Journal of Science and Management. Vavuniya Campus of the University of Jaffna. ISSN 20126131. (3). 107-115.

Impacts of natural and human disturbances on the density of tree species in selected
mangrove ecosystem in Batticaloa, Sri Lanka
Mathiventhan, T*. and Jayasingam, T**
Department of Botany, Eastern University, Sri Lanka
*tmathiventhan@yahoo.com, **tjayasingam@gmail.com

Abstract
Density of tree species that were destructed by
2004-Tsunami, civil unrest and shrimp farm
practice in Mattikali-Bar road (MB), KokkuvilSathurukkondan-Thannamunai
(KST)
and
Kokkoddicholai
(KOK)
were
studied,
respectively at the Batticaloa, Sri Lanka.

and density of dead stumps were observed in

KST. Highest mean density in total mangrove
species was observed in remaining mangrove
forest at KOK.
Excoecaria agallocha was the most common tree
species in KOK and KST, but Dolichandrone
spathacea was the most common tree species in
MB. The number of dead stumps was the highest
in KST. The number of seedlings was highest in
MB and lowest in KOK.

Studies were conducted in parallel transects at 20

m intervals across whole area of each site. The
number of transects varied accordingly (MB-5,
KST- 9 and KOK-3). The number of species
(mangrove and others), number of trees, and
numbers of seedlings, saplings and the status of
damage for each tree species were recorded along
each transect. Number of stumps of dead trees
was also recorded.

Mangroves of 75-100m stretch on both sides of

main road at KST were seriously degraded due to
civil unrest. 75% of mangrove forests at KOK had
been destroyed for a shrimp farm practice in
1983, which had not been restored to date. About
10 20% of mangroves at MB were damaged by
the Tsunami that struck on 26th of December
2004.

Ten mangrove species were found in MB and

KST and four species in KOK. Twelve nonmangrove species was found in MB, six in KST
and two in KOK. Density was significantly
different (p<0.05) among the three sites. Highest
mean density of seedlings was observed in MB.
Highest mean density of stumps with re-growth

This paper discussed the impacts of natural and

human interferences on the density of mangroves.

Key words: Mangroves, non-mangroves, density and destruction.

Introduction
Mangroves
are
discontinuously
distributed along Sri Lankas coastline
and have been variously estimated by
different authors (De Silva and
Balasubramanium, 1984).

About 3.6 million hectares of global

mangroves had been lost in between 1980
and 2005 (FAO, 2006). The annual loss
of mangrove areas in Sri Lanka was
estimated as 60 ha (0.7%) from 1980 to
1990 and 120 ha (1.5%) from 1990 to
2000 (FAO, 2003).

Twenty true mangroves and at least 18

mangrove associates have been
identified along the west-coast of Sri
Lanka (Jayatissa et al. 2002). Nineteen
species of mangroves (true and
associates) have been reported from
Batticaloa district (Arulchelvam, 1969).
There are no other detailed studies on
mangroves from this area.

Mangroves in Batticaloa are degraded

due to several reasons including illegal
activities, civil war and natural disasters
like cyclones and tsunami.
The severity of the impact of the 2004tsunami in Sri Lanka, on mangrove
ecosystems, varies in different places and

Journal of Science and Management. Vavuniya Campus of the University of Jaffna. ISSN 20126131. (3). 107-115.

human activity has exacerbated the

damage (Dahdouh-Guebas et al., 2005).

disaster (tsunami),
shrimp farm.

This study, attempts to determine the

effects
of
natural
and
human
interferences on the density of mangrove
species.

Materials and Methods

Site selection
Criteria was used to choose study sites
includes (i) distance from Batticaloa, (ii)
security risk, (iii) present condition of the
mangrove ecosystems and (iv) effect of
tsunami. Each assessment criterion
scored between 1 and 5 from low to high
(or bad to good) respectively. For
security risk, score between -1 and -5
from low to high was applied (table 1).

Objective
Comparatively assess the density
variation of mangrove flora (mangroves
and non-mangroves) of three selected
sites that were disturbed by natural

civil

unrest

and

Table 1: Site Assessment Scoring Table (SAST)

Available sites
(Eastern province)
Kathiraveli
Vaharai
Nasivanthevu
Oddamavadi
Sathurukkondan
Mattikali (Bar road)
Pankudaveli
Kokkaddicholai

Distance from
Batticaloa
(app. in km)
65
45
33
30
5.6
4.5
22
4.2

Security
risk
-5
-5
-3
-3
-2
-1
-2
-2

Present condition

undisturbed
undisturbed
undisturbed
Disturbed
Semi disturbed
undisturbed
undisturbed
Disturbed

MattikaliBar road (MB), Kokkuvil

Sathurukkondan Thannamunai stretch
(KST) and Kokkadicholai (KOK) in
Batticaloa were selected (Figure 1).

Effect of
Tsunami

Site selected
for this study

5
5
3
1
1
4
1
1

Sites with a security risk score more than

-3 and at far-distance from Batticaloa
were eliminated as choices for the
purpose of study.

Figure 1: Study sites selected in Batticaloa district

KST
MB

KOK

Batticaloa lagoon

Source: CCD and mapsof.net/sri_lanka

Journal of Science and Management. Vavuniya Campus of the University of Jaffna. ISSN 20126131. (3). 107-115.

Site description
The site KST is located about 5.5 km
north from Batticaloa city along the
Batticaloa Valaichenai A15 main road
(070 44.154N, 810 39.733E). The
wetland stretches approximately 3.5 km
on left hand side and about 1.5 km on

right hand side. The main road disturbed

the mangrove flora, since the water flow
and plant distribution is permanently
hindered.

The site KOK is located about 4.5 km

south from Batticaloa town, about 2 km
inside of the Batticaloa Ampara A4
main road (070 38.140N, 810 43.548E).
The study was carried out in the
remaining mangrove forest.

The site MB is located about 4.5 km east

from Batticaloa town (070 44.834N, 810
41.324E). The wetland is approximately
one km long.

the lagoon, 30 x 240 m belt was marked.

It was divided into 15 m plots along
transect (30 x 15m). Plots were further
divided into two halves, making 32 subplots [16 twin plots (Figure 2)].

Experimental design and data collection

Initially, spatial map of each site was
drawn and the sampling sites were
marked. Parallel transects were marked at
20 m intervals at each site, perpendicular
to the lagoon. From the high tide mark of

Figure 2: Transects and twin plots. Every plot is 30x15 m and every sub-plot is 15x15 m.

Samplings were done in 32 sub- plots of

15 x 15 m and the following data were
obtained.

In addition to that, data from

secondary sources including survey
maps, statistical records, published
and unpublished documents were
obtained.

Species list of mangroves and nonmangroves.

Number of mangroves and nonmangroves: matured plants, seedlings,
saplings, dead stumps and stumps
with re-growth.

Visual
observations,
personal
communications and field visits were
carried out to confirm the veracity of
the information collected.

Journal of Science and Management. Vavuniya Campus of the University of Jaffna. ISSN 20126131. (3). 107-115.

for normality and was subjected to one

way ANOVA using MINITAB 14.
Results
Ten mangrove species were recorded
both in KST and MB and 4 species in
KOK. Twelve non-mangrove species
were recorded in MB, 6 from KST and 2
from KOK (Table 2).

Analysis of data
Density of mangroves and non-mangrove
species were estimated. Densities of
seedlings, saplings, stumps with regrowth and dead stumps were computed
for each species. Each data set was tested

Table 2: List of mangrove and non-mangrove species at three representative sites. Life form is
denoted by italic letter (T tree, S shrub, H herb, F fern, C creeper, G grass, L liana).
Common mangrove Species in
Sri Lanka

Family

Avicennia marina (S / T)
Avicenniaceae
A. officinalis (S / T)
Avicenniaceae
Acrostichum aureum (F)
Polipodiaceae
Aegiceras corniculata (S)
Myrsinaceae
Acanthus ilicifolius (S)
Acanthaceae
Bruguiera gymnorhiza (T)
Rhizophoraceae
B. cylindrica (T)
Rhizophoraceae
B. sexangula (T)*
Rhizophoraceae
Ceriops tagal (S / T)
Rhizophoraceae
Clerodendrum inerme (S)
Verbanaceae
Cerbera manghas (T)
Apocyanaceae
Cynometra iripa*
Fabaceae
Dolichandrone spathacea (T)
Bignoneaceae
Derris scandens (L)
Fabaceae
Excoecaria agallocha (T)
Euphorbiaceae
Heretiera littoralis (T)
Sterculaceae
Lumnitzera racemosa (S)
Combretaceae
Lumnitzera littorea (S)
Combretaceae
Nypa fruticans (T)
Arecaceae
Rhizophora apiculata (T)
Rhizophoraceae
R. mucronata (T)
Rhizophoraceae
Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea (T)* Rhizophoraceae
Sonneratia caseolaris (T)
Sonneratiaceae
S. alba (T)
Sonneratiaceae
S. apetala (T)*
Sonneratiaceae
Xylocarpus granatum (T)
Meliaceae
X. rumphii (T)*
Meliaceae
Total number of mangrove species

Vernacular name
(Tamil T & Sinhala S)
Venkandal (T), Manda (S)
Kanna (T), Manda (S)
Minni (T)
Vettikanna (T), Heen kadol (S)
Kadal neermulli (T), Katu Ikiri (S)
Mal kadol (S)

Chirukandal (T)
Pinchil (T)
Nangi Ma (T)
Opulu (T), Mudu nannan (S)
Mankulanchi, Vilpathiri, Vil-pad (T)
Welan-tekel (T)
Tilai (T), Tel-Kiriya (S)
Chomuntri (T), Etuna (S)
Tipparuthi (T), Sudu beriya (S)
Tipparuthi (T), Rath beriya (S)
Kadal thenkai (T), Gin-pol (S)
Kandal (T), Kadol (S)
Kandal (T), Kadol (S)
Kinnai (T), Rath mal kirala (S)
Kinnai (T), Sudu mal kirala (S)

KST

MB

KOK

10

10

MB

KOK

Kandalanga (T), Mutti kadol (S)

Attukaddupuli (T), Mudu delun (S)

Note: Avicennia and Ceriops considered as Tree or shrub, depending on their morphological character.
* Adopted from Padma and Mangala (2006).
Non mangrove Species
Borassus flabellifer (T)
Calotropis gigantea (S)
Campnosperma zeylanicum (T)
Cocos nucifera (T)
Delonix regia (T)
Feronia limonia (T)
Gleichenia linearis (F)
Mangifera indica (T)

Family
Arecaceae
Asclepiadaceae
Anacardiaceae
Arecaceae
Fabaceae
Rutaceae
Gleicheniaceae
Anacardiaceae

Vernacular name (Tamil )

Panai (T), Tal (S)
Erukkalai (T), Wara (S)
Punnai (T), Aridda (S)
Thennai (T), Pol (S)
Nerupoo vahai (T), Mal-mora (S)
Vilamaram (T)
Mamaram (T), Amba (S)

KST

Journal of Science and Management. Vavuniya Campus of the University of Jaffna. ISSN 20126131. (3). 107-115.
Morinda tinctoria (T)
Rubiaceae
Manchavunna (T)
Panicum antidotale (G)
Graminae
Narippul (T)
Phoenix pusilla (T)
Arecaceae
Inchu (T), Indi (S)
Sesuvium portulacastrum (H)
Aizoaceae
Vunkiruvilai (T)
Terminalia arjuna (T)
Combretaceae
Maruthu (T), Kumbuk (S)
Terminalia catapa (T)
Combretaceae
Kaththapu (T), Kottambu (S)
Thespesia populnea (T)
Malvaceae
Puvarachu (T)
Typha angustifolia (G)
Typhaceae
Sapai (T), Hambu-Pan (S)
Total number of Non-mangroves species
Total number of flora (Mangroves and Non-mangroves species)

6
16

12
22

2
6

Number of species, both mangroves and

non-mangroves, was limited in KOK than
the other two sites. More number of both
categories of species was found in MB
(Table 2).

(Table 2) than other two sites. Out of

twelve non mangrove species found in
MB, 38% were Cocus nucifera, 25%
were Terminalia catapa and 18% were
Thespesia popullnea.

Tree
density
showed
significant
differences (p <0.05) in all three sites. It
was significantly higher at KOK (Table
3A). KOK also significantly differ from
other sites in number of saplings.

Dead stumps and stumps with re-growth

were absent in KOK. But it was
significantly contributed at the site KST.
Most of the indices showed intermediate
mean
values
at
KST.

MB had higher mean values in density of

seedlings (Table 3) and non-mangroves
Density (number/acre)
KOK
896a
0.00a
17.22a
0.00a
0.00a

Trees
Seedlings
Saplings
Stumps with re-growth
Dead stumps

Mean Values
KST
695b
2.13b
5.75b
1.48b
8.25b

MB
415c
13.9c
0.87c
0.40a
2.13c

Table 3: mean density values and number of mangrove trees at three sites. Same letter of a and
b denotes significant difference among the sites

Figure 4: density of mangroves species

present other than E.agallocha

Figure 3: density of Excoecaria agallocha

(Aa- Acrostichum aureum, DSc-Derris scandens , Am-Avicennia marina, Sc-Soneratia caseolaris,

Ai-Acanthus illicifolius, Ci- Clerodentron inerme, Cm-Cerbera manghas, Lr-Lumnitzera racemosa,
Ra-Rhizophora apiculata, Ds-Dolichandrone spathaceae)

Journal of Science and Management. Vavuniya Campus of the University of Jaffna. ISSN 20126131. (3). 107-115.

Acrostichum aureum, and Lumnitzera

racemosa had been observed the second
most abundant species at KST, Derris
scandens in KOK and Rhizophora
apiculata in MB (Figure 4).

Excoecaria agallocha was the most

common species in KOK and KST,
whereas Dolichandrone spathacea was
the most common species in MB (Figure
3 and 4).

About 75-100 m strip was destroyed

along both sides of A15 main road at
KST, due to the civil war. This accounts
for more number of dead stumps at KST.
Most of the stumps were not allowed to
regenerate due to repeated cutting (during
rainy days) and burning (during dry
periods) for security reasons. This in turn
prevents
natural
regeneration
of
mangroves. It appears that some people
took advantage of the security situation
for uncontrolled cutting and felling of the
mangroves. This repeatedly destroyed
area is occupied by the Acrostichum
aureum, which is a mangrove species that
colonise the mangrove destructed areas
quickly. In addition to that, encroachment
took place by means of cutting
mangroves,
fencing
and
altering
substratum by heavy machineries. These
activities seriously threaten biodiversity
of mangroves.

Discussion
Density of Excoecaria agallocha was
highest in all three sites when compared
with other species. E. agallocha has
poisonous latex exudates, which produce
skin rash in humans when it touched.
This poisonous plant is not popular for
firewood, since the smoke is harmful to
humans. Their leaves were not preferred
by animals or livestock. This may be the
reason for high density of E. agallocha in
all the three study areas.
Mangroves at KOK have a history in
which it primarily dominated by
Excoecaria agallocha. Interviews with
local people revealed that about 75% of
mangrove forest had been cleared for the
purpose of shrimp farms, in 1983. But it
is yet to be recovered or restored after the
farm abandoned in 1987. The remaining
site was characterized by many old trees
and higher numbers of saplings of E.
agallocha. Even though at KOK higher
density was recorded, regeneration or
natural succession of mangroves in the
abandoned sites have not taken place, due
to heavy alteration of soil and limited
water exchange from the lagoon, due to
farm construction.

Overall density of seedlings was higher

in MB than KST. Planting activities of
mangroves
especially
Rhizophora
apiculata has taken place at MB and
KST. This is one of the reasons
contributing high density of seedlings in
these areas. No planting activities had
been taken place at KOK. But in KOK,
most of the ground floor was occupied
with saplings of E. agallocha,
Acrostichum aurem and exposed lands
were occupied by Panicum antidotale.
This would be the reason for low density
of seedlings at KOK.

The overall density of mangrove tree

species and saplings were low in MB.
Two main reasons were noted. Firstly,
impacts of tsunami had destroyed about
10-20% of mangrove cover. Secondly,
pre-tsunami clearance of certain portion
of mangroves by people as mangroves
were thought as sites for mosquito
breeding and hiding place for thieves.

Less number of dead stumps recorded at

KOK and MB. People of this area of MB
are more enthusiastic to protect the
mangroves especially after the tsunami.

Journal of Science and Management. Vavuniya Campus of the University of Jaffna. ISSN 20126131. (3). 107-115.

The location (surrounded by lagoon at

three sites) and physical condition (deep

marsh land) of KOK itself protects the

remaining mangroves from destruction.

Conclusion
Mangroves at KST showed human
disturbances at frequent time intervals.
Therefore, regeneration rate was less in
this site. It also leads to loss of species, in
long run, which are more sensitive to
frequent disturbances.

KOK is a good example of severe human

interference, due to unplanned economic
development activity. Mangroves have
poor capacity to regenerate again in the
cleared area over the last two decades.
The overall tree density was low in MB
when compared with other two sites due
to pre and post tsunami impacts. The
substratum for the establishment of
mangroves was yet to be developed in a
reasonable stage.

It is essential to do a physio-chemical and

seed bank analysis of soil at KOK, to find
out existing unfavourable soil conditions
for re-establishment of mangroves.

5. FAO. (2003). Status and trends in

mangrove area extent worldwide.
By Wilkie, M.L. and Fortuna, S.
Forest Resources Assessment
Working Paper No. 63. Forest
Resources Division. FAO, Rome.
(Unpublished).www.fao.org/docre
p. Accessed on January 2010.
6. Dahdouh-Guebas F., Jayatissa
L.P., Nitto D. D., Bosire J.O.,
Seen S.D., & Koedam N. (2005).
How effective were mangroves
as a defence against the recent
Tsunami? Current Biology. Jul
26; (14) 15: pp 1337-8.
(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entr
ez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=
PubMed&list_uids=15964259&d
opt=Abstract).
Accessed on January 2010.
7. Padma K.D.S & Mangala D.S.
(2006). A Guide to the
Mangroves flora of Sri Lanka.
Department
of
Zoology,
University of Peradeniya.
8. Senaratna, L.K. (2001). A check
list of the flowering plants of Sri
Lanka.
National
Science
Foundation. pp. 451

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