Sets

Sets are one of the most fundamental concepts in modern mathematics. In mathematical terms, a
set can be thought of as any unordered collection of distinct objects. The objects in a set are
called elements, or members, of the set.

Set Notation
To denote that an element a, is a member of the set A, we use the notation: a A
To denote that an element a, is not a member of the set A, we use the notation: a A
A set containing no elements is an empty set (or null set) denoted by: or

{}

Examples:
The set V of all vowels in the English alphabet can be written as: V = {a, e, i, o, u}
The set O of all odd positive integers less than 10 can be written as: O = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
The set, E, of even positive integers less than 100 can be written as: E = {2, 4, 6,, 96, 98}

Exercises:
Write the set, P, of all integers less than 100 that are powers of 2:

Write the set, N, of all letters in your first name:

Sets can also be described by using what is known as set builder notation. This involves stating
some property or properties that all elements of the set must have.
Example:
The set of all odd positive integers less that 10 can be written as:
O = {x | x is an odd positive integer less than 10}
or:
O = { x + | x is odd and x < 10}
Where Z is a standard set of all integers. The + superscript denotes that the set is all positive
integers.

Example:

The set of all positive rational numbers + can be written as:

+ = { x | x =

p
q

, for some positive integers p and q}

Set builder notation is often used to describe sets for which listing all elements of the set are
impractical or impossible.
Z and are examples of standard sets. These sets play an important role in discrete
mathematics.

or

{ } , the empty set

Z = {..., 2, 1, 0,1, 2,...} , the set of integers

Z + = {1, 2,3,...} , the set of positive integers
Z = {1, 2, 3,...} , the set of negative integers
= { p q | p Z, q Z, and q 0} , the set of rational numbers
, the set of real numbers

Classification of Sets
-

A set is finite if it contains a specific number of distinct elements. Otherwise the set is
infinite.

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is a finite set of 5 distinct elements

(the set of all real numbers) is an example of an infinite set

Two sets, A and B, are equal if they contain the same elements. Order of elements and
repeated elements does not matter.
Example: If A = {x, y}, B = {y, x}, and C = {x, y, y, x}, then A = B = C

Two sets A and B are equivalent if they have the same number of elements. There is a oneto-one correspondence between elements in equivalent sets. Here are examples of three
equivalent sets:
W = {0, 1}, X = {yes, no}, Y = {+, -}

A null set is a set that contains no elements, denoted by .

The entire group of objects under consideration is known as the universal set. It is a pool of
all values from which a valid set member may be drawn. The set of real numbers, , is the
universal set for many mathematical processes.

Exercises:
1. List all members of the following sets:
a) A = { x 5 < x < 14}

b) B = { x x is a suit in a standard deck of 52 cards}

c) C = { x + | x < 0}

d) D = { x 2 x 8 = 0}

2. Write the following statement using set builder notation: The set, S, of the square roots of all
positive integers less than 20.
3. Given the sets:
V = {m, a, t , h}

W = {1, 4,9,16, 25}

X = { x x > 10}

Y = { x x = y 2 , 1 y 5, y }
Z = {2, 4,8,16}

a) Which sets are finite? Which are infinite?

b) Which sets are equal?
c) Which sets are equivalent?

4. What is a universal set that can be used for constructing the set V of all lower case vowels in
the English alphabet?

Answers:
1. List all members of the following sets:
a) A = { x 5 < x < 14}

{6, 7,8,9,10,11,12,13}

b) B = { x x is a suit in a standard deck of 52 cards}

{clubs, hearts, diamonds, spades}

c) C = { x + | x < 0}

d) D = { x 2 x 8 = 0}

{4}

2. Write the following statement using set builder notation: The set, S, of the square roots of all
positive integers less than 20.
S = x x = y , y Z + , y < 20

3. Given the sets:

V = {m, a, t , h}

W = {1, 4,9,16, 25}

X = { x x > 10}

Y = { x x = y 2 , 1 y 5, y }
Z = {2, 4,8,16}

d) Which sets are finite? Which are infinite?

Finite: V, W, Y, Z. Infinite: X
e) Which sets are equal?
W and Y are equal.
f) Which sets are equivalent?
V and Z are equivalent.

W and Y are equivalent.

4. What is a universal set that can be used for constructing the set V of all lower case vowels in
the English alphabet?
U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z}