Endocrine glands

1.

Endocrine glands overview

2.

Pituitary gland, hypophysis cerebri

3.

Pineal gland, epiphysis cerebri

4.

Thyroid gland. Parathyroid glands

5.

Suprarenal (adrenal) glands. Paraganglia

6.

Endocrine pancreas islets of Langerhans

7.

Gonads

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Endocrine system

Endocrine glands:

 work parallel (in concert) with

the immune and nervous systems
 neurohumoral regulation of body functions

Anatomical peculiarities:
 do not have excretory ducts (ductless),
glandulae sine ductibus (PNA)
 secrete hormones directly into the blood
 highly vascularized
 surrounded with a dense network of
fenestrated capillaries

 produce small amounts of hormones

acting on distant target tissues

Chemical nature of hormones:

 amino acid-derived hormones

 peptide hormones secretory granules
o small proteins
o glycoproteins

 lipid derivatives
 steroid hormones cholesterol
 eicosanoids prostaglandins

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Endocrine glands

Endocrine cells:

 aggregated as distinct endocrine glands:

glands






pituitary gland
pineal gland
thyroid gland
parathyroid glands
adrenal glands

 a distinct part of certain organs:

organs
 islets of Langerhans in the pancreas
 collection of cells in:
o hypothalamus
o testis (Leydig cells)
o ovary follicular and theca cells

 single endocrine cells paracrine signaling

 intestinal enteroendocrine cells

Typical arrangement of endocrine tissue:

 in radially arranged cords or
in narrow anastomosing cords
 adenohypophysis
 parathyroid glands
 adrenal glands

 epithelial vesicles follicles

 thyroid gland

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Endocrine glands

Endocrine cells:

 aggregated as distinct endocrine glands:

glands






pituitary gland
pineal gland
thyroid gland
parathyroid glands
adrenal glands

 a distinct part of certain organs:

organs
 islets of Langerhans in the pancreas
 collection of cells in:
o hypothalamus
o testis (Leydig cells)
o ovary follicular and theca cells

 single endocrine cells paracrine signaling

 intestinal enteroendocrine cells

Typical arrangement of endocrine tissue:

 in radially arranged cords or
in narrow anastomosing cords
 adenohypophysis
 parathyroid glands
 adrenal glands

 epithelial vesicles follicles

 thyroid gland

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Pituitary gland, hypophysis

Pituitary gland, hypophysis cerebri
(Lat. glandula pituitaria):





small, unpaired body

housed in the sella turcica
overlapped by diaphragma sellae
connected to the hypothalamus
by a neural stalk, infundibulum

External morphology:
 ovoid shape
 weight ~0.5 g (>1 g multipara)
 size:
 length 8-10 mm
 width 12-15 mm
 height 5-6 mm

 color reddish-grey
Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Macroscopic anatomy

Anatomical parts:

 anterior pituitary,
adenohypophysis (anterior lobe):
 pars distalis 75% of the mass
 pars intermedia
 pars tuberalis

 posterior pituitary,
neurohypophysis (posterior lobe):
 lobus nervosus 25% of the mass
 infundibulum
o pedunculus infundibularis
o eminentia mediana

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Microscopic anatomy

Adenohypophysis cell types:

 chromophobes, endocrinocyti chromophobi:

 50-60% of the cell population
 small (12-15) agranular cells
 stem cells

 chromophils, endocrinocyti chromophili:

 acidophilic cells, endocrinocyti acidophili 30-40%

 somatotropic cells STH

 mammotropic cells prolactin (luteotropic hormone)
 basophilic cells, endocrinocyti basophili 4-10%
 gonadotropic cells FSH and LH
 thyrotropic cells TTH and TSH
 corticotropic cells ACTH and MSH (melanotropin)

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Microscopic anatomy

Neurohypophysis:

 pituicytes, pituicyti:

 glial cells 25% of its volume

 highly branched processes
 neurosecretory axons  Herring bodies
 axovasal synapses, synapses axovasculares
 neurosecretory material:

o neurohypophyseal hormones
oxytocin
Arg-vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone, ADH)
o neurophysin a binding glycoprotein
o P

 postganglionic sympathetic terminals

catecholamines

 axonal endings in synaptic contact

with neurosecretory terminals

Pars intermedia 2%:

 weakly basophilic cells

MSH (intermedin)

 chromophobes

Rathkes cleft cysts

Pars tuberalis 2%:

 a funnel-shaped region
 arranged in cell cords
gonadotropins (FSH and LH)
 small follicles

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Effects of hypophyseal hormones

NB: pituitary gland is the conductor of the endocrine orchestra!

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Hypothalamo-hypophyseal
portal system

Hypothalamic nuclei:
 nucleus ventromedialis
 nucleus dorsomedialis
 nucleus infundibularis

 neurosecretory cells
releasing- and inhibitory-hormones

 rete capillare primarium of

eminentia mediana
 hypophyseal portal system,
vv. portae hypophysis

Hypothalamic nuclei:

 nucleus supraopticus et paraventricularis

 tractus supraopticohypophysialis
 tractus paraventriculohypophysialis
 axovasal synapses neurohypophysis,
Herring bodies

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

10

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Pineal gland, epiphysis cerebri

Pineal gland, epiphysis cerebri
(Lat. glandula s. corpus pineale):
 small, unpaired body
 part of the epithalamus
 occupies the depression
between colliculi superiores
 connected with habenulae to
commissura habenularum
 recessus pinealis third ventricle
 grows in size until 1-2 years of age;
undergoes involution after age 7

External morphology:
 pine cone-shaped (piriform) body
 weight ~120 mg
 size:
 length 5-8 mm
 width 3-5 mm
 height 5-6 mm

 color reddish-grey organ

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

11

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Microscopic structure

Pineal parenchyma cell types:
 pinealocytes, endocrinocyti pineales
 arranged in cords and follicles
 production of melatonin and
pineal peptides vasotocin

Pineal stroma:

 neuroglial cells, gliocyti centrales

5-10%

 astrocytes supportive function

 microglial cells phagocytic function

 calcified concretions or brain sand,

acervuli cerebri (corpora aranacea)
 up to 1 mm in diameter
 accrue with age  degenerative changes

 covered by pial connective tissue capsule

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

12

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Thyroid gland, glandula thyroidea

Thyroid gland, glandula thyroidea:

 the largest endocrine glands

 anteriorly in the lower part of the neck

External morphology:

 a "butterfly" shape, thyroid (Gr. shield)

 weight 20-40 g
 size:
 transverse 3 cm
 anterior-posterior 2 cm
 height 5 cm
 color brownish-red

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

13

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Macroscopic anatomy

Anatomical parts:
 two large lobes conical in shape:
 right and left lobes

 isthmus gl. thyroideae

 length 1-1.5 cm
 at -V tracheal cartilage

 pyramidal lobe,
lobus pyramidalis
 variable in length
 occasionally absent
 remnant from ductus thyroglossus

 gll. thyroideae accessoriae

 thin fibrous capsule
Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

14

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Microscopic anatomy

Thyroid parenchyma, parenchyma:
 follicles, folliculi gl. thyroideae






total number 20-30 million

spherical or ovoid structures, d=35-500 m
contain a gelatinous substance, colloid
secretory product is stored in great quantity
surrounded by an extensive lymphatic and
fenestrated blood capillary network
 simple cuboidal secretory epithelium:
o follicular cells,
cells,
thyrocytes
produce thyroid hormones,
triiodothyronine (T3) and
thyroxine (T4)
stimulation from TTH
thyroid colloid, thyroglobulin

o parafollicular cells,
cells,
clear or light, CC-cells
secretion of calcitonin
part of the
follicular epithelium
isolated clusters
between thyroid follicles

o basal lamina

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

15

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Synthesis and accumulation

of thyroid hormones

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

16

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Parathyroid glands,
glandulae parathyroideae

Parathyroid glands,
glandulae parathyroideae:
 gll. parathyroideae superiores
 gll. parathyroideae inferiores
 usually four small glands
 variable number and location
 located behind the thyroid gland,
at each end of its upper and lower poles
 sometimes embedded
in the thyroid gland
 contained within a connective tissue capsule

External morphology:
 ovoid or bean-like shape
 total weight 30-50 mg
 size:
 length 6 mm
 width 3-4 mm
 thickness 2-3 mm

 'mustard yellow' color

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

17

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Microscopic anatomy

Parenchyma lobulated structure:
 anastomosing cords of parenchymal cells,
parathyrocytes:
 chief (principal) cells, endocrinocyti principales
o small polygonal cells with granules
o contain parathyroid hormone

 oxyphil (eosinophil) cells,

endocrinocyti oxyphilicae (acidophilicae)
o appear just before puberty
o up to 3% of the cell population
o larger in size
o unknown function

 intermediate forms
between chief and oxyphil cells
 adipose cells more than 50%
of the gland in older people

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

18

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Adrenal (suprarenal) gland,

glandula suprarenalis (adrenalis)

orange-colored paired organs

location:
 in the retroperitoneum
 on the superior poles of the kidney,
embedded in adipose tissue

shape:
 right triangular
 left half-moon shape

size:
 length 5-6 cm
 width 3-4 cm
 thickness 1 cm

weight:
 right 4-5 g
 left 5-7 g

size and mass age-related

and functionally variable
Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

19

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Macroscopic anatomy

Two margins and three surfaces:





margo superior et medialis

facies renalis basis
facies anterior hilum
facies posterior

Anatomical parts:
parts

 adrenal cortex a yellow

peripheral layer 9/10
 adrenal medulla a reddish-brown
central layer 1/10
 capsule two layers
 subcapsular layer of
epithelial cells 
accessory glands,
gll. suprarenales accessoriae:
 spermatic cord
 epididymis
 lig. latum uteri
Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

20

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Microscopic structure

Adrenal cortex endocrynocytus corticalis
steroid hormones:

 zona glomerulosa (15%) mineralocorticoids

 zona fasciculata (60%) glucocorticoids (cortisol)
 pars externa et interna

 zona reticularis (35%)

androgens and (possibly)
glucocorticoids?

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

21

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Microscopic structure

Adrenal medulla cellulae chromaffinae
(medullary cells):

 endocrinocyti lucidi  epinephrine

(adrenaline 80%)
 endocrinocyti densi  norepinephrine (noradrenaline 20%)


pheochromocytoma

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

22

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Paraganglia

Embryonic origin neuroectoderm
(neural crest)
 chromaffin cells, chromaffinocyti (type )
 epitheloid satellite cells (type )

 aortic bodies, paragangli aortica

(of Zuckerkandl) 1 cm
 carotid body, glomus caroticum
 jugular body, glomus jugulare 0.5 mm
 coccygeal body, glomus coccygeum
(Luschkas gland) 2-3 mm

Emil Zuckerkandl Hubert Luschka

(1820(1849(1820-1875)
(1849-1910)

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

23

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Endocrine testis

Interstitial cells (of Leydig),
endocrinocyti interstitiales

12% of the testicular volume

Embryonic origin:
origin
 mesenchymal?
 neuroectodermal?

fenestrated capillaries

steroid-secreting cells testosterone

hormonal control luteinizing hormone
(LH or ICSH) from the hypophysis

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

24

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Endocrine ovary

endocrinocyti thecales, theca cells
theca interna

epitheliocyti folliculares, follicular or

granulosa cells stratum granulosum

fenestrated capillaries
synthesize estrogens (estradiol)
and gestagens (progesterone)
hormonal control follicle-stimulating

hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone

(LH) from the hypophysis

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

25

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Endocrine pancreas,
pars endocrina pancreatis

Islets of Langerhans,

insulae pancreaticae Langerhansi

number:
number > 1 million (1-2%)
total weight:
weight ~ 1 g
location: more abundant
in the tail, cauda pancreatis
size: diameter 100-300 m
fine capsule of reticular fibers
a network of blood capillaries,
rete capillare

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

26

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Islets of Langerhans

three principal cell types, inculocyti:
inculocyti
 ()-cells 15-20%  glucagon
 B ()-cells 60-80%  insulin
 D ()-cells (A1-cells) 5-10% 
somatostatin

other cell types 5%:

 PP (F)-cells 2-5% 
pancreatic polypeptide
 D1-cells 0.5-1% 
vasoactive intestinal polypeptide
 ECEC-cells isolated 
secretin,
secretin, motilin,
motilin, substance P,
serotonin,
serotonin, dopamine
 G-cells  gastrin
 Y-cells  ghrelin

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

27

ENDOCRINOLOGY

Gastroenteropancreatic (GEP)
endocrine system

 GEP = all the enteroendocrine (chromaffin) cells

of the digestive system
 APUD = Amine Precursor Uptake and Decarboxylation
 DNES = diffuse neuroendocrine system or
paraneuron concept
AGE Pearse
(1916(1916-2003)

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

28

ENDOCRINOLOGY

So, at long last, here are the glands!

Thank you ...

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

29