Journal of Cleaner Production 24 (2012) 76e84

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Warm mix asphalt: an overview

M. Carmen Rubio*, Germn Martnez, Luis Baena, Fernando Moreno
Construction Engineering Laboratory, University of Granada, C/Severo Ochoa s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 18 April 2011
Received in revised form
7 November 2011
Accepted 17 November 2011
Available online 28 November 2011

One of the causes of pollution associated with the construction of transportation infrastructures is the
emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Even though the use of Warm Mix Asphalt technology
has many advantages that are not related to the reduction of gas emissions, WMA technology is also good for
the environment because it produces asphalt at temperatures 20e40
lower in comparison to Hot Mix
Asphalt. The temperature reduction achieved by WMA comes from the use of various technologies that
have been developed in recent years, and which can be classied in the following three groups: organic
additives, chemical additives, and water-based or water-containing foaming processes. Although all of
them pursue the same goal, the manufacturing process differs. Thus, their aim is mainly to reduce bitumen
viscosity, which in turn improves mix workability, produces fewer emissions, and generally creates better
working conditions. This paper is an overview of the different technologies used in the manufacturing of
WMA. It analyzes the materials, additives, mix design and performance of the asphalt made by this technology. It also describes its benets and drawbacks, and underlines the need for further research in this area.
2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Warm mix asphalt
Pavement
Cleaner production

1. Introduction
One of the main sources of pollution stemming from industries
related to transportation infrastructures (i.e. road construction),
resides in the manufacturing, spreading, and conservation of
asphalt mixes. A cleaner production of bituminous mixes requires
lowering the manufacturing temperature of these mixes without
impoverishing or reducing their level of mechanical performance.
Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA) are mixes that are manufactured and
spread at lower temperatures than Hot Mix Asphalt. This temperature reduction of 20e40
C has led to the following temperaturebased classication of asphalt mixes: Hot Mix Asphalt or HMA (190150
C); Warm Mix Asphalt or WMA (100e140
C); Half- Warm Mix
Asphalt or HWMA (60e100
C); and cold mixes (0e40
C) (The use
of Warm Mix Asphalt., 2010; Vaitkus et al., 2009a,b).
The WMA temperature reduction is the result of recently
developed technologies that involve the use of organic additives,
chemical additives, and water-based or water-containing foaming
processes (You and Goh, 2008; Zaumanis, 2010). Even though these
technologies are quite different, they all target the same goals,
namely, lower bitumen viscosity, better mat workability, and
improved workability and emissions conditions.
Most of the bibliography consulted highlights the advantages of
these technologies, which include the following: (a) reduced

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 34 958249445.

E-mail address: mcrubio@ugr.es (M.C. Rubio).
0959-6526/$ e see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2011.11.053

emissions; (b) better working conditions because of the absence of

harmful gases; (c) lower energy consumption in mix production;
(d) quicker turnover to trafc; (e) longer hauling distances; and (f)
extended paving window. However, the use of these mixes is not
without drawbacks, such as the following: (a) higher costs because
there is still a certain reticence to using them; (b) lack of data
concerning their long-term performance; (c) greater moisture
susceptibility due to lower temperatures; and (d) coating and
bonding problems.
The short life of these mixes tends to raise logical doubts and
uncertainties about their use, because they are still at a stage of
experimentation and standardization (Zaumanis, 2010; AlRawashdeh, 2008; Chowdhury and Button, 2008). The aim of this
paper is to clarify some of these doubts by providing an overview
and revision of the literature on WMAs.Section 2 describes warm
mix technologies, followed by an analysis of mix design in Section 3
and of mix performance in Section 4. Section 5 discusses the
benets of this technology as well as its possible drawbacks. It also
gives a brief summary of its potential cost effectiveness and
reduced energy consumption. Section 6 presents the conclusions
that can be derived from this study.
2. Warm mix asphalt technologies
Although warm mixes use different processes to reduce the
manufacturing and paving temperature, they tend to follow similar
patterns. These similarities have given rise to various

M.C. Rubio et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 24 (2012) 76e84

classications. One classication differentiates these mixes

according to the temperature reduction achieved and divides them
into two groups: warm mixes and half-warm mixes. The temperature of warm mixes can vary from slightly above the boiling point
to 10e20
C below the HMA temperature (140e145
C). Half-warm
mixes are manufactured and spread at even lower temperatures
(65e100
C) (DAngelo et al., 2008).
However, the most widely used classication differentiates
warm mixes by the technology used, and divides them into three
categories: (i) foaming processes (subdivided into water-containing
and water-based processes); (ii) addition of organic additives (i.e.
Fischer-Tropsch synthesis wax, fatty acid amides, and Montan
wax); (iii) addition of chemical additives (usually emulsication
agents or polymers).Table 1 (based on (Zaumanis, 2010; DAngelo
et al., 2008; Bueche, 2009)) shows the products generally used
for this purpose.
2.1. Foaming processes
This technology mainly entails the addition of small amounts of
water, either injected into the hot binder or directly into the mixing
chamber (Larsen, 2001). When the water is mixed with the hot
bitumen, high temperatures cause it to evaporate and the steam is
entrapped. This generates a large volume of foam, which temporarily increases the volume of the binder and reduces mix viscosity.
This effect remarkably improves the coating and workability of the
mix, but its duration is limited. This means that the mix must be
spread and compacted soon after production. These methods have

77

been tested for soft and medium bitumen grades (Butz et al., 2001).
Special precautions must be taken when adding water. In other
words, the quantity of water should be just enough to produce the
foaming effect, but not so much as to cause a stripping problem
(Smith, 2007).
Although the basic process is the same for most of these products and technologies, the way in which water is added to the
binder can vary. This means that foaming processes can either be
water-based (direct method technologies) or water-containing
(indirect method technologies) (Zaumanis, 2010).
2.1.1. Water-containing technologies
Water-containing technologies use synthetic zeolite to produce
the foaming process. The product is composed of aluminosilicates
of alkali metals, and has been hydro-thermally crystallized. The
crystallization is approximately 20% water, which is released from
the zeolite structure as the temperature rises. This causes a microfoaming effect in the asphalt mix (Smith, 2007), which lasts about
6e7 h (Chowdhury and Button, 2008; DAngelo et al., 2008). The
structure of the zeolites has large air voids where cations and even
molecules or cation groups (such as water) can be hosted. Their
ability to lose and absorb water without damaging the crystalline
structure is the main characteristic of this silicate framework
(Chowdhury and Button, 2008).
2.1.2. Water-based technologies
Water-based technologies use water in a more direct way. This
means that the water needed to produce the foaming effect is

Table 1
Products used in warm mix technologies.
WMA processes

Product

Foaming processes
Water-containing Aspha-Min
Water-containing Advera
Water-based
Water based
Water-based

Double Barrel
Green
Ultrafoam GX
LT Asphalt

Water-based

WAM-Foam

Water based

Low Energy
Asphalt
Low Emission
Asphalt

Water based

Company

Description

Eurovia and MHI Water-containing technology

using zeolites
PQ Corporation
Water-containing technology
using zeolites
Astec
Water-based foaming process
Gencor industries Water-based foaming process
Nynas
Foam bitumen with hydrophilic
additive
Shell and
Soft binder coating followed
Kolo-Veidekke
by foamed hard binder
LEACO
Hot coarse aggregate mixed
with wet sand
McConnaugheay Hot coarse aggregate mixed
Technologies
with wet sand, combined with
chemicals
Royal Bam Group Direct foam with binder additive.
Mixing of aggregates below
water boiling point

Water based

LEAB

Organic
FT Wax

Sasobit

Sasol

Fischer-Tropsch wax

Montan Wax

Asphaltan B

Romonta GmbH

Fatty Acid
Amide wax

Licomont BS

Clariant

Rened Montan wax with fatty

acid amide for rolled asphalt
Fatty acid amide

Dosage of additive

Country where
Production
technology is used temperature
C
(or reduction range)

0.3% by total weight

of the mix
0.25% by total weight
of the mix
2% water by mass of bitumen;
anti-stripping agent
1e2% water by mass of bitumen
0.5e1 % by mass of bitumen

USA, Germany,
(20e30
C)
France, worldwide
USA
(10e30
C)

2e5 % water by mass

of hard binder
3% water with ne sand
3% water with ne sand; 0.4%
bitumen weight
0.1% of bitumen weight
of coating and adhesion additive

USA

116e135
C

USA
Netherlands
and Italy
Worldwide

Not specied
90
C

USA, France,
Spain, Italy
USA

<100
C

Netherlands

90
C

100e120
C

90
C

Approx. 2.5% by weight of binder

Germany as well as (20e30
C)
in Germany; , 1.0e1.5%, in the U.S.A. 20 other countries
2.0e4.0% by mass of bitumen
Germany
(20e30
C)
3.0% by mass of bitumen

Germany

(20e30
C)

3E LT or Ecoex Colas

Proprietary

Yes, but not specied

France

(30e40
C)

CECA
Akzo Nobel

0.5% of mass of bitumen emulsion.

Emulsion contains 70% of bitumen
0.2e0.4% by mixture weight
1.5e2% of bitumen weight

USA, France,
Worldwide
USA, France
USA, Norway

(30
C)
(30
C)

Chemical

Revix

Mathy-Ergon

Chemical packages, with or

without water
Chemical package
Cationic surfactants and organic
additive
Surface-active agents, waxes,
processing aids, polymers

85e115
C

Chemical
Chemical

Evoterm
Technologies
Cecabase RT
Rediset

Not specied

USA

(15e25
C)

Chemical

Iterlow T

IterChimica

0.3e0.5% by mass of bitumen

Italy

120
C

Chemical
Chemical

Mead Westvaco

78

M.C. Rubio et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 24 (2012) 76e84

injected directly into the hot binder ow usually with special

nozzles. As the water rapidly evaporates, this produces a large
volume of foam that slowly collapses. This category can be subdivided into the types of product used to make the mix (Zaumanis,
2010):
- Double Barrel Green, Ultrafoam GX, LT Asphalt: Although the
equipment for injecting water into the hot binder stream
differs (since each company makes its own equipment), the
basic principle is the same. Several nozzles are used to inject
the cold water to microscopically foam the binder
- WAM Foam: This is a two-component binder system (also
known as a two-phase method) that feeds a soft binder and
a hard foamed binder at different times into the mixing cycle
during production. The soft bitumen is rst mixed with the
aggregate to precoat it. Then the hard bitumen is added to the
mixture, which has been foamed by the previous injection of
cold water in a quantity ranging from 2% to 5% of the mass of
the hard binder. This combination of soft binder and foaming of
the hard binder, along with the foaming of the hard bitumen,
reduces mix viscosity to provide the necessary workability.
There are other technologies that use water differently, and thus
do not fall into either category. One example is Low Energy Asphalt,
which uses wet ne aggregate. The foaming effect is produced at
contact with the hot binder when aggregate of a certain particle
size is partially dried. Such technologies are based on a process
known as sequential mixing. The nal water content is usually
around 0.5% at 95
C, which guarantees workability and a sufcient
level of compaction (DAngelo et al., 2008; Bueche, 2009).
In 2007, McConnaughay developed Low Emission Asphalt. Like
Low Energy Asphalt, it is a combination of chemical and foaming
technology. The mixing process also occurs in two phases. In the
rst phase, the binder containing a chemical additive is added to
the hot coarse aggregates, and in the second phase, wet sand is
added, which creates a foaming action (Hamzah et al., 2010).
2.2. Organic additives
Technologies using organic additives add waxes to the mix.
When the temperature rises above the melting point of the waxes,
there is usually a decrease in viscosity (The use of Warm Mix
Asphalt., 2010; Zaumanis, 2010). As the mixture cools, these additives solidify into microscopically small and uniformly distributed
particles, which increase the stiffness of the binder in the same way
as ber-reinforced materials. The type of wax must be carefully
selected in order to avoid possible temperature problems (Silva
et al., 2010). More specically, if the melting point of the wax is
lower than in-service temperatures, this can lead to complications.
The choice of the right wax minimizes the embrittlement of the
asphalt at low temperatures (Shang et al., 2011). Waxes should thus
be resistant and solid at service temperature.
The waxes in this technology are high molecular hydrocarbon
chains with a melting point of 80e120
C, and are able to modify
the properties of the original binder. The temperature at which
the wax melts is in direct relation to the length of the carbon
chain (C45 or more) (Bueche, 2009). The quantity of wax added is
generally 2e4% of the total mass. The temperature reduction
usually attained by adding these waxes is 20e30
C. Moreover,
they also improve the deformation resistance of the asphalt (The
use of Warm Mix Asphalt., 2010). This type of process was
developed at the end of 1980s, and has been in use ever since. It
has given rise to three technologies, which differ in the type of
wax used to reduce viscosity: Fischer-Tropsch wax, fatty acid
amide, and Montan wax.

A recent study shows that asphalts modied with recycled

pyrolytic polyethylene wax have promised remarkable construction performance at lower temperature for warm mix asphalt
(Hurley and Prowell, 2005).
2.2.1. Fischer-Tropsch wax
Fischer-Tropsch (FT) wax is a method for the synthesis of
hydrocarbons and other aliphatic compounds from synthesis gas
(CO/H2). This additive is a pure hydrocarbon without functional
groups, and is characterized by high chemical stability and ageing
resistance. Although it melts at approximately 100
C in its pure
state, when it is blended with bitumen, its melting point is lower
(80e85
C), which allows asphalt compaction at less than 100
C
(Logaraj and Almeida,). As it cools, crystallization begins at 105
C
and is completed at 65
C, thus forming regularly distributed,
microscopic, stick-shaped particles.
The difference between naturally occurring bituminous waxes
and F-T waxes resides in their structure and physical properties.
More specically, the main difference is their much longer chain
lengths and ne crystalline structure. Research has shown that
these waxes have good oxidation and ageing stability, and can be
stored indenitely (Hurley and Prowell, 2005).
2.2.2. Fatty acid amide
Amide waxes are synthetic fatty acid amides available under
different trade names. They are manufactured synthetically by
causing amines to react with fatty acids. Generally speaking, they
melt at temperatures of 140e145
C, whereas solidication takes
place at 135e145
C. For several years, similar products have been
viscosity modiers in asphalt, and have been used in roong
asphalt from the late 1970s to the early 1980s. As the fatty acid
amides cool, they form crystallites in the bitumen, thus increasing
asphalt stability and deformation resistance (DAngelo et al., 2008).
2.2.3. Montan wax
Montan wax (lignite wax) is extracted from special waxy lignite.
In chemical terms, Montan wax consists mainly of fossil fatty acid
esters. It is a combination of nonglyceride long-chain carboxylic
acid esters, free long-chain organic acids, long-chain alcohols,
ketones, hydrocarbons, and resins. Since the melting point of this
wax in its pure state is approximately 75
C, it is often blended with
materials with a higher melting temperature such as amide waxes.
Montan waxes can be fed directly into the mixer, which requires
additional mixing time or into the mobile stirrer for mastic asphalt
(Vaitkus et al., 2009a,b).
2.3. Chemical additives
Another type of WMA technology uses chemical additives.
These products do not depend on foaming or viscosity reduction for
lowering mixing and compaction temperatures. Instead, they
generally include a combination of emulsication agents, surfactants, polymers, and additives to improve coating, mixture workability, and compaction, as well as adhesion promoters (antistripping agents). The quantity of additives needed and the
temperature reduction achieved by this technology depend on the
product used. Additives are mixed with bitumen before batching
the bitumen into the asphalt mixer.
Although chemical additives are more frequent in the USA, they
have also been used in European countries such as France and
Norway. The temperature reduction ranges from 15 to 30
C
(REVIX) to 50e75
C (Evotherm ET) (Von Devivere et al., 2011).
Since these WMA products are very recent, they must be studied in
greater depth. However, the promising results so far obtained seem
to indicate that they are a viable alternative.

M.C. Rubio et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 24 (2012) 76e84

3. Mix design
The European Standards for Bituminous mixtures (EN 13108-1
to 7) have been in force since March 1, 2008. One of the conclusions that can be derived from them is that there are maximum
temperatures for mix production, but no minimum temperatures.
The only requirement is that the in situ density be satisfactory.
Therefore, the minimum temperature should be established by the
manufacturer. European Standards also address the use of additives, subject to demonstration of equivalent performance. Thus,
European Standards should not be regarded as a barrier to the use
of WMA because they do not prohibit the use of these mixtures
(The use of Warm Mix Asphalt., 2010).
Depending on the geographic location, the design methods to
determine the parameters of a hot mixture vary. Consequently, in the
USA, the SUPERPAVE design is widely implemented, whereas in
Europe the most common design method is the Marshall method
(Zaumanis, 2010). Both have been used to test WMA technologies.
Furthermore, WMA processes have also been tested with many
different types of asphalt materials (dense graded, stone mastic,
porous, mastic asphalt). Based on this research, there are no restrictions on the use of traditional design methods for WMA (Von Devivere
et al., 2011). However, most of the literature consulted states that such
methods should be slightly modied. Specic elements in the mix
design process are discussed in the following sections.
3.1. Aggregate gradation
The selection of aggregate gradation for mixes in all of the tests
followed HMA guidelines. It can thus be said that all types of
asphalt have been manufactured using WMA. In all cases, the test
process was the same. The same aggregate gradation was used in
both the HMA control mixes and the WMA mix, after which the
results for both were compared. No noticeable differences were
noted in the aggregate gradation of the WMA.
3.2. Additives
In reference to WMA technologies involving additives, the
dosage of each product should be selected according to manufacturer recommendations. When organic and chemical additives are
used, no other additives are normally required. However In those
cases when HMA requires additives, WMA should also use them
(DAngelo et al., 2008). Nevertheless, in foaming processes, because
of the potential loss of adhesion and coating of the binder and
aggregate, anti-stripping agents are also necessary. When choosing
an agent, it is necessary to bear in mind that lower WMA temperatures can reduce the anti-stripping effect of the product.
3.3. Laboratory mixing
Most laboratories that have worked with HMA are familiar with
the procedures followed in the analysis of asphalt mixtures, and know
how to interpret the results obtained. For these reasons, the analysis
of WMA should be based on the same tests routinely used in the
analysis of HMA (e.g., volumetrics, modulus, rut resistance, moisture
susceptibility, and dust proportion) and the same testing conditions.
Similarly, an in-depth analysis of WMA should include the tests
typically performed on HMA specimens. In most cases, the laboratory
testing of a eld-produced mix yielded the same results as those
obtained in the laboratory study (Chowdhury and Button, 2008).
This also applies to WMA with chemical and organic additives.
Nevertheless, technologies involving foaming processes are not so
easy to test in the laboratory, and thus no published research on
water-based WMA products was found. In the case of water-

79

containing technologies, it is crucial to reproduce eld conditions

as precisely as possible (Zaumanis, 2010).
Chowdhury (Chowdhury and Button, 2008) states that although
the same standards should hold for WMA and HMA, it is necessary
to determine proper curing methods for those WMA specimens
that initially incorporate water. However, this idea is not mentioned
in other research.
As highlighted in the detailed review in our paper, the capabilities of warm asphalt mixes are generally lower for moisture
sensitivity than those of hot asphalt mixes. In a recent study on
warm asphalt mixes performed in the Construction Engineering
Laboratory at the University of Granada (Research Project n
009,
2011), four mixes were analyzed: a hot asphalt reference mix
manufactured at a temperature of 160
C and three warm asphalt
mixes with the same grain-size as the reference mix, but made with
different percentages of natural zeolite in the ller fraction and
manufactured at a temperature of 135
C. The objective was to
study the viability of using natural zeolite in warm asphalt mixes
and analyze the mechanical performance of these mixes compared
to the performance of hot asphalt mixes, specically in regards to
moisture sensitivity Fig. 1.
In order to evaluate the performance of these mixes, we applied
a moisture sensitivity test according to the guidelines in standard
UNE-EN12697-12 (AENOR Asociacin Espaola de Normalizacin y
Certicacin, 2003) with the following results:
As can be observed, increasing the percentage of zeolite was
detrimental to the performance of the mix in regards to moisture
action. This is due to the fact that the foaming produced by the
natural zeolite is not effective at the manufacturing temperature.
Consequently, the binder does not fully coat the aggregate. Thus, as
the zeolite content in the mix increases, the aggregate content also
increases at a lower temperature with a corresponding reduction in
binder viscosity. This makes it more difcult for the bitumen to coat
the aggregate. The result is a reduction in adhesion and cohesion,
which signies that the mix is more susceptible to moisture. In
other words, the presence of water can break the chemical bonds in
the bitumen and reduce its adhesion to the aggregates.
Accordingly, in the case of warm asphalt mixes, there is always
the risk that the additive used (e.g. zeolites) will not be effective,
and consequently, the viscosity of the binder will not be right for
good mix workability at that temperature. It is thus necessary to
previously determine the temperature range in which the additive
will ensure that the aggregate is well coated.
In the case of our research, the results for the mixes with 0.3%
and 0.6% ller gave values very similar to those of the reference
mix. However, the manipulation of the test specimens in the
laboratory showed that that the bitumen coating of the aggregate
was not satisfactory since certain aggregates were not coated with
the bitumen. This indicated the existence of adhesion problems. An
incorrect evaporation of the water in the zeolites during the
manufacture of the mix along with the alkalinity of the ller are
possible causes of adherence problems.
3.4. Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP)
WMA can be manufactured with reclaimed asphalt pavement
(RAP) as one of its components. One of the most relevant research
studies on the performance evaluation of warm mix asphalt
mixtures incorporating reclaimed asphalt pavement is Hill (Hill,
2011), who manufactured WMA with 45% RAP.
3.5. Production and compaction temperature
Similarly, production and compaction temperatures also vary
depending on the technology used. Optimum temperatures or

80

M.C. Rubio et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 24 (2012) 76e84

Fig. 1. Evaluation of WMA (zeolites) to water sensitivity.

temperature windows are chosen with the aim of achieving a full

coating of the aggregates and a good workability within a certain
time period. Although these temperatures can be theoretically
determined, they may not apply to WMA additives. In such cases,
direct assessment of the temperatures could be performed by an
approximate approach. Accordingly, optimal production and
compaction temperatures can be ascertained by comparing the
bulk density of WMA to the reference HMA. This is a way of dening
the temperature at which both densities are the same.
The process is described by the German Asphalt Pavement
Association (German Asphalt Paving Association, 2009) as follows:
the optimal asphalt mix composition and the reference density at
compaction temperatures of 135
C and 145
C are determined by
carrying out a reference test with a non WMA additive. Specimens
for asphalt mixes manufactured with WMA products should be
produced at several different compaction temperatures (e.g. 110,
120, 130, 140, and 150
C) to determine the relevant temperature
for the production of specimens.

3.7. Bitumen content

3.6. Bitumen selection

However, it is also true that a reduction the optimum asphalt

content may negate the improved compaction resulting from the
addition (Hurley and Browell, 2005).

Although the less ageing of the binder is one of the advantages of WMA mixes (longer durability of the pavement), it also
has a negative side since it can lead to permanent deformations.
For this reason, a different grade should possibly be chosen for
the binder. Based on studies in Montana (USA), a set of recommendations has been proposed. However, the difference in
design methods in Europe and the USA signify that these
guidelines are not internationally applicable (Zaumanis, 2010).
Despite this, one should not arbitrarily use a binder in WMA that
is one grade higher than the binder typically used in HMA
(Bonaquist, 2011). Furthermore, according to Romier et al.
(2006), LEA and HMA mixes use the same asphalt grades in the
same proportions. This is also the case for other WMA products
(Romier et al., 2006).
The use of lower performance grade as a virgin binder was
critical on offsetting the change of rheological binder properties
due to the warm additives and the aged binders (Kim et al.,
2010).

Most tests in the USA are performed by the National Center for
Asphalt Technologies (NCAT), which afrms that the optimum
asphalt content can be determined with standard HMA design
procedures without the inclusion of the warm mix additive.
However, certain authors have expressed concerns that because of
the enhanced compaction achieved by WMA technologies, the
optimum asphalt content can be reduced in half a percentage point
below that of a reference HMA. More specically, these concerns
are the following (Chowdhury and Button, 2008):
- Whether the lower mixing temperature for WMA means that
there is less binder absorption in the aggregates, and if this
effectively points to the need to reduce the binder content.
- WMA shows better compaction than HMA, and thus has fewer
air voids. This indicates that the mix has a smaller optimal
bitumen content.

4. Performance of warm mix asphalt

Since pavement construction with warm asphalt mixes did not
begin until the middle of the 1990s (The use of Warm Mix Asphalt.,
2010), little is known about the long-term mechanical performance
of these mixtures (Kristjansdottir, 2006). In this regard, most of the
practical tests to assess the performance of this asphalt have been
eld trials. Such tests are widespread in the USA. However, in
Europe, where this technology is older, the only countries that have
performed this type of test are Germany and Norway. For this
reason, most performance results come from laboratory tests, and
thus have been discussed in previous sections.
WMA is expected to perform as well as or even better than HMA.
If this goal is not achieved, all of its previously mentioned benets
(e.g. long-term environmental benets or energy savings) will be
worthless. Fortunately, up until now, research ndings have

M.C. Rubio et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 24 (2012) 76e84

conrmed that WMA performs as well as HMA (Zaumanis, 2010;

Chowdhury and Button, 2008; DAngelo et al., 2008). Nevertheless,
Long-Term Ageing still needs to be studied in greater depth since
this may be the area where there are the greatest differences
between HMA and WMA (including all WMA technologies)
(Corrigan, 2009). Of course, there are certain areas where WMA
performance still needs to be improved. The most repeated
concerns voiced in the literature are related to its greater moisture
sensitivity, increased rutting, and the need of a cure time.
Although the lower production and paving temperatures used in
these mixes are benecial in certain ways, they also create problems.
The incomplete drying of the aggregates, poor bitumen coating, less
ageing of the binder and water leading to moisture susceptibility can
lead to poor performance. However, all of these problems have been
widely studied, and solutions have been proposed.
5. Benets, drawbacks, and comparative costs
The reduction in production and compaction temperature achieved by WMA technologies brings many potential benets. Fewer
emissions, lower fuel consumption, longer haul distances, and
better working conditions are the most signicant advantages
mentioned. However, because of the relative newness of these
technologies, various concerns have not as yet been resolved and
need to be further studied. Even though reduced fuel consumption
evidently saves money, the implementation of these technologies
as well as their use also results in costs that need to be taken into
account. This section discusses the positive and negative aspects of
WMA technologies with special attention to economic costs and
benets. The discussion of these features is based on the comparison between WMA and HMA.
5.1. Benets
The specic benets of WMA depend on the process being
considered. For this reason, it is difcult to group all WMA
processes into one category and state that their features are superior or inferior to those of HMA (Chowdhury and Button, 2008).
However, since this is a broad and non-exhaustive overview, we
have made the following general classication of the benets of
WMA [(The use of Warm Mix Asphalt., 2010; Su et al., 2009)]:
1. Environmental benets / Lower plant emissions and fumes,
recycling scrap tires
2. Economic benets / Reduced energy consumption and
nancial costs
3. Paving benets / Improved workability and compaction
efciency, longer haul distances, and quicker turnover to trafc
due to shorter cooling time
4. Production benets / Increased RAP content and location of
plant site in urban areas.
5.1.1. Environmental benets
Emissions are related to temperature based on the following
data from the Bitumen Forum: At temperatures below 80
C, there
are virtually no emissions of bitumen; even at about 150
C,
emissions are only about 1 mg h1. Signicant emissions were
recorded at 180
C(DAngelo et al., 2008). For this reason, the
temperature reduction in WMA produces an enormous drop in
emissions and fumes. Consequently, greenhouse gases are lower for
WMA than for HMA. In this respect, Table 2 compares the research
results obtained in various studies.
Furthermore, the reduction of emissions and fumes is also
benecial for workers (Kristjansdottir, 2006), who are negatively

81

affected by exposure to the fumes produced by the asphalt paving

process. When there is less exposure, as occurs with WMA technologies, this improves working conditions. For paving projects
that are not in open air (e.g. tunnels), worker exposure to emissions
is magnied. Thus, WMA and its reduced emissions is especially
desirable for such situations. A further consideration is that lower
mix temperatures also contribute to a more comfortable working
environment, and this might even be a factor that retains workers
for a longer time at their jobs.
Since every country has its own guidelines for measuring fumes
and aerosols, it is difcult, if not impossible, to make a comparative
table similar to Table 2.
Also the addition of crumb rubber to this kind of mixes is
possible (Xiao et al., 2009). In this way, we can get rubberized
asphalt mixtures reducing their mixing and compaction temperatures, and extending the long-term performance of the pavement
when compared with conventional asphalt pavement.
5.1.2. Economic benets
The economic benets of WMA depend on the type of energy
used in the production process, its cost, and pollution potential. In
most countries, energy costs are relatively high, and thus any
reduction in this respect is highly valued by the asphalt producer.
Although in this paper, economic and environmental benets are
dealt with separately, in many cases they should be considered
together. It goes without saying that if stricter emission standards
were implemented and enforced, WMA would have an even greater
economic potential.
Broadly speaking, reduced fuel consumption is directly related
to temperature reduction. In this sense, WMA energy consumption
amounts to 60e80% of HMA energy consumption (Kristjansdottir,
2006). However, these economic benets also bring added costs
resulting from the modications needed in the plants. Nevertheless, this will be further discussed in Section 5.2 on drawbacks.
WMA temperature reduction is also the source of another possible
cost reduction because there may be less wear on the asphalt plant
(The use of Warm Mix Asphalt., 2010).
5.1.3. Production benets
In the case of WMA, production benets seem to be somewhat
less important. The main advantage is the potentially greater use of
Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP). Because of the increased
workability of WMA mixes, it can contain a higher percentage of
Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) (Bonaquist, 2011; Brown,
2008). This improved workability leads to a lower production
temperature, with less ageing of the binder, thus counteracting the
stiffer RAP binder. Certain studies even recorded RAP percentages
of over 50% (Vaitkus et al., 2009a,b; DAngelo et al., 2008).
It has been shown that the RAP source and RAP content inuence fuel consumption and emissions (Jamshidi et al., 2012).
Many studies claim that the use of reclaimed asphalt pavement
(RAP) in hot mix asphalt (HMA) pavements can help to offset

Table 2
WMA data pertaining to reduction in gas emissions.
Vaitkus et al.
Bueche, N. Larsen, O.R.
DAngelo et al.a Evotherm
(Vaitkus et al., (Bueche,
(Larsen, 2001) (Vaitkus et al., website
2009a,b)
2009a,b)
2009)
CO2
SO2
VOC
CO
NOx
Dust
a

30e40%
35%
50%
10e30%
60e70%
20e25%

30e40%
e
50%
e
e
e

31%
e
e
29%
62%
e

15e40%
20e35%
gt; 50%
10e30%
60e70%
25e55%

46%
81%
30%
63%
58%
e

These data are from different countries, resulting in a range of percentages.

82

M.C. Rubio et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 24 (2012) 76e84

increased initial costs, conserve natural resources, and avoid

disposal problems. Furthermore, the properties of properly
designed recycled asphalt concrete materials have been proven to
be comparable to new asphalt concrete pavements.
In addition, there is also less ageing of the binder. Moreover,
there may be an improvement in the longevity of service pavement
life. However, because of the lack of research studies and in situ
experiments, this has not as yet been proven (You et al., 2007).
Finally, another benet, which is directly related to the reduced
emission of fumes, is the possibility of locating plant sites in urban
areas (Kristjansdottir, 2006).
5.1.4. Paving benets
Paving benets are related to the fact that WMA technologies
modify mix viscosity, which enhances the workability and
compaction of the mix. Research data shows that these technologies act as compaction aids and reduce the compactive effort
required (Al-Rawashdeh, 2008).
Still another benet is the possibility of cold weather paving,
stemming from the fact that mix temperature is closer to ambient
temperature. This means that the drop in mix heat is thus less
dramatic (The use of Warm Mix Asphalt., 2010). This proximity of
temperatures extends the paving season since there is more time
for paving and compacting. Because of this advantage, it is also
feasible to haul longer distances. Plant sites can thus be located at
greater distances from road construction sites, which means that
paving is possible in non-attainment areas (You et al., 2007).
Furthermore, this reduced temperature difference makes road
construction and road opening times shorter. This is especially
desirable in certain contexts (e.g. airport rehabilitations, hightrafc city roads, etc. (Vaitkus et al., 2009a,b)).
5.2. Drawbacks
As previously mentioned, each WMA technology should be
analyzed separately given that each method has different aws.
However, in this section, the drawbacks of WMA are discussed as
a whole, and the most salient are highlighted. Even though the
lower temperatures in WMA are initially a very promising aspect of
this technology, they are also a source of concern (Vaitkus et al.,
2009a,b). Such concerns mainly pertain to the performance and
implementation of WMA, especially in reference to specications
and quality controls. Further research is needed on a number of
issues, including the following:
- Rutting: rutting is mainly caused by the less ageing of the
binder because of the lower production temperatures, as well
as moisture susceptibility of WMA mixes. This can result in the
premature rutting of the pavement surface (Zaumanis, 2010;
Corrigan, 2009).
- Cost effectiveness: Although WMA promises a signicant
reduction in energy consumption, initial costs, in addition to
royalties, could discourage contractors. Unless stricter emission
regulations are enforced, contractors will probably not use
these technologies, solely for their other benets
(Kristjansdottir, 2006).
Indeed, the initial cost of WMA could be the greatest obstacle to
overcome. Furthermore, other costs, such as recurrent ones or
royalties, also have to be considered. This initial cost varies
depending on the technology used. For example, the use of WMA
technology requires additives (a recurrent cost) and asphalt plant
modications, which requires a capital investment. These technologies could bring important savings if a better long-term
performance is achieved as a result of the less ageing of the

binder during production. Nevertheless, this has yet to be proven as

WMA has not been employed for a sufciently long time period for
a real evaluation of its cost effectiveness (Diefenderfer and Hearon,
2008).
- Moisture susceptibility: The lower compaction temperature
used when producing warm asphalt may increase the potential
for moisture damage, as established in the studies carried out
by Hurley (Hurley and Prowell, 2005; Hurley and Browell,
2005; Hurley and Prowell, 2006). Moisture damage appears
to have two causes. First, lower mixing and compaction
temperatures can result in incomplete drying of the aggregate.
To prevent moisture susceptibility, proper mix design is thus
essential. Of the many ways to prevent stripping in a pavement, the
use of anti-stripping agents (ASAs) is the most common method.
One of the most frequently used ASAs is hydrated lime. According
to previous research studies, the addition of the right anti-stripping
agents can reduce potential moisture damage (Xiao and
Amirkhanian, 2010). The second cause stems from the use of
these ASAs. Since liquid ASAs are blended with the binder, and then
mixed with aggregate and the water-bearing additive, chemical
reactions between these components may occur at a high mixing
temperature (around 110
C), which may result in a loss of bond in
a mixture (Smith, 2006). The addition of RAP to WMA mixtures can
improve moisture sensitivity performance and also prevent rutting
(Hill, 2011).
Few research projects have focused on determining the effects
of the reaction of the liquid ASA to WMA additives, which may
result in moisture damage and thus lead to pavement failure.
- Long term performance: Evidently if WMA does not perform
well throughout its life cycle, there will be no long-term
environmental benets or energy savings. Due to the relative
newness of these products, eld test sections are still few in
number, and they also have a short life (seven years in the USA
and over ten years in certain European countries). For this
reason, it is not as yet possible to talk about-long term
performance. To date, in the USA no signicantly negative longterm performance has been reported (Chowdhury and Button,
2008), and in Europe the trial sections of WMA have performed
as well as or better than HMA overlays (DAngelo et al., 2008). It
is important to highlight that, whereas in the USA tests have
been performed by public organisms (Departments of Transportation), in Europe they have been carried out by the private
companies that market the products. Evidently, this means that
at least in certain cases, the evaluation of WMA technologies is
somewhat less objective.
- Environmental pollution effects of WMA additives: Even
though certain WMA manufacturing techniques include the
use of chemical additives, it is still uncertain whether they are
a potential source of pollution.
- Quantitative life-cycle analysis (QLCA): Evidently, a QLCA is
needed in order to assess pavement sustainability and promote
WMA technologies (Miller and Baha, 2010). As its name
implies, such an analysis would consider the entire life cycle of
a product from raw material extraction and acquisition,
through energy and material production and manufacturing, to
use and end-of-life treatment and nal disposal. The application of LCA in the construction of asphalt pavements is relatively recent, as underlined by Huang (Huang et al., 2009) in his
study. However, it would allow companies to measure and
compare products and processes, which would ultimately
contribute to the development of technologies characterized
by cleaner production.

M.C. Rubio et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 24 (2012) 76e84

83

Table 3
Extracted from Chowdhury et al. (Chowdhury and Button, 2008).
WMA technology

WAM-Foam

Aspha-Min

Sasobit

Evotherm

Equipment modications
or installation costs
Royalties

$30.000- $70.000

$0-$40.000

$0-$40.000

Minimal

$15,000 rst yr
$5000/plant/yr
$0.30/ton
NA
NA
$0.30

None

None

None

$ 0.60/lb
0.3% by weight of mix
$3.60

$ 0.80/lb
1.5e3% by weight of binder
$1.30-$2.60

7e10% more than asphalt binder

Use in place of asphalt binder
$3.50-$4.00

Cost of material
Dosage recommended
Approximate cost per ton of mix

5.3. Comparative costs

According to Kristjansdottir et al., a 25e70% reduction in energy
consumption was achieved at various test sites in comparison to
HMA. The size of the reduction largely depended on how much the
production temperature was lowered. However, from an economic
perspective, these savings are inconsequential if the cost and type
of energy used are not taken into account. It is obvious that savings
will increase as energy prices soar (Kristjansdottir, 2006). Another
potential source of cost reduction is the fact that the asphalt suffers
less wear (The use of Warm Mix Asphalt., 2010). It has greater
compaction, and fewer roller passes are needed to reach the
necessary density. Moreover, if the long-term performance of WMA
is satisfactory, greater cost savings can be achieved because of the
improvement in pavement durability due to less ageing of the
bitumen and better in situ densities.
Despite these potential benets, cost savings from reduced
energy consumption may be offset by the additional costs of WMA
production technologies. For this reason, it is necessary to ascertain
whether reduced energy consumption will lead to a reduction in
the overall costs of WMA production in each specic case
(Chowdhury and Button, 2008). Other economic factors that must
be considered are the investment and depreciation of plant modication (if necessary), the costs of the additives (if additives are
used), and technology licensing costs, all of which may increase the
total cost of this type of mix (The use of Warm Mix Asphalt., 2010).
Since new processes and materials are regarded as risky,
contractors increase their bid prices. Even though WMA has
generally performed well up to the present, more evidence is
needed to prove that WMA pavement life is the same as or longer
than HMA pavement life. Only then will the perceived risk begin to
vanish. Based on recent research, Table 3 provides a comparison of
possible additional expenses for WMA production. These data
come from various studies that used different production plants
operating under a wide range of conditions (Chowdhury and
Button, 2008). However, Table 3 provides a good overview of the
additional costs of different WMA technologies.
6. Conclusions
Warm-mix asphalt is an opportunity for the asphalt industry to
improve its product performance, construction efciency, and
environmental stewardship. Studies have shown that the performance characteristics of WMA mixes can be at least equivalent to
conventional mixes. This is possible because of the often better
workability and hence better compaction which can be achieved
with their use. The lower production temperature also reduces the
ageing of the bitumen during the production stage, which results in
an improved thermal and fatigue cracking resistance. All these
factors lead to benets in different aspects, such as environmental
impact, paving operations, worker health and safety, and economic
cost effectiveness. These advantages should be brought to the
attention of politicians, policy makers, and transportation authorities, who have to be convinced of the benets provided by WMA.

While lower temperatures are promising, they are also a cause

for concern. For that reason, more in-depth studies are needed on
mix design, long-term performance, cost benets, and plant operations. The current challenge is to provide evidence that the overall
performance of WMA is truly as good as that of HMA. If in the course
of its life-cycle, WMA does not perform as well as HMA, there cannot
be any long-term environmental benets or energy savings. In the
future, existing paving projects can be used as data sources that
attest to the good performance and enhanced durability of WMA.
Finally, WMA technologies should also be included in local and
national specications. This would stimulate the industry and
provide society with state-of-the-art solutions, particularly for
ecological concerns. The ultimate goal is to study and freely
implement this technology with a view to encouraging innovation
and competition.
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