ABSTRACT

ABSTRACT
Here we use

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO.

TITLE

PAGE NO.

iii

ABSTRACT

vii

LIST OF FIGURES

xiii

LIST OF ABBREVATION

xiv

1.

INTRODUCTION

02

2.

The Basic Principle

07

2.1 Block Diagram

07

2.1.1 Working Principle

07

2.2 Text to Speech

08
2.3 Speech to text

09

3.

RASPBERRY PI- MICROPROCESSOR

12

4.

SPEECH PROCESSING

38

4.1 Introduction

38

4.2 Sampling

41

4.3 Quantization
4.4 Methodology

42
43

5.

SOFTWARE SUPPORT

56

56
5.1 Text to Speech

56

5.1 Speech to Text

6.

Programing Languages Used

6.1 Python
6.2 PHP
6.3 HTML

8.

Applications

9.

Conclusion

10.

REFERENCES

75

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

The current era belongs to the world of Internet. Internet has become a necessity from its status
of luxury in the recent years. A network exists between people and things but still the interface
between the things and an individual human being is dependent on physical supports such as
remote controls or smartphone apps. In order to overcome such limitations, we have designed
our project to provide an ease of control over various devices connected to the internet using
voice. This provision of voice interface gives the freedom of usage and also eradicates the use of
other control systems thus aiding in an economic and ecofriendly environment. In addition to
control through voice commands our project is also aimed towards providing a voice based
interaction between the computer and humans thus abridging the digital and physical worlds
using a virtual system. This augmentation of different worlds gives rise to a new concept known
as Augmented Reality.

CHAPTER-2
THE BASIC PRINCIPLE
2.1 Block Diagram:

2.2 Basic Principle

Every physical signal existing in this world is analog in nature.
Hence for the computer to process an analog signal it needs to be
digitized. Here

2.2 Text to Speech

2.3 Speech to text

CHAPTER-3

CHAPTER-3

CHAPTER
3
RASPBERRY PI

3.1 RPi FAMILY:

PTER

4
SPEECH PROCESSING

4 .1 Introduction:

4. 2 Sampling:

CHA

4. 3 Quantization:

4. 4 Methodology:

CHAPTER-4

CHAPTER-4

SERIAL COMMUNICATION
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
Serial communication is basically the transmission or reception of data one
bit at a time. Today's computers generally address data in bytes or some multiple
thereof. A byte contains 8 bits. A bit is basically either a logical 1 or zero. Every
character on this page is actually expressed internally as one byte. The serial port is
used to convert each byte to a stream of ones and zeroes as well as to convert a
stream of ones and zeroes to bytes. The serial port contains a electronic chip called
a Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) that actually does the
conversion.
The serial port has many pins. We will discuss the transmit and receive pin
first. Electrically speaking, whenever the serial port sends a logical one (1) a
negative voltage is effected on the transmit pin. Whenever the serial port sends a
logical zero (0) a positive voltage is affected. When no data is being sent, the serial
port's transmit pin's voltage is negative (1) and is said to be in a MARK state. Note
that the serial port can also be forced to keep the transmit pin at a positive voltage
(0) and is said to be the SPACE or BREAK state. (The terms MARK and SPACE
are also used to simply denote a negative voltage (1) or a positive voltage (0) at the
transmit pin respectively).
When transmitting a byte, the UART (serial port) first sends a START BIT
which is a positive voltage (0), followed by the data (general 8 bits, but could be 5,
6, 7, or 8 bits) followed by one or two STOP Bits which is a negative(1) voltage.
The sequence is repeated for each byte sent. Figure 1 shows a diagram of what a
byte transmission would look like.

At this point you may want to know what the duration of a bit is. In other
words, how long does the signal stay in a particular state to define a bit. The
answer is simple. It is dependent on the baud rate. The baud rate is the number of
times the signal can switch states in one second. Therefore, if the line is operating
at 9600 baud, the line can switch states 9,600 times per second. This means each
bit

has

the

duration

of

1/9600

of

second

or

about

100sec.

when transmitting a character there are other characteristics other than the
baud rate that must be known or that must be setup. These characteristics define
the entire interpretation of the data stream. The first characteristic is the length of
the byte that will be transmitted. This length in general can be anywhere from 5 to
8 bits.
The second characteristic is parity. The parity characteristic can be even,
odd, mark, space, or none. If even parity, then the last data bit transmitted will be a
logical 1 if the data transmitted had an even amount of 0 bits. If odd parity, then the
last data bit transmitted will be a logical 1 if the data transmitted had an odd
amount of 0 bits. If MARK parity, then the last transmitted data bit will always be
a logical 1. If SPACE parity, then the last transmitted data bit will always be a
logical 0. If no parity then there is no parity bit transmitted.
The third characteristic is the amount of stop bits. This value in general is 1
or 2. Assume we want to send the letter 'A' over the serial port. The binary
representation of the letter 'A' is 01000001. Remembering that bits are transmitted
from least significant bit (LSB) to most significant bit (MSB), the bit stream
transmitted would be as follows for the line characteristics 8 bits, no parity, 1 stop
bit and 9600 baud.

LSB (0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1) MSB
The above represents (Start Bit) (Data Bits) (Stop Bit). To calculate the
actual byte transfer rate simply divide the baud rate by the number of bits that must
be transferred for each byte of data. In the case of the above example, each
character requires 10 bits to be transmitted for each character. As such, at 9600
baud, up to 960 bytes can be transferred in one second.
The above discussion was concerned with the "electrical/logical"
characteristics of the data stream. We will expand the discussion to line protocol.
Serial communication can be half duplex or full duplex. Full duplex
communication means that a device can receive and transmit data at the same time.
Half duplex means that the device cannot send and receive at the same time. It can
do them both, but not at the same time. Half duplex communication is all but
outdated except for a very small focused set of applications.
Half duplex serial communication needs at a minimum two wires, signal
ground and the data line. Full duplex serial communication needs at a minimum
three wires, signal ground, transmit data line, and receive data line. The RS232
specification governs the physical and electrical characteristics of serial
communications. This specification defines several additional signals that are
asserted (set to logical 1) for information and control beyond the data signal
These signals are the Carrier Detect Signal (CD), asserted by modems to
signal a successful connection to another modem, Ring Indicator (RI), asserted by
modems to signal the phone ringing, Data Set Ready (DSR), asserted by modems
to show their presence, Clear To Send (CTS), asserted by modems if they can

receive data, Data Terminal Ready (DTR), asserted by terminals to show their
presence, Request To Send (RTS), asserted by terminals if they can receive data.
The section RS232 Cabling describes these signals and how they are connected.
The above paragraph alluded to hardware flow control. Hardware flow
control is a method that two connected devices use to tell each other electronically
when to send or when not to send data. A modem in general drops (logical 0) its
CTS line when it can no longer receive characters. It re-asserts it when it can
receive again. A terminal does the same thing instead with the RTS signal. Another
method of hardware flow control in practice is to perform the same procedure in
the

previous

paragraph

except

that

the

DSR

and

DTR

signals.

Note that hardware flow control requires the use of additional wires. The
benefit to this however is crisp and reliable flow control. Another method of flow
control used is known as software flow control. This method requires a simple 3
wire serial communication link, transmit data, receive data, and signal ground. If
using this method, when a device can no longer receive, it will transmit a character
that the two devices agreed on. This character is known as the XOFF character.
This character is generally a hexadecimal 13. When a device can receive again it
transmits an XON character that both devices agreed to. This character is generally
a hexadecimal 11.

4.2 NULL MODEM:

Serial communications with RS232. One of the oldest and most widely
spread communication methods in computer world. The way this type of
communication can be performed is pretty well defined in standards. I.e. with one
exception. The standards show the use of DTE/DCE communication, the way a

computer should communicate with a peripheral device like a modem. For your
information, DTE means Data Terminal Equipment (computers etc.) where DCE is
the abbreviation of Data Communication Equipment (modems).
One of the main uses of serial communication today where no modem is
involveda serial null modem configuration with DTE/DTE communicationis
not so well defined, especially when it comes to flow control. The terminology null
modem for the situation where two computers communicate directly is so often
used nowadays, that most people don't realize anymore the origin of the phrase and
that a null modem connection is an exception, not the rule.
In history, practical solutions were developed to let two computers talk with
each other using a null modem serial communication line. In most situations, the
original modem signal lines are reused to perform some sort of handshaking.
Handshaking can increase the maximum allowed communication speed because it
gives the computers the ability to control the flow of information. A high amount
of incoming data is allowed if the computer is capable to handle it, but not if it is
busy performing other tasks. If no flow control is implemented in the null modem
connection, communication is only possible at speeds at which it is sure the
receiving side can handle the amount information even under worst case
conditions.

4.3 RS232:
When we look at the connector pin out of the RS232 port, we see two pins
which are certainly used for flow control. These two pins are RTS, request to send
and CTS, clear to send. With DTE/DCE communication (i.e. a computer

communicating with a modem device) RTS is an output on the DTE and input on
the DCE. CTS are the answering signal coming from the DCE.
Before sending a character, the DTE asks permission by setting its RTS
output. No information will be sent until the DCE grants permission by using the
CTS line.
If the DCE cannot handle new requests, the CTS signal will go low. A
simple but useful mechanism allowing flow control in one direction. The
assumption is that the DTE can always handle incoming information faster than the
DCE can send it. In the past, this was true. Modem speeds of 300 baud were
common and 1200 baud was seen as a high speed connection.
For further control of the information flow, both devices have the ability to
signal their status to the other side. For this purpose, the DTR data terminal ready
and DSR data set ready signals are present. The DTE uses the DTR signal to signal
that it is ready to accept information, whereas the DCE uses the DSR signal for the
same purpose. Using these signals involves not a small protocol of requesting and
answering as with the RTS/CTS handshaking. These signals are in one direction
only.
The last flow control signal present in DTE/DCE communication is the CD
carrier detect. It is not used directly for flow control, but mainly an indication of
the ability of the modem device to communicate with its counter part. This signal
indicates the existence of a communication link between two modem devices.

4.4 NULL MODEM WITHOUT HANDSHAKING:

How to use the handshaking lines in a null modem configuration? The
simplest way is to don't use them at all. In that situation, only the data lines and

signal ground are cross connected in the null modem communication cable. All
other pins have no connection. An example of such a null modem cable without
handshaking can be seen in the figure below.

Connector 1 Connector 2 Function

2

Rx

TX

TX

Rx

Signal ground

Fig.4.1. Simple null modem without handshaking

4.5 COMPATIBILITY ISSUES:

If you read about null modems, this three wire null modem cable is often
talked about. Yes, it is simple but can we use it in all circumstances? There is a

problem, if either of the two devices checks the DSR or CD inputs. These signals
normally define the ability of the other side to communicate. As they are not
connected, their signal level will never go high. This might cause a problem.
The same holds for the RTS/CTS handshaking sequence. If the software on
both sides is well structured, the RTS output is set high and then a waiting cycle is
started until a ready signal is received on the CTS line. This causes the software to
hang because no physical connection is present to either CTS line to make this
possible. The only type of communication which is allowed on such a null modem
line is data-only traffic on the cross connected Rx/TX lines.
This does however not mean that this null modem cable is useless.
Communication links like present in the Norton Commander program can use this
null modem cable. This null modem cable can also be used when communicating
with devices which do not have modem control signals like electronic measuring
equipment etc.
As you can imagine, with this simple null modem cable no hardware flow control
can be implemented. The only way to perform flow control is with software flow
control using the XOFF and XON characters.

CHAPTER-5
SOFTWARE CODING
#include<reg51.h>

#define voice P1
sbit alarm = P0^7;

unsigned char ch;

void serial_init(void);
void delay1(int);
void delay2(int);

//Serial To Test the Program

void serial_init()
{
SCON = 0x50; // SCON: mode 1, 8-bit UART, enable rcvr
TMOD |= 0x20; // TMOD: timer 1, mode 2, 8-bit reload
TH1 = 0xFD; // TH1: reload value for 9600 baud @ 11.0592MHz
TR1 = 1;

// TR1: timer 1 run

TI=1;
}

//DELAY Routine

void delay1(int n)
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<n;i++);
}
void delay2(int n)
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
delay1(1000);
}
}

//Main Program
void main(void)
{
P1=0x00;
P0=0x00;

EA=1;
ES=1;
serial_init();//Initialize serial port
while(1);
}
void serial(void) interrupt 4
{
int i;
ch=SBUF;
if(RI==1)
{
if (ch=='Z')
{
for(i=0;i<12;i++)
{
alarm=1;
delay2(10);
alarm=0;
delay2(7);

}
}
else if (ch=='A')
{
voice=0x01;
}
else if (ch=='B')
{
voice=0x02;
}
else if (ch=='C')
{
voice=0x04;
}
else if (ch=='D')
{
voice=0x08;
}
else if (ch=='E')

{
voice=0x10;
}
else if (ch=='F')
{
voice=0x20;
}
else if (ch=='G')
{
voice=0x40;
}
else if (ch=='H')
{
voice=0x80;
}
else
{
P1=0x00;
}

RI=0;
}
}

CHAPTER-6

CHAPTER-6
SOFTWARE TOOLS
6.1 TYPES OF TOOLS:
KEIL C
Flash Magic
ORCAD
Capture
Layout

6.1.1 KEIL C:
Keil software is the leading vendor for 8/16-bit development tools (ranked at
first position in the 2004 embedded market study of the embedded system and EE
times magazine).
Keil software is represented world wide in more than 40 countries, since the
market introduction in 1988; the keil C51 compiler is the de facto industry standard

and supports more than 500 current 8051 device variants. Now, keil software offers
development tools for ARM.
Keil software makes C compilers, macro assemblers, real-time kernels,
debuggers, simulators, integrated environments, and evaluation boards for 8051,
251, ARM and XC16x/C16x/ST10 microcontroller families.
The Keil C51 C Compiler for the 8051 microcontroller is the most popular
8051 C compiler in the world. It provides more features than any other 8051 C
compiler available today.
The C51 Compiler allows you to write 8051 microcontroller applications in
C that, once compiled, have the efficiency and speed of assembly language.
Language extensions in the C51 Compiler give you full access to all resources of
the 8051.
The C51 Compiler translates C source files into relocatable object modules
which contain full symbolic information for debugging with the Vision Debugger
or an in-circuit emulator. In addition to the object file, the compiler generates a
listing file which may optionally include symbol table and cross reference

Nine basic data types, including 32-bit IEEE floating-point,

Flexible variable allocation with bit, data, bdata, idata, xdata, and
memory types,

Interrupt functions may be written in C,

Full use of the 8051 register banks,

Complete symbol and type information for source-level debugging,

Use of AJMP and ACALL instructions,

pdata

Bit-addressable data objects,

Built-in interface for the RTX51 real time kernels,
Support for the Philips 8xC750, 8xC751, and 8xC752 limited
sets,

instruction

Support for the Infineon 80C517 arithmetic unit.

6.1.2 FLASH MAGIC:

Flash magic can control the entry into ISP mode of some microcontroller
devices by using the COM port handshaking signals to control the device.
Typically the handshaking signals are used to control such pins as Reset, PSEN
and VCC. The exact pins used depend on the specific device.
When this feature is supported, Flash Magic will automatically place the
device into ISP mode at the beginning of an ISP operation. Flash Magic will then
automatically cause the device to execute code at the end of the ISP operation.
6.1.3 ORCAD:
ORCAD really consists of tools. Capture is used for design entry in
schematic form. You will probably be already familiar with looking at circuits in
this form from working with other tools in your university courses. Layout is a
tool for designing the physical layout of components and circuits on a PCB.
During the design process, you will move back and forth between these two tools.
The design flow diagram is given below:

Fig.6.1. Design window of ORCAD

6.1.4 DESIGN FLOW OF ORCAD:

MATLAB
CHAPTER 4
4.1 Introduction to MATLAB:
MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical
computing.

It

integrates

computation,

visualization,

and

programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems and

solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical
uses include
Math and computation
Algorithm development
Data acquisition
Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
Scientific and engineering graphics
Application development, including graphical user
interface building

Fig
MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element
is an array that does not require dimensioning. This allows you to
solve many technical computing problems, especially those with
matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would
take to write a program in a scalar non interactive language such
as C or FORTRAN.

The name MATLAB stands for matrix laboratory. MATLAB was

originally written to provide easy access to matrix software
developed by the LINPACK and EISPACK projects. Today, MATLAB
engines incorporate the LAPACK and BLAS libraries, embedding
the state of the art in software for matrix computation.

MATLAB has evolved over a period of years with input from

many users. In university environments, it is the standard
instructional tool for introductory and advanced courses in

mathematics, engineering, and science. In industry, MATLAB is

the tool of choice for high-productivity research, development,
and analysis.

MATLAB features a family of add-on application-specific

solutions called toolboxes. Very important to most uses of
MATLAB, toolboxes allow you to learn and apply specialized
technology. Toolboxes are comprehensive collections of MATLAB
functions (M files) that extend the MATLAB environment to solve
particular classes of problems. Areas in which toolboxes are
available include signal processing, control systems, neural
networks, fuzzy logic, wavelets, simulation, and many others.

4.2 The MATLAB system:

The MATLAB system consists of five main parts

Development Environment:

This is the set of tools and facilities that help you use
MATLAB functions and files. Many of these tools are graphical user
interfaces. It includes the MATLAB desktop and command window,
a command history, an editor and debugger, and browsers for
viewing help, the workspace, files, and the search path.

 The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library:

This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging

from elementary functions, like sum, sine, cosine, and complex
arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix inverse,
matrix Eigen values, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.

The MATLAB Language:

This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow

statements, functions, data structures, input/output, and objectoriented programming features. It allows both programming in
the small to rapidly create quick and dirty throw-away programs,
and programming in the large to create large and complex
application programs.

Graphics:

MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and

matrices as graphs, as well as annotating and printing these
graphs. It includes high-level functions for two-dimensional and
three-dimensional

data

visualization,

image

processing,

animation, and presentation graphics. It also includes low-level

functions that allow you to fully customize the appearance of
graphics as well as to build complete graphical user interfaces on
your MATLAB applications.

The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API):

This is a library that allows you to write C and FORTRAN

programs that interact with MATLAB. It includes facilities for
calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking), calling MATLAB as
a computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT-files.
Various

toolboxes

are

there

in

MATLAB

for

computing

recognition techniques, but we are using IMAGE PROCESSING

toolbox.

4.3 GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE (GUI):

MATLABs

Graphical

User

Interface

Development

Environment (GUIDE) provides a rich set of tools for incorporating

graphical user interfaces (GUIs) in M-functions. Using GUIDE, the
processes of laying out a GUI (i.e., its buttons, pop-up menus,
etc.)and programming the operation of the GUI are divided
conveniently into two easily managed and relatively independent
tasks. The resulting graphical M-function is composed of two
identically named (ignoring extensions) files:

A file with extension .fig, called a FIG-file that contains a

complete graphical description of all the functions GUI objects
or elements and their spatial arrangement. A FIG-file contains
binary data that does not need to be parsed when he
associated GUI-based M-function is executed.

A file with extension .m, called a GUI M-file, which contains the
code that controls the GUI operation. This file includes
functions that are called when the GUI is launched and exited,
and callback functions that are executed when a user interacts
with GUI objects for example, when a button is pushed.
To launch GUIDE from the MATLAB command window, type

guide filename
Where filename is the name of an existing FIG-file on the current
path. If filename is omitted,
GUIDE opens a new (i.e., blank) window.

A graphical user interface (GUI) is a graphical display in one

or more windows containing controls, called components that
enable a user to perform interactive tasks. The user of the GUI
does not have to create a script or type commands at the
command line to accomplish the tasks. Unlike coding programs to
accomplish tasks, the user of a GUI need not understand the
details of how the tasks are performed.
GUI components can include menus, toolbars, push buttons,
radio buttons, list boxes, and sliders just to name a few. GUIs
created using MATLAB tools can also perform any type of
computation, read and write data files, communicate with other
GUIs, and display data as tables or as plots.

VB 6.0

CHAPTER-7

CHAPTER-7
HARDWARE TOOLS

7. 2.7 Zigbee Module

The XBee/XBee-PRO RF Modules are designed to operate within the ZigBee

protocol and support the unique needs of low-cost, low-power wireless sensor
networks. The modules require minimal power and provide reliable delivery of data
between remote devices. The modules operate within the ISM 2.4 GHz frequency
band and are compatible with the following:

XBee RS-232 Adapter

XBee RS-232 PH (Power Harvester) Adapter

XBee RS-485 Adapter

XBee Analog I/O Adapter

XBee Digital I/O Adapter

XBee Sensor Adapter

XBee USB Adapter

XStick

Connect Port X Gateways

XBee Wall Router.

The XBee/XBee-PRO ZB firmware release can be installed on XBee modules. This

firmware is compatible with the ZigBee 2007 specification, while the ZNet 2.5
firmware is based on Ember's proprietary "designed for ZigBee" mesh stack
(EmberZNet 2.5). ZB and ZNet 2.5 firmware are similar in nature, but not over-theair compatible. Devices running ZNet 2.5 firmware cannot talk to devices running
the ZB firmware.

2.7.1 Key Features:

High Performance, Low Cost

Indoor/Urban: up to 300 (100 m)

Outdoor line-of-sight: up to 1 mile (1.6 km)

Transmit Power Output: 100 mW (20 dBm) EIRP

Receiver Sensitivity: -102 dBmRF Data rate: 250,000 bps.

Advanced Networking & Security

Retries and Acknowledgements

DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)

Each direct sequence channel has over 65,000 unique network

addresses available

Point-to-point topology

point-to-multipoint topology

Self-routing, self-healing and fault-tolerant

mesh networking

 Low Power

TX Current: 295 mA (@3.3 V)

RX Current: 45 mA (@3.3 V)

Power-down Current: < 1 A @ 25oC

Easy-to-Use

No configuration necessary for out-of box

RF communications

AT and API Command Modes for configuring module parameters

Small form factor

Extensive command set

Free X-CTU Software (Testing and configuration software)

2.7.2 Mounting Considerations

The XBee modules were designed to mount into a receptacle (socket) and
therefore do not require any soldering when mounting it to a board. The XBee-PRO
Development Kits contain RS- 232 and USB interface boards which use two 20-pin
receptacles to receive modules. Figure 4.7.2 XBeePRO Module Mounting to an RS
232 Interface Board.

Figure 2.7.2 Zigbee Module Mounting to an RS232 Interface Board .

The receptacles used on Digi development boards are manufactured by Century

Interconnect. Several other manufacturers provide comparable mounting solutions;
however, Digi currently uses the following receptacles:

Through-hole single-row receptacles - Samtec P/N: MMS-110-01-L-SV (or

equivalent)

Surface-mount double-row receptacles Century Interconnect P/N: CPRMSL20D-0-1

Surface-mount single-row receptacles - Samtec P/N: SMM-110-02-SM-S

2.7.2 Pin Assignment of Zigbee Module:

Table 4: Pin Assignment of Zigbee Module

Table 2.7.3: Electrical Characteristics of Zigbee Module

2.7.4 RF Module Operation

Serial Communication:

The XBee OEM RF Modules interface to a host device through a logic-level

asynchronous serial port. Through its serial port, the module can communicate with
any logic and voltage compatible UART; or through a level translator to any serial
device.

UART Data Flow

Devices that have a UART interface can connect directly to the pins of the RF
module as shown inthe figure below.

Figure 2.7.4 Zigbee UART Dataflow

Serial Data

Data enters the module UART through the DIN (pin 3) as an asynchronous serial
signal. The signal should idle high when no data is being transmitted. Each data
byte consists of a start bit (low), 8 data bits (least significant bit first) and a stop bit
(high). The following figure illustrates the serial bit pattern of data passing through
the module.

Figure 2.7.5 Serial Data Format

The module UART performs tasks, such as timing and parity checking, that are
needed for data communications. Serial communications depend on the two UARTs
to be configured with compatible settings (baud rate, parity, start bits, stop bits,

data bits).

Serial Buffers

The XBee modules maintain small buffers to collect received serial and RF
data, which is illustrated in the figure below. The serial receive buffer collects
incoming serial characters and holds them until they can be processed. The serial
transmit buffer collects data that is received via the RF link that will be transmitted
out the UART.

Figure 2.7.6 Internal Dataflow

Serial Receive Buffer

When serial data enters the RF module through the DIN Pin (pin 3), the data is
stored in the serial receive buffer until it can be processed. Under certain conditions,
the module may not be able to process data in the serial receive buffer immediately.
If large amounts of serial data are sent to the module, CTS flow control may be

required to avoid overflowing the serial receive buffer.

Cases in which the serial receive buffer may become full and possibly
overflow:

If the module is receiving a continuous stream of RF data, the data in the

serial receive

buffer will not be transmitted until the module is no longer

receiving RF data.

If the module is transmitting an RF data packet, the module may need to

discover the destination address or establish a route to the destination. After
transmitting the data, the module may need to retransmit the data if an
acknowledgment is not received, or if the transmission is a broadcast. These
issues could delay the processing of data in the serial receive buffer.

Serial Transmit Buffer

When RF data is received, the data is moved into the serial transmit buffer and sent
out the UART. If the serial transmit buffer becomes full enough such that all data in
a received RF packet wont fit in the serial transmit buffer, the entire RF data packet
is dropped.
Cases in which the serial transmit buffer may become full resulting in
dropped RF packets:

1. If the RF data rate is set higher than the interface data rate of the module,
the module could receive data faster than it can send the data to the host.

2. If the host does not allow the module to transmit data out from the serial
transmit buffer because of being held off by hardware flow control.

Serial Flow Control

The RTS and CTS module pins can be used to provide RTS and/or CTS flow control.
CTS flow control provides an indication to the host to stop sending serial data to the
module. RTS flow control allows the host to signal the module to not send data in
the serial transmit buffer out the uart. RTS and CTS flow control are enabled using

the D6 and D7 commands.

CTS Flow Control
If CTS flow control is enabled (D7 command), when the serial receive buffer is 17
bytes away from being full, the module de-asserts CTS (sets it high) to signal to the
host device to stop sending serial data. CTS is re-asserted after the serial receive
buffer has 34 bytes of space .
RTS Flow Control
If RTS flow control is enabled (D6 command), data in the serial transmit buffer will
not be sent out the DOUT pin as long as RTS is de-asserted (set high). The host
device should not de-assert RTS for long periods of time to avoid filling the serial
transmit buffer. If an RF data packet is received, and the serial transmit buffer does
not have enough space for all of the data bytes, the entire RF data packet will be
discarded.

2.8 RS232 Communication

RS232:

Information being transferred between data processing equipment and

peripherals is in the form of digital data which is transmitted in either a serial or
parallel mode. Parallel communications are used mainly for connections between
test instruments or computers and printers, while serial is often used between
computers and other peripherals. Serial transmission involves the sending of data
one bit at a time, over a single communications line. In contrast, parallel
communications require at least as many lines as there are bits in a word being
transmitted (for an8-bit word, minimum of 8 lines are needed).Serial transmission is
beneficial for long distance communications, whereas parallel is designed for short
distances or when very high transmission rates are required.

2.8.1 Standards: One of the advantages of a serial system is that it lends itself to
transmission over telephone lines. The serial digital data can be converted by
modem, placed onto a standard voice-grade telephone line, and converted back to
serial digital data at the receiving end of the line by another modem. Officially, RS232 is defined as the Interface between data terminal equipment and data
communications equipment using serial binary data exchange.

This definition

defines data terminal equipment (DTE) as the computer, while data communications
equipment (DCE) is the modem. A modem cable has pin-to-pin connections, and is
designed to connect a DTE device to a DCE device.
2.8.2 Interfaces: In addition to communications between computer equipment
over telephone lines, RS-232 is now widely used for direct connections between
data acquisition devices and computer systems. As in the definition of RS-232, the
computer is data transmission equipment (DTE). However, many interface products
are not data communications equipment (DCE).

Figure 2.8 Pin Configuration of RS232

Null modem cables are designed for this situation; rather than having the pinto-pin connections of modem cables, null modem cables have different internal
wiring to allow DTE devices to communicate with one another.

2.8.3 Cabling Options: RS-232 cables are commonly available with 4, 9 or 25-pin
wiring. The 25-pin cable connects every pin; the 9-pin cables do not include many of
the uncommonly used connections; 4-pin cables provide the bare minimum
connections, and have jumpers to provide handshaking for those devices that
require it. These jumpers connect pins 4, 5 and 8, and also pins 6 and 20.
The advent of the IBM PC AT has created a new wrinkle in RS-232communications.
Rather than having the standard 25-pinconnector, this computer and many new
expansion boards for PCs feature a 9-pin serial port. To connect this port to a
standard 25-pin port, a 9-to-25-pin adaptor cable can be utilized, or the user can
create his own cable specifically for that purpose.

2.8.4 Selecting a Cable: The major consideration in choosing an RS-232 cable is

what devices are to be connected? First, are you connecting two DTE devices (null

modem cable) or a DTE device to a DCE device (modem cable)? Second, what
connectors are required on each end, male or female, 25-pin or 9-pin (AT style)?
Usually, it is recommended that the user obtain the two devices to be connected,
and then determine which cable is required.

2.8.5 RS232 Specifications:

Transmitted Signal Voltage Levels:

Binary 0: +5 to +15 Vdc (called a space or on)
Binary 1: -5 to -15 Vdc (called a mark or off)
Received Signal Voltage Levels:
Binary 0: +3 to +13 Vdc
Binary 1: -3 to -13 Vdc
Data Format:
Start bit: Binary 0
Data: 5, 6, 7 or 8 bits
Parity: Odd, even, mark or space (not used with 8-bit data)
Stop bit: Binary 1, one or two bits.

The USART input/output uses 0V for logic 0 and 5V for logic 1.

The RS-232 standard (and the COM port) use +12V for logic 0 and 12V for
logic 1.

To convert between these voltages levels we need an additional integrated

circuit (such as Maxims MAX232).

2.9 Max232:

The MAX232 from Maxim was the first IC which in one package
contains the necessary drivers (two) and receivers (also two), to adapt the RS-232
signal voltage levels to TTL logic. It became popular, because it just needs one
voltage (+5V) and generates the necessary RS-232 voltage levels (approx. -10V and
+10V) internally. This greatly simplified the design of circuitry. Circuitry designers no
longer need to design and build a power supply with three voltages (e.g. -12V, +5V,
and +12V), but could just provide one +5V power supply, e.g. with the help of a
simple 78x05 voltage converter.
The MAX232 has a successor, the MAX232A. The ICs are almost identical, however,
the MAX232A is much more often used (and easier to get) than the original
MAX232, and the MAX232A only needs external capacitors 1/10th the capacity of
what the original MAX232 needs.

Figure 2.9 MAX232

V D D

C 2
1 0 u F

1
3
4
5

C 3
1 0 u F

C 4

C
C
C
C

+
1 2 +
2 -

V -

V +

1 IN
2 IN
1 IN
2 IN

R
R
T
T
M A X 2 3 2
U 1

15

R
R
T
T

G N D

T X

1 3
8
1 1
1 0

V C C

R 2 IN

1 0 u F

1 0 u F

16

C 1

1
2
1
2

O
O
O
O

U
U
U
U

T
T
T
T

1 2
9
1 4
7

R X
T 2 O U T

Fig 2.9.1 MAX232 connection between 8051 and RS232 cable

.LCD MODULE (2X16 CHARACTER)

Dot matrix LCD modules is used for display the parameters
and fault condition.16 characters 2 lines display is used. It has
controller which interface datas and LCD panel.

Liquid crystal

displays (LCDs) have materials, which combine the properties of

both liquids and crystals. Rather than having a melting point, they
have a temperature range within which the molecules are almost
as mobile as they would be in a liquid, but are grouped together
in an ordered form similar to a crystal. An LCD consists of two
glass panels, with the liquid crystal material sandwiched in
between them. The inner surface of the glass plates are coated
with transparent electrodes which define the character, symbols
or patterns to be displayed polymeric layers are present in
between the electrodes and the liquid crystal molecules to
maintain a defined orientation angle.

One each polarizers are pasted outside the two glass

panels. These polarizers would rotate the light rays passing
through them to a definite angle, in a particular direction When
the LCD is in the off state, light rays are rotated by the two
polarizes and the liquid crystal, such that the light rays come out
of the LCD without any orientation, and hence the LCD appears
transparent.

When sufficient voltage is applied to the electrodes, the

liquid crystal molecules would be aligned on a specific direction.
The light rays passing through the LCD would be rotated by the
polarizes, which would result in activating/highlighting the desired
characters.

Figure 7 LCD Diagram

The LCD's are lightweight with only a few millimeters

thickness. since the LCD's consume less power, they are
compatible with low power electronic

circuits, and can be

powered for long durations .The LCD's don't generate light is

needed to read the display. By using backlighting, reading is
possible in the dark .The LCD's have long life and a wide
operating temperature range.

One of the most popular output devices for embedded electronics

is LCD. The LCD interface has become very simple. This is due to
the availability modules for LCDs. The LCD along with necessary
controller (LCD Controller) and mounting facility is made available
in the module itself. The LCD controller takes care of everything
necessary for the LCD. We communicate with the LCD controller
with the help of a command set provided by the manufacturer.

R5

JP14

+5v

47K
2

P3_5
P3_6
P3_7
DP1
DP2
DP3
DP4
DP5
DP6
DP7
DP8
+5v

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
2x16 LCD

This circuit consists of a Microcontroller and a LCD. This LCD

is operating with an 8-bit data bus. So totally 11 data lines are
required (8 Data lines and 3 control lines). The 8 bit data lines are
connected to the Port1 and the 3 control lines to the Port3.5Port3.7. The EN line is called "Enable." This control line indicates
to the LCD that we are sending it data. To send data to the LCD,
the EN should be low (0) and then set the other two control lines
and/or put data on the data bus. When the other lines are
completely ready, bring EN high (1) and wait for the minimum
amount of time required by the LCD datasheet (this varies from
LCD to LCD), and end by bringing it low (0) again.

The RS line is the "Register Select" line. When RS is low (0),

the data is to be treated as a command or special instruction
(such as clear screen, position cursor, etc.). When RS is high (1),
the data being sent is text data, which should be displayed on the
screen. For example, to display the letter "T" on the screen we
would set RS high.
The RW line is the "Read/Write" control line. When RW is low
(0), the information on the data bus is being written to the LCD.
When RW is high (1), the program is effectively querying (or
reading) the LCD. Only one instruction ("Get LCD status") is a read
command. All others are written commands so RW will almost
always be low.

BRAIN WAVE SENSOR

In

1924,

Hans

Berger,

German

psychiatrist,

performed

the

first

electroencephalographic (EEG) recording in humans (Berger, 1929), a discovery

that was initially greeted with great skepticism by the scientific community. By
recording from one electrode placed over the forehead and one over the
occipital cortex, Berger discovered the existence of rhythmic activity oscillating
at approximately 10 Hz, particularly during relaxed wakefulness and in the
absence of sensory stimulation or mental activity. In this landmark discovery,
Berger described for the first time what would become known as alpha waves.
As a result, Berger was among the first to suggest that the periodic fluctuations
of the human EEG may be associated with mental processes, including arousal,

memory, and consciousness. Over the years, developments in data collection

and analyses transformed EEG into one of the prime techniques for studying the
human

brain.

Table

summarizes

selected

landmark

discoveries

and

developments that have contributed shaping the EEG field throughout the
century.
The past two decades in particular have witnessed unparalleled progress in
our ability to image human brain function non-invasively. Different imaging
techniques are currently available to investigate brain function based on
hemodynamic
(positron

(functional
emission

magnetic

resonance

tomography,

PET),

imaging,
or

fMRI),

metabolic

electromagnetic

(electroencephalography, EEG; magnetoencephalography, MEG) measurements.

In order to investigate spatio-temporal dynamics of brain activity, methods that
directly assess neural activity are required. By measuring electrical activity of
neuronal assemblies with millisecond temporal resolution, EEG and MEG, unlike
hemodynamic techniques, offer the possibility of studying brain function in real
time. Unfortunately, as will be discussed in this chapter, the spatial resolution
afforded by EEG/MEG is constrained by several factors. The most important of
these factors are the distorting effects of the head volume conductor 1, imperfect
signal-to-noise ratios, and limited spatial sampling due to practical limits on the
numbers of electrodes that can be utilized. More importantly, it soon became
evident that the neuromagnetic inverse problem (the attempt to identify
generating sources of measured, scalp-recorded EEG signals) is fundamentally
ill-posed. As first described in 1853 by Helmholtz, there are an infinite number of
Volume conduction refers to the process of current flow from the electrical generator to the recording
electrode (Fisch, 1999).
1

source configurations that can explain a given set of scalp-recorded potentials.

Thus, at a first glance, the quest for the development of methods combining
millisecond temporal resolution with millimeter spatial resolution appears to be
a lost cause. Fortunately, solutions to the inverse problem can be found by
postulating physiologically and anatomically sound assumptions about putative
EEG sources

and

by mathematically

implementing

established laws

of

electrodynamics.
The main purpose of the present chapter is to review recent advances in the
EEG field. To understand these developments it will first be necessary to detail
the physiological basis of the EEG signal. Subsequently, important issues
associated with data acquisition, signal processing, and quantitative analyses
will be discussed (see Davidson, Jackson, & Larson, 2000; Pivik et al., 1993;
Gasser & Molinari, 1996; Nuwer et al., 1999; Thakor & Tong, 2004 for more
comprehensive reviews of these topics). The largest portion of the chapter will
be devoted to reviewing emerging source localization techniques that have been
shown to localize EEG activity without postulating a priori assumptions about the
number of underlying sources (Baillet et al., 2001; Michel et al., 2004). As we
will discuss, perhaps the greatest advancements in the EEG field in the last 5-10
years have been achieved in the development of these localization techniques,
in particular when used in concert with high-density EEG recording, realistic
head models, and other functional neuroimaging techniques. The picture
emerging in light of these achievements reveals that the spatial resolution of the
EEG may be substantially higher than previously thought, thus opening exciting
and new opportunities for investigating spatio-temporal dynamics of brain

mechanisms underlying mental processes and dysfunctions in psychopathology,

bringing us closer to fulfillment of Bergers dream that EEG will open a window
to the mind.

2. Physiological Basis of the EEG

2.1. EEG generation: I. The role of post-synaptic potentials in cortical
pyramidal neurons
In the central nervous system, when a neuron is activated by other neurons
through afferent action potentials, excitatory post-synaptic potentials (EPSPs)
are triggered at its apical dendrites. When this occurs, the membrane of the
apical dendrites becomes depolarized and electronegative, compared to the cell
soma (Baillet et al., 2001; Speckmann, Elger, & Altrup, 1993). As a consequence
of this transient potential difference, current flows from the non-excited soma to
the excited apical dendritic tree, and a negative polarity emerges at the surface
(Speckmann et al., 1993).2 In the opposite case, with excitation of the soma, the
current flow will have inverse direction.
Scalp-recorded EEG oscillations are hypothesized to be generated by the
summation of excitatory and inhibitory post-synaptic potentials in cortical
pyramidal neurons (Speckmann et al., 1993; Fig. 1). In the generation of an EEG

Negative potentials at the surface can arise either due to (a) superficial EPSPs (i.e., excitation at apical
dendrites) or (b) deep IPSPs (i.e., inhibition of the soma). Conversely, positive potentials at the surface
can arise either due to (a) superficial IPSPs (i.e., inhibition at apical dendrites) or (b) deep EPSPs (i.e.,
excitation of the soma; Speckmann et al., 1993).
2

oscillation, tens of thousands of synchronously activated pyramidal cortical

neurons are assumed to be involved. The coherent orientation of their dendritic
trunks (parallel to each others and perpendicular to the cortical surface) allows
summation and propagation to the scalp surface (Nunez & Silberstein, 2000).
Accordingly, although subcortical contributions to scalp-recorded EEG have been
reported (e.g., Llinas, Ribary, Jeanmonod, Kronberg, & Mitra, 1999), cortical
macrocolums are thought to be the main contributors of EEG signals (Fisch,
1999; Baillet et al., 2001).

2.2. EEG generation: II. The role of thalamo-cortical networks

Although mechanisms underlying EEG generation are not fully understood,
interactions between thalamic and cortical networks are assumed to play a key
role

in

various

rhythmical

EEG activities

(Steriade,

1993).

In

animals,

neurophysiological evidence has shown that several thalamic, thalamocortical,

and cortical neurons display intrinsic oscillatory patterns, which in turn generate
rhythmic EEG oscillations. The thalamus, in particular, has been described as a
key player in the generation of alpha and beta oscillations. Accordingly, thalamic
oscillations in the 7.5-12.5 Hz frequency range have been shown to activate the
firing of cortical neurons (Steriade, 1993). The associated depolarization, which
mainly occurs in the cortical layer IV, in turn creates a dipolar source with
negativity in layer IV and positivity in superficial layers. Placing electrodes at the
scalp allows measurement of small but reliable far-field potentials representing
the summation of these potential fluctuations. Similarly, corticocortical and

thalamocortical interactions during information processing have been postulated

in the generation of oscillations at higher frequencies, including the beta band
(13-30 Hz). Notably, the thalamus has been also implicated in the generation of
delta waves (1-4 Hz), which might arise through interactions between deep
cortical layers and the thalamus that are normally inhibited by afferents from
the ascending reticular activating system. In addition, the septohippocampal
system and various limbic regions (e.g., hippocampus, cingulate cortex) have
been implicated in the generation of theta oscillations (Vinogradova, 1995;
Bland & Oddie, 1998).
In sum, EEG oscillations appear to be dependent on interactions between the
cortex and the thalamus, which both produce intrinsically rhythmical activities.
Whereas the thalamus has been critically implicated in the pacing of such
rhythmical activities, the cortex provides the coherent output in response to
thalamic input and generates the vast majority of oscillations that can be
recorded at the scalp (Fisch, 1999).

2.3. EEG generation: III. The role of local-scale and large-scale

synchronization
As mentioned above, at any given moment in time, the signal recorded at
the scalp is due to spatial summation of current density induced by
synchronized post-synaptic potential occurring in large clusters of neurons.
Considering that the diameter of EEG electrodes (~10 mm) is several orders of
magnitude larger than single neurons (~ 20 m) and that the area of an

electrode covers approximately 250,000 neurons (Baillet et al., 2001), it is clear

that many neurons must be activated synchronously in order to detect an EEG
signal at the scalp.
Consistent with this notion, animal studies have described substantial
synchronization among neighboring neurons (local-scale synchronization; e.g.,
Llinas, 1988), as well as between neuronal assemblies of distant brain regions
(large-scale

synchronization;

e.g.,

Bressler

&

Kelso,

2001).

Thus,

synchronization of oscillations (i.e., the temporally lawful interaction among

neural activities) is a key mechanism for neuronal communication between
spatially distributed brain networks (see Schnitzler & Gross, 2005 for a recent
review). Emerging animal evidence indicates that oscillatory processes might (a)
bias input selection, (b) temporally bind neurons into assemblies, and (c) foster
synaptic plasticity (Buzsaki & Draguhn, 2004). Intriguingly, higher frequency
oscillations (e.g., gamma) appear to originate from smaller neuronal assemblies,
whereas low frequency oscillations (e.g., theta) span larger neuronal populations
(Buzsaki & Draguhn, 2004). Large-scale neuronal synchronization plays an
important role in various cognitive processes that rely on distributed neuronal
networks (e.g. language processing; Weiss & Mueller, 2003), and can be studied
through EEG coherence analysis, as will be discussed further below.

3. Normative EEG activity

The millisecond temporal resolution of EEG allows scientists to investigate
not only fluctuations of EEG activity (i.e., increases/decreases) as a function of

task demand or subject samples but also to differentiate between functional

inhibitory and excitatory activities. As a general rule, low frequencies (e.g., delta
and theta) show large synchronized amplitudes, whereas EEG frequencies (e.g.
beta

and

gamma)

show

small

amplitude

due

to

high

degree

of

desynchronization in the underlying neuronal activity. In adults, the amplitude of

normative EEG oscillations lies between 10 and 100 V (more commonly
between 10 and 50 V; Niedermeyer, 1993). In the following section, a brief
review of various EEG bands and their putative functional roles will be
presented. For a review of the molecular and physiological basis underlying the
generation of various EEG oscillations, the interested reader is referred to
Steriade (1993) and Speckmann et al. (1993).

3.1. Delta band (1-4 Hz)

Delta oscillations reflect low-frequency activity (1-4 Hz) typically associated
with sleep in healthy humans and neurological pathology. In adults, delta power
has been shown to increase in proximity of brain lesions (Gilmore & Brenner,
1981) and tumors (Fernandez-Bouzas et al., 1999), during anesthesia (Reddy,
Moorthy, Mattice, Dierdorf, & Deitch, Jr., 1992), and during sleep (Niedermeyer,
1993). Moreover, inverse relationships between delta activity and glucose
metabolism have been reported in both pathological (e.g. dementia; Szelies,
Mielke, Kessler, & Heiss, 1999) and normal (Pizzagalli et al., 2004) conditions. In
our own study, an inverse relationship between delta current density (assessed
via an EEG distributed source localization technique) and glucose metabolism

(assessed via PET) was found within the subgenual prefrontal cortex (Fig. 2).
Delta is also the predominant activity in infants during the first two years of life.
Ontologically, slow delta and theta activity diminish with increasing age,
whereas the faster alpha and beta bands increase almost linearly across the life
span (e.g., John et al., 1980). Collectively, these findings suggest that delta
activity is mostly an inhibitory rhythm.

3.2. Theta band (4-8 Hz)

Theta activity refers to EEG activity within the 4-8 Hz range, prominently
seen during sleep. During wakefulness, two different types of theta activity have
been described in adults (Schacter, 1977). The first shows a widespread scalp
distribution and has been linked to decreased alertness (drowsiness) and
impaired information processing. The second, the so-called frontal midline theta
activity, is characterized by a frontal midline distribution and has been
associated with focused attention, mental effort, and effective stimulus
processing. Recent studies have implicated the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)
as a potential generator of frontal midline theta activity (e.g., Asada, Fukuda,
Tsunoda, Yamaguchi, & Tonoike, 1999; Luu, Tucker, Derryberry, Reed, & Poulsen,
2003). Consistent with these findings, in a recent study integrating electrical
(EEG) and metabolic (PET) measurements of brain activity, we found that the
ACC (Brodmann area 24/32) was the largest region with significant positive
correlations between theta current density and glucose metabolism (Pizzagalli,
Oakes, & Davidson, 2003).

Physiologically, the septo-hippocampal system has been strongly implicated

in the generation of theta oscillations, although theta has also been recorded in
numerous other limbic regions, including the ACC, entorhinal cortex, and the
medial septum, among others (Vinogradova, 1995; Bland & Oddie, 1998). In
rodents, generation of hippocampal theta activity is crucially dependent on
afferents from the medial septum/vertical limb of the diagonal band of Broca
complex (MS/vDBB), which is considered the pacemaker of hippocampal theta
(Vertes & Kocsis, 1997). Additional evidence suggests that theta can be
generated in the cingulate cortex independently of the hippocampal system
(e.g., Borst, Leung, & MacFabe, 1987). In light of the observation that these
oscillation facilitates transmission between different limbic structures, it has
been speculated that theta activity may subserve a gating function on the
information processing flow in limbic regions (Vinogradova, 1995).

3.3. Alpha band (8-13 Hz)

The alpha rhythm refers to EEG activity within the 8-13 Hz range. In healthy
adults, alpha activity typically has amplitude between 10 and 45 V, and can be
easily recorded during states of relaxed wakefulness, although large individual
differences

in

amplitudes

are

not

uncommon

(Niedermeyer,

1993).

Topographically, alpha rhythms show their greatest amplitude over posterior

regions, particularly posterior occipito-temporal and parietal regions, and can
best seen during resting periods in which the subjects has his/her eyes closed. In
fact, alpha rhythm can be greatly diminished or abolished by eye opening,

sudden alerting, and mental concentration, a phenomenon known as alpha

blockage or alpha desynchronization. The alpha rhythm can also be
attenuated when alertness decreases to the level of downiness; this attenuation
is, however, often accompanied by a decrease in frequency.
The

physiological

role

of

alpha

rhythm

remains

largely

unknown.

Traditionally, the posterior distribution of these oscillations and the observation

of alpha blockade with eye opening have been interpreted as suggesting that
alpha may be associated with visual system functions emerging in the absence
of visual input (Fisch, 1999). Indeed, some authors have expanded upon this
notion

by

suggesting

that

alpha

synchronization

may

represent

an

electrophysiological correlate of cortical idling or cognitive inactivity (e.g.,

Pfurtscheller, Stancak, Jr., & Neuper, 1996). In recent years, this conjecture has
been heavily debated in the literature, particularly in studies investigating
evoked EEG activity, in which alpha synchronization has been described during
information processing (e.g., Cooper, Croft, Dominey, Burgess, & Gruzelier,
2003; Klimesch, 1999). Further complicating the physiological interpretation of
alpha, emerging evidence indicates that different alpha sub-bands may be
functionally dissociated, in particular with increasing task demands (Fink,
Grabner, Neuper, & Neubauer, in press). Specifically, in cognitive tasks, lower
alpha (e.g., 8-10 Hz) desynchronization (suppression) has been associated with
stimulus-unspecific and task-unspecific increases in attentional demands (e.g.,
Klimesch, 1999). Upper alpha (e.g., 10-12 Hz) desynchronization, on the other
hand, appears to be task-specific, and it has been linked to processing of
sensory-semantic information, increased semantic memory performance, and

stimulus-specific expectancy (Klimesch, 1999). Based on these and other

findings, Klimesch (1999) proposed that upper alpha desynchronization reflects
search and retrieval processes in semantic long-term memory (p. 191).

3.4. Beta band (13-30 Hz)

Traditionally, lower-voltage oscillations within the 13-30 Hz frequency range
have been referred to as beta. In adults, beta activity has amplitudes between
10-20 V, presents mainly a symmetrical fronto-central distribution, and
typically replaces alpha rhythm during cognitive activity. Consistent with this
view, beta rhythm has been shown to increase with attention (Murthy & Fetz,
1992) and vigilance (Bouyer, Montaron, Vahnee, Albert, & Rougeul, 1987), for
example. Collectively, these findings suggest that beta increases generally
reflect increased excitatory activity, particularly during diffuse arousal and
focused attention (Steriade, 1993).

3.5. Gamma band (36-44 Hz)

Gamma oscillations have been associated with attention, arousal, object
recognition, top-down modulation of sensory processes, and, in some cases,
perceptual binding (i.e., the brains ability to integrate various aspects of a
stimulus into a coherent whole; Engel, Fries, & Singer, 2001). Various findings
indicate that gamma activity is directly associated with brain activation. First,
human intracortical EEG studies have reported increased gamma oscillations

during various mental processes, including perception (Rodriguez, Lachaux,

Martinerie, Renault, & Varela, 1999) and learning (Miltner, Braun, Arnold, Witte,
& Taub, 1999). Second, dose-dependent decreases of gamma activity have been
described during anesthesia (Uchida et al., 2000). Third, systematic decreases in
gamma activity have been described throughout the sleep-wake cycle (highest
during wakefulness, intermediate during REM sleep, and lowest during slow
wave sleep; Gross & Gotman, 1999). A recent study from our laboratory using
concurrent EEG and PET measurements provided further support for notion that
gamma is a direct indicator of activation, since this band had the highest
number

of

positive

correlations

between

current

density

and

glucose

metabolism (Oakes et al., 2004).

Although the functional role of gamma oscillations needs to be more fully
elucidated, they have been assumed to reflect large-scale integration of and
synchrony among widely distributed neurons, particularly in states of diffusely
increased

vigilance

(e.g.,

Mann

&

Paulsen,

2005;

Steriade,

1993).

Physiologically, various mechanisms have been implicated in the generation of

gamma oscillations, including: (1) intracortical circuitries, in particular those
involving distant brain regions; (2) synaptic interactions among the cortex,
thalamus, and limbic structures; and (3) brainstem-thalamic cholinergic
activation (Steriade, 1993). Notably, recent animal and human findings have
shown that gamma and theta oscillations can be functionally coupled both
during activated (task-related) and resting (task-free) states (e.g.,

Fell et al.,

2003; Mann et al., 2005; Schack, Vath, Petsche, Geissler, & Moller, 2002). In
general, these studies have shown that gamma bursts occur within periods of

the theta phase (Buzsaki, 1996 for review). Consistent with this notion, in a
recent

128-channel

source

localization

EEG

study

(Pizzagalli,

Peccoralo,

Davidson, & Cohen, 2005), we found significant positive correlations between

resting theta and gamma current densities within various subdivisions of the
ACC (correlation range: 0.51-0.59).

CHAPTER-8
8. CONCLUSION
. The signal generated by brain was received by the brain sensor and it will divide into packets
and the packet data transmitted to wireless medium (blue tooth).the wave measuring unit will
receive the brain wave raw data and it will convert into signal using MATLAB gui platform.
Then the instructions will be sending to the home section to operate the modules (bulb, fan). The
project operated with human brain assumption and the on off condition of home appliance is
based on changing the muscle movement with blinking