schon, focuses on the situational context of designers and
on the environment of designers (Schn, 1983; Bucciarelli,
1984).

Figure 1 shows the connections between the ideas of

cognitive approaches of design with intelligence approaches.
Certain cognitive tests are available, such as the spatial
ability test, which measure the spatial cognition of designers.

Effect of intelligence quotient on students design skills

2.4.

Spatial ability and design studio

As a cognitive ability, spatial ability is one of the most

signicant components related to designers. The idea of spatial
ability denotes a sophisticated process that designers extensively employ in the design activity (Sutton and Williams,
2010b). Spatial ability in the design eld is vital for both
problem solving and learning, regardless if a problem is not
particularly spatial (Allison, 2008). This feature shows that
spatial ability is signicant in design education. Spatial ability
may be dened as the ability to generate, retain, retrieve,
and transform well-structured visual images (Lohman, 1996).
Additionally, spatial ability has been dened as the ability to
understand the relationships among different positions in space
or imagined movements of two- and three-dimensional
objects (Clements, 1998).
The literature (Potter and van der Merwe, 2001; Sorby,
2005; Sutton and Williams, 2010) shows the signicance of
spatial ability in graphics-based courses, and the implications of poor skills on career choices and success rates.
Spatial cognition for designers transpires by constructing
internal or external representations, in which the representations can serve as cognitive support to information
processing and memory (Tversky, 2005).
According to Schweizer et al. (2007), certain evidence
proposes that the performance required to complete Ravens
Matrices test also depends on spatial ability somehow. Sutton
and Williams (2007) dened spatial ability as the performance
on tasks that require three aspects, namely, (1) the mental
rotation of objects; (2) ability to understand how objects
appear at different angles; and (3) understanding of how
objects relate to one another in space. Sutton and Williams
(2007) introduce delight tests for measuring spatial cognitions;
one of these tests is Ravens Matrices test. The authors
contended that the Raven test does not strictly measure
spatial ability but can be considered an on verbal ability test
that recognizes the forms of spatial concepts.
Moreover, Guttman (1974) pointed out the concerns
related to the validity of Ravens Matrices test with the
genetic analysis of spatial ability, whereas Schweizer et al.
(2007) investigated the discriminant and convergent validity
of Ravens Matrices while considering spatial abilities and
reasoning. Schweizer et al. (2007) reinvestigated the relationship between spatial ability measured and Ravens
Advanced Progressive Matrices; four scales that represent
visualization, reasoning, closure, and mental rotation were
also applied to a sample of N= 280 university students. The
results indicated the existence of convergent validity.
Meanwhile, Lohman (1996) concluded that the hierarchical
models of human abilities provide g statistical and logical
priority over spatial ability measures and that Ravens
Matrices tests are some of the best measures of g.
In relation to the gender differences in spatial ability and
spatial activities (Newcombe et al., 1983), assessments of the
spatial nature of tasks are positively correlated with the
masculinity evaluated, and with greater male participation
than that of females.
The meta-analysis results (Linn and Petersen, 1985)
suggest the following points: (a) gender differences arise
in certain types of spatial ability but not in other types;
(b) large gender differences exist only on mental rotation

321
measures; (c) minor gender differences exist on spatial
perception measures; and (d) gender differences that exist
can be detected across a life span. In relation to the
inuence of age on spatial ability (Salthouse, 1987), older
adults perform at lower accuracy levels than young adults
do in each experiment.

2.5. Design, problem solving, and intelligence

quotient
Problem solving in design has attracted signicant interest
among design researchers since the 1960s. Most design
methodology works have been inuenced by the premise
that design establishes a natural type of problem solving.
Nevertheless, this assumption has been insufciently explored (Goel, 1994).
Alexiou et al. (2009) indicated that few ambiguities existed
on whether design can be a special type of problem solving or a
totally distinct style of thinking; the distinguishing features of
design were more or less established in general.
One approach for differentiating design is related to
problem space and solution space ideas. Problem space
signies a collection of requirements, whereas solution
space presents a couple of constructions that satisfy these
requirements. In problem-solving theory, problem space is
a representation of a set of possible states, a set of legal
operations, as well as an evaluation function or stopping
criteria for the problem-solving task (e.g., Ernst and
Newell, 1969; Newell and Simon, 1972).
Moreover, Resnick and Glaser (1975) argued that an
essential part of intelligence is the ability to solve problems
and a careful study of the problem-solving behavior, particularly many of the psychological processes that comprise
intelligence. Bhner et al. (2008) reviewed ideas correlated
to problem solving and intelligence.
Although problem solving abilities have been initially
assumed to be possibly independent from intelligence, correlations among these constructs have been frequently demonstrated (Rigas et al., 2002; Krner et al., 2005; S, 1996).
Rigas et al. (2002) applied the Khlhaus and NEWFIRE
scenarios to evaluate problem-solving performance. The
correlations between intelligence and problem-solving
scores (Advanced Progressive Matrices, APM, Raven, 1976)
were r= 0.43 (Khlhaus) and r= 0.34 (NEWFIRE) when corrected for attenuation.
Leutner (2002) conducted two experiments related to the
effect of domain knowledge on the correlation between
problem solving and intelligence, and concluded that With
low domain knowledge, the correlation is low; with increasing knowledge, the correlation increases; with further
increasing knowledge, the correlation decreases; nally,
when the problem has become a simple task, the correlation
is again low.

2.6.

Creativity, design, and intelligence quotient

Creativity in design has been discussed through the problemsolution co-evolution(Dorst and Cross, 2001) and
based on the topic itself (Sarkar and Chakrabarti, 2011;
Demirkan and Afacan, 2012). Creativity is vital for the

322
design of all types of artifacts. Assessing creativity can
help recognize innovative products and designers, and can
improve both design and products (Sarkar and Chakrabarti,
2011). Creativity is a natural part of the design process, which
has been frequently categorized through a creative leap that
occurs between solution and problem space (Demirkan, 2010).
Given the complex nature of creativity, consensus is lacking
regarding the denition of creativity that completely covers the
concept and recognizes creative solutions. Consequently, a
creative event cannot be guaranteed to occur within the
design process. Thus, the study on creative design seems
problematic (Dorst and Cross, 2001).
According to Demirkan (2010), In architectural design
process the interaction between person, creative process and
creative product inside a creative environment should be
considered as a total act in assessing creativity. Hasirci and
Demirkan (2003)considered the four elements of creativity
(i.e., person, process, product, and environment) while selecting two sixth-grade art rooms as the setting. The authors
concluded that three creativity elements (person, process, and
product) signicantly inuence the design process differently. In
a later study, the effects of these three creativity elements
have been analyzed by focusing on cognition phases in the creative decision making of design studio students (Hasirci and
Demirkan, 2007).
While criticizing terms such as creativity test and
measure of the creative process, Piffer (2012) indicated
that three specic dimensions of creativity (novelty, appropriateness, and impact) constitute a framework that helps
dene and measure creativity by answering if creativity can
be measured.
Squalli and Wilson (2014) argued that the terms intelligence, creativity, and innovation are initially assumed to be
well understood generally, but dening, assessing, and
measuring the inter-relationships among these terms are
controversial. The authors conducted the rst test of the
intelligenceinnovation hypothesis that contributed to the
creativityintelligence debate in the psychology literature.
Two different theories exist in terms of the relationship
between IQ and creativity in the history of psychological
research. In the rst theory, IQ and creativity belong to the
same mental processes (conjoint theory). In the second
theory, IQ and creativity represent two separate mental
processes (disjoint theory). Various researchers have recommended some evidence since the 1950s to prove the
correlation between creativity and intelligence. In these
previous studies, the correlation between these two concepts is extremely low that distinguishing the two concepts
can be justied (Batey and Furnham, 2006). Several
researchers contend that creativity and intelligence originate from the same intellectual cognitive process, and can
only be interpreted as creativity because of the outcomes of
both concepts. For example, a complete new object is
produced through the cognitive process. This approach is
called the nothing special hypothesis (OHara and
Sternberg, 1999).
The model usually adopted in this type of research is known
as the threshold hypothesis. This hypothesis indicates that
creativity requires a high IQ level. However, only having a high
IQ is insufcient (Guilford, 1967). Therefore, although a positive
correlation exists between creativity and intelligence, this
correlation would either disappear or lose meaning if an

S. Nazidizaji et al.
individuals IQ score is higher than 120, which is beyond the
threshold. This model is acceptable for many researchers, but is
also challenging in different cases (Heilman et al., 2003).

2.7.

Architecture education in Iran

The architecture undergraduate program in Iran universities

is no less than a four-year program. The program comprises140 course credits, including 6 credits for the nal
thesis. The courses are divided into general (20 credits),
basic (29 credits), major (60 credits), and professional (27
credits). Thirteen optional courses are also offered, such as
ethics in architecture, research methods, design process
and methods, new structures, and software applications in
architecture. Students should pass two optional courses in
the program. ADS courses comprise 5 courses (ADS-1, ADS-2,
ADS-3, ADS-4, and ADS-5) with 5 credits each. ADS courses
begin from the fourth semester (one ADS course in every
semester) (Supreme Council for Planning, 2007).
Each design studio course begins with a tutor proposing a
design project according to the current syllabus of the
Ministry of Science. The students start designing by studying
some environmental factors and architectural standards and
by considering other similarly designed projects. Semester
critique sessions are held, during which students obtain the
opinions of a tutor and of fellow students regarding the
improvements of the students design. ADS assessment is
based on the delivered project at the end of the semester
(including a 3D model, oor plans, elevations and sections,
and internal and external perspectives), and students
activities during critique sessions.

3.

Main hypotheses

This study started from the following hypotheses:

1) Does any relationship exist between IQ and mean scores
for architecture design studio courses?
2) Does any relationship exist between IQ and scores for
architecture design studio courses 1 to 5(ADS-1 to ADS-5)?

4.

Test subjects

The statistical population in this study consisted of all

Deylaman Institute of Higher Education (Lahijan-IRAN)
architecture students enrolled in 2011. The Department of
Education provided a complete list of students, from which
the sample was selected. Moreover, 184 students were
selected as the study sample. Finite population sampling
was adopted to estimate the sample size (n) as follows:
n

NZ 2 pq
2

2 N 1 Z 2 pq

where

 P=0.5 is the estimating ratio for trait in this study (gender

ratio is considered the trait ratio in this population);

 Z/2 = 1.96 is the corresponding value with 95% condence level in a standard normal distribution;

Effect of intelligence quotient on students design skills

323

 = 0.1 is the value of allowable error;

 N= 184 is the statistical population size; and
 n is the least sample size, where
n

184  1:962  0:5  0:5

2

0:1  184  1 1:962  0:5  0:5

64

This formula shows that the minimum sample size obtained

was 64. A larger sample size of 69 was considered because
the condence level was increased and access to the
student population was provided. Simple random sampling
was adopted because the sampling framework and population members were predetermined. Participation in this
research was voluntary. Individuals who participated in this
research were assured that the data would only be used for
research purposes, and the data were analyzed collectively.
Forty-six female students (66.7%) and 23 male students
(33.3%) comprised the study sample. The average age of the
students was 23.39. The youngest student was 21 years old,
whereas the oldest was 31 years old.

5.

Research methodology

The approach adopted in this research was statistical

inference associated with testing statistical hypotheses.
The students scores were prepared, collected, recorded,
and subsequently classied, controlled, and analyzed using
SPSS. The students IQ was based on Ravens Progressive
Matrices test, whereas the design talent index was based on
the design course scores. The reliability and validity of the
Raven test in Iran as well as the evaluation and reliability of
the design scores are described in the subsequent sections.

5.1.

Ravens IQ test

Ravens Progressive Matrices, either the simple form or

Ravens Matrices themselves, are classied as non-verbal IQ
tests employed for educational purposes. These tests are
among the most extensively used and comprehensive tests
that can be used for ve-year-old children to elderly people
(Kaplan and Saccuzzo, 2008). Raven test was created by
John C. Raven in England in 1936 (Raven, 1936).
Ravens Advanced Progressive Matrices (Figure 2) are
specic forms of Ravens Matrices test, which are particularly designed to distinguish individuals whose intelligence is
beyond normal. This form of the test is designed as two
different sets of questions in separate booklets. The rst
booklet contains 12 questions that are solely designed to
distinguish among individuals with varying levels of intelligence, whereas the second booklet contains 36 questions
that clarify and more precisely distinguish individuals. All
of the questions in the second booklet are designed as
rectangular matrices with three columns and rows that
contain organized gures and images. The nal cell in this
matrix is always blank. The gure contents in the eight
other cells are specied based on optional and abstract
rules. An individual studied should discover these rules
through trial and error, and subsequently guess the content
of the ninth cell based on these rules. Six to eight optional
answers are designed for every question. In this form of
test, an individuals ability for abstract reasoning is

Figure 2 Illustrative progressive matrices item. The respondents are asked to recognize the piece required to complete
the design based on the corresponding options.

evaluated, specically the individuals ability to solve/guess

the relationship among the components of each question,
identify the fundamental rules by which the cells are
constructed, and use these rules to recognize the correct
answer (Mackintosh and Bennett, 2005).

5.2.

Reliability and validity of Raven test in Iran

Ravens Progressive Matrices are among the IQ tests whose

reliability and validity are accepted to measure and evaluate the overall intelligence, which is the g factor. An
advanced form of this test is employed as a tool form
ensuring the intelligence of individuals regarded as brilliant
and distinguished people, and as top and gifted students.
Rahmani (2006) investigated the reliability and validity of
this test in research in which students intelligence was
measured. Rahmani obtained raw data associated with
individuals IQ. Moreover, 707 individuals were initially
selected as samples from a statistical population of students
studying in the Khorasgan branch of Azad University (Iran)
from school years 2005 to 2008. The samples were tested
using Ravens Progressive Matrices. The results indicated
that Ravens Progressive Matrices were signicantly reliable
and valid (Po0.01). The students overall intelligence was
measured through IQ equivalents on the Wechsler intelligence scale, in which a mean of 100 and a standard
deviation of 15 were obtained using the standard method
to calculate scores (z scores). No signicant difference
(Po0.01) was observed in the raw mean scores of the
female and male individuals. A comparison of the mean raw
scores of the subjects studied, whose age range differed,
showed no difference in the mean scores among individuals
over 18 years old.

5.3. Students scores in architecture design

studio courses
The architecture design studio scores in this study were
used as indicators of students design competence.

324

S. Nazidizaji et al.

However, debates about these issues persist, that is,

whether students nal term scores obtained from design
course projects and design critiques represent students
actual design skills, and whether students with high scores
in design courses are likely to be better designers in the
future. Design projects, whether professional or academic,
are examined to answer issues on whether a systematic
mechanism can be developed to evaluate architecture
designs. Additionally, how the referees judgements are
affected by the referees presumptions (Carmona and Sieh,
2004; Prasad, 2004) is examined. These works are designed
to identify better assessment methods for design projects.
Studies about the reliability of the scores of college design
courses are limited.
Table 1 presents the design course titles, purposes, and
subjects considered in the Deylaman Institute of Higher
Education in Iran for the architecture undergraduate
program.
Considering every ADS syllabus(Supreme Council for
Planning, 2007) and some related studies, such as experts
and novices subject studies (Bjrklund, 2013; Ozkan and
Dogan, 2013), the following differences among ADS-1 to
ADS-5 can be recognized:
1) Normally in design research, rst year students are
regarded as novices, whereas nal year students are
considered experts. From ADS-1 to ADS-5, students
transition from novice to experts.

Table 1
in Iran.

2) Based on the attention to form and function in the

syllabus, the rst design projects (ADS-1 and ADS-2) are
less functional, whereas the nal design projects (ADS-4
and ADS-5) are highly functional. The ADS-3 project is
more conceptual and artistic.
3) The complexity of a project in terms of the number of
spaces and variations, land area, and required technology increases from ADS-1 to ADS-5.
4) Based on the syllabus, required design constraints, such
as environmental and economic factors, and numerical
standards, increase from ADS-1 to ADS-5.
5) The degree of being ill-dened decreases in the nal
design projects (ADS-4 and ADS-5). A difference between
ADS-4 and ADS-5 is that ADS-5 students should deal with
an urban network design for designed buildings aside
from designing buildings.

6.

Testing the main hypotheses

The existence of a signicant relationship between IQ and

ADS courses 1 to 5 scores, and the means of these scores is
questioned.
Inferential statistical methods, including a correlation
test, were used in testing the main hypotheses. First, the
existence or absence of a signicant relationship among
these variables was studied through these methods; a 5%
condence level was considered in this study.

Architecture Design Studio (ADS) course titles, subjects, and purposes in the architecture undergraduate program

Course Course purpose

title

Design subject

Land
area
(m2)

ADS-1

Fruit market, simple fair exhibit site, small

passenger terminal
Residential units/buildings in urban context
for an extended family.
Museum, monument, cultural center,
special exhibition sites
Small hospitals, small airports, port
facilities, nursing home for disabled people
Forty-oor residential complex based on
medium or high population density

1500

ADS-2
ADS-3
ADS-4
ADS-5

Learning simple and tangible functions Paying attention to

effective factors in design
Learning housing concept and factors affecting it
Meeting various cultural, artistic, dialect and semantic
dimensions with simplicity in functional system
Learning specic and complicated functional systems and
paying attention to installations and structural system
Micro and macro-scale residential complex designed to suit
cultural, climatic and economic conditions

Table 2

scores
scores
scores
scores
scores
scores

2000
3000
6002
8000

Results of the correlation between the ADS scores and the mean of these scores with the IQ scores.

Hypothesis
IQ
IQ
IQ
IQ
IQ
IQ

1000

and
and
and
and
and
and

mean ADS scores

ADS-1 scores
ADS-2 scores
ADS-3 scores
ADS-4 scores
ADS-5 scores

Pearson correlation

P-value

correlation

Type of correlation

0.13
0.028
0.07
 0.06
0.21
0.26

0.26
0.82
0.56
0.61
0.07
0.02

No correlation
No correlation
No correlation
No correlation
No correlation
Correlated

Positive

Effect of intelligence quotient on students design skills

325

Figure 3 Matrix showing the distribution between the IQ scores and the mean of scores from architecture design studio (ADS-1 to ADS-5).

2) Does a signicant difference exist between female and

male architecture students regarding the mean ADS
scores of both genders?

7.1.

Figure 4 Distributions of the scores of ADS-1 to ADS-5.

Given that the P-value of the testing correlation between

IQ and ADS-1 to ADS-4 is more than 0.05, the null hypothesis
is accepted and the correlation is insignicant for the 95%
condence level (see Table 2).
However, the P-value of the testing correlation between
IQ and ADS-5 is 0.02, which is lower than 0.05. Therefore,
the null hypothesis is rejected and these two variables are
correlated. The correlation value is 0.26.
Figure 3 shows the mean distribution in every course
compared with the IQ scores. Evidently, the relationship
among the means is extremely low that this relationship can
be disregarded. Figure 4 demonstrates the relationships
between IQ and the ve design courses. Obviously, no correlations exist between IQ and ADS-1, ADS-2, ADS-3, and ADS-4.

7.

Gender difference hypotheses

1) Does a signicant difference exist between female

and male architecture students in terms of intelligence
quotient scores?

Testing the hypotheses

H0 (null hypothesis) 1 =2: No signicant difference exists

between the IQ scores of female and male students.
H1 (alternative hypothesis) 1a2: A signicant difference exists between the IQ scores of female and male
students.
Descriptive statistics and the t-statistical test for two
independent groups (independent t-sample test) are used in
this section to recognize the present condition of the
population under study. These statistics investigate the
difference between the mean IQ scores and the mean
architecture design scores in the two student samples
examined (i.e., female and male individuals).
Table 3 shows the data related to both IQ scores and the
mean scores for architecture design studio courses of
female and male students. Descriptive statistics are individually calculated for each group.
Out of the 69 students studied (46 females and 23 males),
the mean IQ is 111.02 in the female student group, whereas
that in the male student group is 111.91. Moreover, the
standard deviation shown in Table 3 indicates that the IQ
distribution is wider in the female student group than that
in the male student group. The mean of the architecture
design average scores is 16.09 in the female student group
and 15.35 in the male student group. The standard deviation obtained implies that the distribution of the ADS
average scores is slightly wider in the male student group
than in the female student group. A mean comparison test
should be performed to reject or accept this hypothesis.
Two columns of the 95% condence interval and the Pvalue are used to conclude whether the means differ from
or are similar to each other (signicance of the difference in
the mean scores). The P-value shows whether the null
hypothesis (H0) should be rejected or accepted. This value
is compared with 0.05. First, a test for equality of variances
is performed, and a test for equality of means is

326

S. Nazidizaji et al.

Table 3

Group statistics: IQ and ADS scores based on gender.

Intelligence quotient
Architecture design studio mean scores

Gender

Mean

Std. deviation

Std. error mean

Female
Male
Female
Male

46
23
46
23

111.02
111.91
16.09
16.35

13.84
10.71
1.25
1.53

2.041
2.233
0.184
0.318

subsequently conducted based on the test for equality of

variances. If the variances are proven to be equal to each other,
then the rst row of means is tested for equality of means;
otherwise, the second row is tested.
The P-value is 0.21 according to the test for equality of
variances for the mean IQ variant scores; moreover, the Pvalue is 0.21 according to the test for equality of variances
for the mean scores of the architecture design courses. A
0.05% condence level is taken. Given that the P-value for
both tests is lower than 0.05, the null hypothesis for
equality of variances is accepted. Thus, the variances of
two populations are considered equal for both variables.
Therefore, the rst row of means is considered to test every
variable because the variances are equal (see Table 4).
According to the P-value obtained from the test for
equality of means for the mean IQ scores, which is as
follows:
P-value = 0/7840/05, the null hypothesis, which is the
equality of means, is not rejected with the 95% condence
level. Therefore, no signicant difference exists between
the mean IQ scores associated with female and male
students.
According to the P-value obtained from the test for
equality of means for the mean scores for ADS courses,
which is as follows:
Sig =0/7840/05, the null hypothesis, which is equality of
means, is not rejected with the 95% condence level.
Therefore, no signicant difference exists between the
mean scores for the architecture design courses associated
with female and male students.
Two numbers shown at the 95% condence interval of the
difference are 0, which indicates that the null hypothesis is
accepted in both comparison tests.
The box charts in Figure 5 show numerous descriptive
statistics, including the maximum and minimum data,
median, quartiles, and range, along with data distribution
associated with the scores of architecture designing courses
and IQ scores in the two groups of male and female
students.

8.

Discussion

This research demonstrates that no signicant relationships

exist between students IQ and variables that include (1)
ADS-1 to ADS-4, and (2) mean scores for design courses.
Moreover, IQ and ADS-5 scores are correlated.
According to the explained difference among ADS syllabusses in Section 5.3, the effect of IQ on expert design skills
is better than that on novices (the P-value for IQ and ADS-4
is 0.07 and is close tobeingcorrelated). Moreover, when the

complexity of a project and design constraints increase, and

the degree of being ill-dened in a design problem decreases, the inuence of IQ on design skills becomes evident.
However, the item (designer experience, complexity and
functionality of design project, and a design problem being
less ill-dened) that has a larger effect on this correlation
cannot be indentied because no continual decrease in Pvalue occurs from ADS-1 to ADS-5 (because of both ADS-2
and an IQ P-value of 0.56).
Testing the second hypothesis about the effect of gender
difference on IQ and design scores shows that no signicant
difference is observed in the IQ and design scores of males
and females in this study compared with other predictors
(i.e., spatial ability) that indicate that males are better
than females (Newcombe et al., 1983). The implication is
that if spatial ability is regarded as an indicator of design
abilities, then spatial ability contradicts the results in terms
of the absence of a signicant difference between males
and females in the aspect of design scores.
The correlation between IQ scores and the total GPA is
also measured in this study (P-value= 0.217, Pearson
correlation = 0.15, no correlation). The results indicate
the lack of a signicant difference between the average of
design scores and students GPA.
Furthermore, the threshold theory of creativityintelligence about intelligence design for an IQ above 120 is
measured. For students with an IQ above 120, the correlation between IQ and the mean ADS is the Pearson
correlation = 0.073 and the P-value= 0.79, which indicates
the lack of a signicant relationship, and threshold theory
about creativityintelligence is not conrmed in intelligence
design.

9.

Conclusion

This study examined the correlation between architecture

students IQs and (1) the students ADS-1 to ADS-5scores,
and (2) the mean ADS scores. The results indicated that as
the degree of complexity of a project increases, a designers
experience may boost the effect of IQ in the design process.
As the factors that inuence designers success are identied, more productive and effective design programs may be
devised in the future. Furthermore, the guidance for the
future occupation of students in this eld can be assured by
identifying mental talents that empower design ability,
particularly talents that can be quantitatively measured.
The study reported in this paper should be repeated in
other architectural schools to conrm if a correlation
only exists in the nal year course. Further research on
the correlation between urban design courses and IQ would
help clarify this topic.

Effect of intelligence quotient on students design skills

Table 4

327

Independent sample test results.

Levenes t-Test for equality of means
test for
equality
of
variances
F

Sig. t

df

Sig. (2tailed)

Mean
Std. error
difference difference

95%
Condence
interval of
the
difference
Lower Upper

Intelligence quotient

Equal variances
assumed
Equal variances
not assumed
Mean architecture design Equal variances
studio scores
assumed
Equal variances
not assumed

Figure 5

1.58 0.21  0.27 67

0.78

 0.89

3.29

 7.46 5.68

 0.29 55.24 0.76

 0.89

3.02

 6.95 5.17

0.44

 0.26

0.343

 0.95 0.41

 0.72 37.13 0.47

 0.26

0.367

 1.01 0.47

1.27 0.26  0.77 67

Box charts of IQ and mean ADS with respect to gender.

328
The major limitation of the research approach was the
relevance or accuracy of the evaluation methods in practical architecture courses, specically design courses. Certain doubts that emerged in students scores in design
courses accurately represented the students actual design
ability. Therefore, this study encourages further research on
this issue. New studies are currently being developed
through different assessment methods.
Other concerns that emerged were about creativity
versus intelligence tests. Meanwhile, researchers have
emphasized the role of creativity in design, in which the
broad concept of creativity induced difculties in understanding the exact role of creativity in design. Moreover, the
measurability of creativity and creativity tests is under
debate. Certain intelligence innovation tests (Squalli and
Wilson, 2014) that can be used for future studies are
available.
The present study is recommended to be repeated on
larger statistical populations and in different countries or
cities. Repeating this research in a broader context and
using the new results may help design a new questionnaire
or cognitive tests to identify future high potential designers.
Based on different effective design factors and the outcomes (mental, cognitive, social interaction, collaboration,
personality, problem-solving skills) of these factors, every
designed predictive test should consider all aspects or might
be combinations of cognitive and personality tests. In terms
of success in designing a reliable test or questionnaire,
Cross (1999) theory can validate that design is a special and
separate type of intelligence.

Acknowledgement
This research has been done by nancial support of Portugal
Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation (Grant number 129645)
(Fundao Calouste Gulbenkian). We most sincerely thank
Mr Dariuosh Poordadashi for his cooperation in the analysis
of the statistical results and the staff of Deylaman Institute
of Higher Education for their cooperation in preparing the
research data.

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