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RESEARCH STUDIES
LOUIS KHAN & KIRSTEN TUDOR
TOPIC:
Concrete vs. Steel Frame Considerations
We explored the different design aspects of concrete and steel trying to convey the
information in a realistic manner that everyone could understand. As such, definitions were
provided as well as excerpts and tables.
CONCRETE HISTORICAL CONTEXT
Concrete has been used for building purposes throughout history. Pieces of concrete
buildings have been found in Mexico and Peru from prehistoric times. In the Italian colonies
of Magna Graecia there exists evidence that the Greeks used it while the Romans employed it
largely in this country as well as others. Roman uses can be traced back as far as 500 BC. As
far as todays standards, slightly more than half of the low rise buildings in the United States
are constructed from concrete. The first building to be considered high rise concrete
construction was the 6-story Ingalls Building, completed in Cincinnati in 1903. In 1953
buildings taller than twenty stories still rarely existed. They were not economical to lease
because of the massive columns needed to support the structure left too little usable space for
renting. In 1990, the strength of concrete increased from 5000 psi (34 MPa) to 19,000 psi
(131 MPa) which allowed buildings to grow skyward with an optimal amount of rentable
space. Today, ultra-high strength concrete is now produced with strengths of 21,750 psi (150
MPa). During the 1980s, high rise construction exploded in cities like New York, Chicago
and Dallas requiring the millions of tons of concrete in construction.
STEEL HISTORICAL CONTEXT
The history of steel as a structural material within our culture begins with the use of
cast iron. Cast Iron was first used in England starting in 1777 to create bridges. In 1840
Wrought iron replaces Cast iron as a preferred structural material. The cold roll process was
created in 1780 to create S and I shape steel. In 1855 the Bessemer process was created
to produce structural steel that was ductile with fewer impurities. It was at this point that steel
became widely used as a structural element in building construction.
CONCRETE
DEFINITIONS
CONCRETE
REINFORCED
CONCRETE
PLAIN CONCRETE
STRUCTURAL CONCRETE All concrete used for structural purposes including plain and
reinforced concrete.
CEMENT
AGGREGATE
PRECAST CONCRETE
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION
FOOTINGS
The wet concrete is poured directly into trenches dug into the
earth below frost level
FOUNDATIONS
LIFT-SLAB
Floors and roof slabs are cast at ground level and then raised
by hydraulic jacks and fastened to columns at the desired
elevation
SLIP FORM
TILT UP
SHOTCRETE
PRECAST
CONCRETE STRENGTH
Concrete used in most construction work is reinforced with steel. When concrete
structural members must resist extreme tensile stresses, steel supplies the necessary strength.
Steel is embedded in the concrete in the form of a mesh, or roughened or twisted bars. A
bond forms between the steel and the concrete, and stresses can be transferred between both
components.
Prestressing concrete has removed many limitations on the spans and loads for which
a concrete structure can be economically designed. The basic function of prestressing is to
greatly reduce the tensile stresses to which crucial areas of concrete structures are subjected.
Prestressing is accomplished by stretching high-strength steel to induce compressive stresses
in concrete. The strengthening effect of compression in concrete acts like horizontally
squeezing a row of books. When you apply sufficient pressure to the books at each end, you
induce compressive stresses throughout the entire row; thus, although the center volumes are
unsupported, you can lift the books and carry them horizontally.1
Concrete strength is measured in PSI (pounds per square inch) or MPa (megapascals).
MPa is the Metric unit of measuring compressive strength of concrete. Conventional concrete
has a strength of 7,000 PSI. High strength concrete has strength of 7,000 and 14,500. The
easiest way to add strength is to add cement. The factor that most predominantly influences
concrete strength is the ratio of water to cement in the cement paste that binds the aggregates
together. The higher this ratio is, the weaker the concrete will be and vice versa. Every
desirable physical property that you can measure will be adversely affected by adding more
water.2
STEEL
A. Steel availability: www.aisc.org/availability
Cantilevered system
Labor $
Material $
Connecting structural
Connecting Other
Manufacturing risk
Bracing
2nd Order Magnification
Code
Design Style
Steel
36 ksi (A36 Structural, Typical L),
50 ksi (A992 Structural, Typical W)
50 ksi (typical)
Fast
Crain Rental $/day
Long (Pre-order Steel)
Pin-based typical,
Moment-based Expensive
Low
High
Easy (weld or bolt)
Easy (weld or bolt)
Low (factory high standers)
Tension only X bracing (typical)
Low
AISC v.12
LRFD (large build), ASD(small build)
High
Low
Pre-Easy (embed rebar); Post-hard
Hard (embed rebar, drill and bolt)
Moderate (mixing control)
Shear wall (typical)
High
ACI 318-05
ASD only
Fire
Insulation
Bomb resistance
Corrosion Maintenance
Requires fireproofing
Low
Low
High
Fire resistant
Moderate to high
High
Low
Size
Texture
$ of custom shape
Building environment
slender
smooth
high
Corrosion potential
Bulky
Rough to smooth
moderate to low
Dust potential
Strength Compression
Strength Tension
Speed of Construction
Special Cost
Initial delay (construction)
Type of Construction
Concrete
90-99% x 4ksi (Structure typical) +
1-10% x 60ksi
Slow
Concrete Pump $ exponentially / floor
Short (create formwork)
Moment-based Typical
REFERENCES:
DESIGN
The Architects Studio Companion Edward Allen/Joseph Iano
Reinforced Concrete Mechanics & Design (Fourth Edition) James MacGregor & James
Wright
Building Structures James Ambrose
CODES
AISC V.12: Steel Construction Manual
ACI 318-05: Reinforce Structural Concrete Code
AWS D1.1: Structural Welding Code
RCSC Specification: Specifications for Structural Joints
ASCE/SEI 7-05: Minimum Design Loads for buildings and other structures
IBC 2003: International Building Code
UBC 1997: Uniform Building Code
THOUGHTS:
Our biggest concern was the quantity of information that could be placed into this
section of the high rise handbook. As such, we simply tried to cover the basics and give
everyone a brief overview of the two different types of systems. Just know that there is a vast
amount of material that is not covered in this paper that can be researched to apply to high
rise construction.