AL- FATIHAH

CHAPTER 2:
BONDING AND PROPERTIES
2

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
What promotes bonding?
What types of bonds are there?
What properties are inferred
from bonding?

Atomic Structure
atom

electrons 9.11 x 10-31 kg

protons
1.67 x 10-27 kg
neutrons

atomic number = # of protons in nucleus of atom

= # of electrons of neutral species

A , atomic mass unit = amu = 1/12 mass of 12C

Atomic wt = wt of 6.023 x 1023 molecules or atoms

1 amu/atom = 1g/mol
C 12.011
H 1.008 etc.

Atomic Structure
4

Valence electrons determine all of the

following properties
1) Chemical
2) Electrical
3) Thermal
4) Optical

Electronic Structure
5

Electrons have wavelike and particulate

properties.
This means that electrons are in orbitals defined by a
probability.
Each orbital at discrete energy level determined by
quantum numbers.

Quantum #

Designation

n = principal (energy level-shell)

l = subsidiary (orbitals)
ml = magnetic

K, L, M, N, O (1, 2, 3, etc.)
s, p, d, f (0, 1, 2, 3,, n -1)
1, 3, 5, 7 (-l to +l)

ms = spin

, -

Electron Configurations
Quantum Numbers

Every electron is described by 4 parameters known as quantum

numbers
this allows Bohr energy levels to be separated into electron subshells,
described by quantum numbers.

Electron Energy States

Electrons...

have discrete energy states

tend to occupy lowest available energy state.
4d
4p

N-shell n = 4

3d
4s
Energy

3p
3s

M-shell n = 3

2p
2s

L-shell n = 2

1s

K-shell n = 1

SURVEY OF ELEMENTS
8

Most elements: Electron configuration not stable.

Element
Hydrogen
Helium
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
...

Atomic #
1
2
3
4
5
6

Electron configuration
1s 1
1s 2
(stable)
1s 2 2s 1
1s 2 2s 2
1s 2 2s 2 2p 1
1s 2 2s 2 2p 2
...

Neon
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminum
...

10
11
12
13

1s 2 2s 2 2p 6
(stable)
1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 1
1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2
1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 1
...

Argon
...
Krypton

18
...
36

1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6
(stable)
...
1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 3d 10 4s 2 4p 6 (stable)

Why? Valence (outer) shell usually not filled completely.

Electron Configuration
Energy Level Diagram

Schematic representation of the

relative energies of the electrons for
the various shells and subshells.
The order of occupancy of quantum
states affects the location of
elements in Periodic Table,
physical, and mechanical
properties, & bond mechanisms.
Pauli Exclusion Principle: Each
electron state cannot hold more
than two electrons with opposite
spins

Electron Configurations
10

Valence electrons those in unfilled shells

Filled shells more stable
Valence electrons are most available for

bonding and tend to control the chemical

properties

example: C (atomic number = 6)

1s2 2s2 2p2
valence electrons

Electronic Configurations
11

ex: Fe - atomic # = 26 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d 6 4s2

4d
4p
3d

N-shell n = 4 valence
electrons

4s
Energy

3p
3s

M-shell n = 3

2p
2s

L-shell n = 2

1s

K-shell n = 1

Electron Configurations-Valence electrons

12

They represent the ability of an element to enter

into chemical combination with others.

Valence es participate in the bonding between
atoms.
Valence = # of electrons in outermost combined
sp level.
Examples of the valence are:
Mg:

1s22s22p63s2
Al: 1s22s22p63s23p1
Ge: 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p2

valence = 2
valence = 3
valence = 4

13

accept 2e
accept 1e
inert gases

give up 1e
give up 2e
give up 3e

The Periodic Table

Columns: Similar Valence Structure

He

Li Be

F Ne

Na Mg

Cl Ar

K Ca Sc
Rb Sr

Cs Ba

Se Br Kr
Te

Xe

Po At Rn

Fr Ra

Electropositive elements:
Readily give up electrons
to become + ions.

Electronegative elements:
Readily acquire electrons
to become - ions.

Electronegativity
14

Ranges from 0.7 to 4.0,

Large values: tendency to acquire electrons.

Smaller electronegativity

Larger electronegativity

Electronegativity
Give up valence electrons

15

Readily accept electrons

Electronic structure-chemical property

relationships for metals and non-metals
16

Metals
Have few electrons in
outer shells, usually
three or less
Form cations by losing
electrons
Have low
electronegativities

Nonmetals
Have four or more
electrons in outer shells
Form anions by gaining
electrons
Have high
electronegativities

Ionic bond metal +

nonmetal

17

donates
electrons

accepts
electrons

Dissimilar electronegativities
ex: MgO

Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

[Ne] 3s2

Mg2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6

[Ne]

O 1s2 2s2 2p4

O2- 1s2 2s2 2p6

[Ne]

Ionic Bonding
18

Occurs between + and - ions.

Requires electron transfer.
Large difference in electronegativity required.
Example: NaCl
Na (metal)
unstable

Cl (nonmetal)
unstable
electron

Na (cation)
stable

+
Coulombic
Attraction

Cl (anion)
stable

Examples: Ionic Bonding

Predominant bonding
in Ceramics

Give up electrons

20

NaCl
MgO
CaF 2
CsCl

Acquire electrons

Covalent Bonding
21

similar electronegativity share electrons

bonds determined by valence s & p orbitals
dominate bonding
Example: CH4
shared electrons
e -,

C: has 4 valence
needs 4 more

H: has 1 valence e-,

needs 1 more
Electronegativities
are comparable.

CH 4
H

from carbon atom

H
shared electrons
from hydrogen
atoms

Primary Bonding
22

Metallic Bond -- delocalized as electron cloud

Ionic-Covalent Mixed Bonding

(X A X B )2

% ionic character = 1 e
4

x (100%)

where X & X are Pauling electronegativities

A

Ex: MgO

XMg = 1.3
XO = 3.5

(3.5 1.3 )2

4
% ionic character 1 e

x (100%) 70.2% ionic

SECONDARY BONDING electrostatic attraction of electric dipoles

within atoms or molecules

Arises from interaction between dipoles

Fluctuating dipoles due to asymmetrical distribution of e- charge within atoms

ex: liquid H 2
H2
H2

asymmetric electron
clouds

H H

H H

secondary
bonding

secondary
bonding

Permanent dipoles-molecule induced, bonding of polar, covalently bonded molecules

-general case:

-ex: liquid HCl

H Cl

secondary
bonding

secondary
bonding

H Cl

-ex: polymer

secondary bonding
23

Summary: Bonding
Comments

Type

Bond Energy

Ionic

Large!

Nondirectional (ceramics)

Covalent

Variable
large-Diamond
small-Bismuth

Directional
(semiconductors, ceramics
polymer chains)

Metallic

Variable
large-Tungsten
small-Mercury

Nondirectional (metals)

Secondary

smallest

Directional
inter-chain (polymer)
inter-molecular
24

Summary: Primary Bonds

Ceramics

Large bond energy

large Tm
large E
small a

(Ionic & covalent bonding):

Metals

Variable bond energy

moderate Tm
moderate E
moderate a

(Metallic bonding):

Polymers
(Covalent & Secondary):

Directional Properties
Secondary bonding dominates
small Tm
small E
large a

25

Assignment 1.2 submit next class

26

Q1. A hydrogen atom exists with its electron in the n

= 6 state. The electron undergoes a transition to n =

2 state. Calculate
i. The energy of the photon emitted
ii. Its frequency
iii. Its wavelength in nanometers
Q2. Give electron configuration for
i. Co
ii. K
iii. Mg