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Time: 15:32
Chapter 7
Introduction
In this chapter, a laboratory ultrasonic data set of Pwave velocity and attenuation measured as a function of
pore fluid viscosity in three reservoir sandstones is compared to the BISQ model. The three sandstones (Elgin,
Berea, Northern North Sea) represent a typical spread of
porosity, permeability, and intrapore clay contents for reservoir sandstones (see Table 1). The importance of clay
content for increasing ultrasonic attenuation in sandstones
is well established for P-waves (Klimentos and McCann,
1990) and S-waves (Best et al., 1994), but in the absence
of a validated elastic wave model, it is difficult to predict
how this behavior will manifest itself on surface seismic
data sets. Hence, there is a need for careful crosschecking
of theoretical models against well-constrained experimental data sets. The BISQ model is a strong candidate for
further investigation because it uses input parameters that
are readily available to the reservoir engineer or petrophysicist. The only ambiguity in the BISQ model concerns the value of the characteristic squirt flow length.
However, in practice, this is found by matching model
outputs to velocity or attenuation measurements at a
given frequency (Dvorkin and Nur, 1993). The resultant
calibrated model can then be used to explore frequency- and
viscosity-dependent velocity and attenuation effects for a
given lithology.
After determining the BISQ squirt flow lengths for
the three sandstones reported here, there was reasonable
agreement between predicted and observed attenuation
magnitudes. The BISQ model was then used to predict
the likely sonic and seismic attenuation magnitudes for
each sandstone as a function of pore fluid viscosity. The
results indicate that significant attenuation changes due to
thermal stimulation may only be detectable in clay-rich
sandstones with low permeabilities at seismic and sonic
logging frequencies.
University of Southampton Waterfront Campus, The National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, United Kingdom
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Table 1. Average lithological properties of the sandstone samples used in the ultrasonic experiments.
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Parameter
Porosity (%)
Permeability (mD)
Clay content (%)
Frame bulk modulus (GPa)
Frame shear modulus (GPa)
Mineral bulk modulus (GPa)
Mineral density (kgm3)
Elgin
Berea
10.3 6 1.9
152 6 53
2.7
25.92 6 1.12
25.80 6 0.94
36.5
2632
20.5 61.9
519 6 93
7.4
15.35 6 1.85
13.67 6 0.70
36.5
2634
14.8 6 1.1
5.0 6 1.3
14.1
20.87 6 2.75
17.93 6 1.29
36.5
2645
Laboratory Measurements
Laboratory experiments were conducted on seven different reservoir sandstones using the ultrasonic pulse-echo
method (Winkler and Plona, 1982; Best, 1992; McCann
and Sothcott, 1992). Recordings of arrival times and
amplitudes of tone burst pulses (approximately 800 kHz)
reflected from the Perspex/sample interfaces were used to
calculate velocity (60.3%) and attenuation coefficient
(620 dB/m) from which quality factor Q and its inverse
Q1 were derived. For each lithology, six rock samples
(5 cm diameter, 23 cm long) were saturated with a different viscosity pore fluid, giving P-wave velocity (VP)
and attenuation (Q1
P ) results over a viscosity range of
0.31000 cP. The results, reported in Best and McCann
(1995) for a differential pressure of 50 MPa, showed
complex interactions with pore fluid viscosity and lithology (porosity, permeability, clay content). There appeared
to be evidence for two competing attenuation mechanisms; namely, global and squirt viscous fluid flow.
Global flow, as described by the Biot model (Biot,
1956a; Biot, 1956b), seemed to predict the attenuations
of high permeability sandstones over only part of the
viscosity range, and not at all in low-permeability sandstones. The relatively high attenuations seen in the clayrich sandstones not predicted by the Biot theory were
thought to be indicative of a clay-related squirt flow loss
mechanism. Squirt flow losses are caused by local fluid
flow in and out of compliant pores (Mavko and Nur,
1975; Mavko and Nur, 1979; Palmer and Traviolia,
1980; Murphy III et al., 1986). The observed increases in
velocity with viscosity in clay-rich sandstones were consistent with a squirt flow mechanism. Similar P-wave
velocity VP and attenuation Q1
P results for a differential
pressure of 60 MPa are presented in Figure 1 with average
rock and pore fluid properties given in Table 1 and 2,
respectively.
Figure 1a shows a net increase in VP with viscosity
from 0.3 to 1000 cP for all three sandstones, most notable
for the Northern North Sea sandstone. A small drop in
velocity between 0.3 and 1 cP is seen for the Elgin sandstone but not for the other two sandstones; this is probably
attributable to a reasonably large jump in rock sample
porosity from 7.2% to 11.9% (see Best and McCann,
1995). The Elgin sandstone also shows a small decrease in
velocity above approximately 60 cP, whereas this occurs
above approximately 300 cP for the Berea and North Sea
sandstones. Taking net velocity dispersions between 1 and
1000 cP gives values of 3.0% for Elgin, 2.9% for Berea,
and 5.8% for the Northern North Sea sandstone. The direction of the velocity dispersion is consistent with a squirt
flow type mechanism (see Mavko et al., 1998).
Figure 1b shows complex variations in Q1
P with similar shaped curves for the Berea and North Sea sandstones
indicating possible attenuation peaks at approximately 1,
60, and 800 cP. By contrast, only one attenuation peak is
seen for the Elgin sandstone at approximately 330 cP. The
attenuation peaks have quite high magnitudes of Q1
P values greater than 0.02, equivalent to a quality factor Q of
less than 50.
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6000
Elgin
Berea
N. North Sea
VP (m/s)
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
0
10
100
1000
10000
Viscosity (cP)
b)
0.07
Elgin
Berea
N. North Sea
1/QP
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5500
115
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0
10
100
1000
10000
Viscosity (cP)
Results
The BISQ predicted attenuations (Q1
P ) are shown for
each of the three rock types in Figures 35 as a function
of pore fluid viscosity at 800 kHz together with the
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Date: 10th September 2010
Viscosity
(cP)
3
4
2
1
0.33
1.0
23
74
456
943
Density
(kg/m3)
Bulk
Modulus
(GPa)
658
998
1183
1212
1246
1256
0.75
2.19
3.95
4.30
4.72
4.85
10.00
60 MPa
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Time: 15:32
Elgin
Berea
N. North Sea
1.00
0.10
0.01
1.E-03
1.E-02
1.E-01
1.E+00
1.E+01
1.E+02
1.E+03
1.E+04
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0.030
1/QP
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
0.1
10
100
1000
10000
Viscosity (cP)
0.060
100 Hz
10 kHz
800 kHz
Exp. 800 kHz
0.040
1/QP
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0.025
117
0.030
0.020
0.010
0.000
0.1
10
100
1000
10000
Viscosity (cP)
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Date: 10th September 2010
0.040
100 Hz
10 kHz
800 kHz
Exp. 800 kHz
0.035
0.030
0.025
1/QP
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0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
0
Conclusions
Laboratory ultrasonic measurements of P-wave velocity and attenuation were obtained on three reservoir sandstones at 60 MPa (Elgin, Berea, and North Sea) at six
different pore fluid viscosities in the range of 0.31000
cP (only homogeneous saturated rocks considered). The
results showed complex variations of Q1
P with viscosity.
The unified Biot and squirt flow theory of Dvorkin and
Nur (1993), known as the BISQ model, was able to predict the range of Q1
P magnitudes seen in each sandstone
over the experimental viscosity range. There were some
discrepancies, in particular, differences in the viscosity of
the main attenuation peaks for the Elgin and Berea sandstones, although the BISQ model predicted the right viscosity for the North Sea sandstone. There was some
evidence for multiple squirt flow lengths in the Berea and
North Sea sandstones, perhaps related to the presence of
significant levels of intrapore clay minerals (7.4% and
14.1%, respectively).
Extension of these ultrasonic-frequency (800 kHz)
results to possible reservoir monitoring scenarios at 100 Hz
10
Viscosity (cP)
100
1000
Acknowledgments
Funding was provided by the U. K.s Natural Environment Research Council. Angus Best collected the experimental data during his Ph.D. studies at the University of
Reading, United Kingdom, between 1989 and 1992.
References
Batzle, M. L., D. H. Han, and R. Hofmann, 2006a, Fluid
mobility and frequency-dependent seismic velocity
direct measurements: Geophysics, 71, no. 1, N1N9.
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Date: 10th September 2010
Time: 15:32
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