Lecture 3:

Maxwell equations and electromagnetic wave

propagation

Plane waves
Phase velocity
Polarization
Maxwell equations
Wave equations
Solutions of wave equations
Poynting vector
Fresnel reflection
Total internal reflection
Evanescent wave

Reading: Senior 2.3

Keiser 2.1-2.2

Plane linearly polarized waves

The electric or magnetic field of a plane linearly
polarized wave traveling in a direction k can be
represented in the general form
A(r, t) = eiA0 exp i(k r t)
where r = xex + yey + zez represents a general
position vector and k = kxex + kyey + kzez represents
the wave propagation vector (wavevector).
The magnitude of the wavevector k is k = 2/, which
is known as the wave propagation constant, is the
wavelength of the light in a vacuum or free space
= 2, where is the frequency of the light, = c/

A0 is the maximum amplitude of the wave

Plane waves
y
r

exp i(kr t) @ a particular time t

k
Wave vector k perpendicular to the
plane wavefront

kr = const. + 2

spatial phase kr = const.
x
3

 The components of the actual (measurable) electromagnetic field

are obtained by taking the real part of the complex exponential form.
For example, if k = kez, and A denotes the electric field E in the
ei = ex direction, then the real measurable electric field is given by
Ex(z, t) = Re (E) = ex E0x cos (kz t)
which represents a plane wave that varies harmonically as it travels
in the z direction.
y
wavefronts ( k)

E-field
polarization (x)
(plane wave
in free space)

k = ez k = ez 2/

(wavevector)

Phase velocity
For a plane optical wave traveling in the z direction, the electric field
has a phase varies with z and t

= kz t

For a point of constant phase on the space- and time-varying field,

= constant and thus kdz dt = 0. If we track this point of constant
phase, we find that it is moving with a velocity of
vp = dz/dt = /k

phase velocity

In free space, the phase velocity vp = c = /k =

the propagation constant k = /c

(c = 3 108 m/s)
5

 For a wave propagating in a dielectric medium of refractive index n

vp = c/n = /k
Propagation constant in a
k = n /c
medium of refractive index n
The propagation constant in any medium
k = n ko = n 2/

free space
free space
wavenumber wavelength
6

Fields in a linearly polarized plane wave

H
E
H
E
k

k
Maxwell equations show that E and H are both perpendicular to
the direction of propagation. Such a wave is called a transverse wave.
Furthermore, E and H are mutually perpendicular E, H, and k form
7
a mutually orthogonal triad.

General state of polarization

A general state of polarization is described by considering another

linearly polarized wave which is independent of the first wave and
orthogonal to it.
Ey (z, t) = ey E0y cos (kz - t + )
where is the relative phase difference between the waves. The
resultant wave is
E(z, t) = Ex(z, t) + Ey(z, t)

If is zero or an integer multiple of 2, the waves are in phase. The

wave is then also a linearly polarized wave with polarization vector
making an angle
E0y
E
= tan-1 E0y/E0x
with respect to ex and having a magnitude
E = (E0x2 + E0y2)1/2

E0x

Conversely, an arbitrary linearly polarized wave can be resolved into

two independent orthogonal plane waves that are in phase.

Elliptical and circular polarization

For general values of the wave is elliptically polarized. The
resultant field vector E both rotates and changes its magnitude
as a function of the angular frequency . For a general value of


(Ex/E0x)2 + (Ey/E0y)2 2(Ex/E0x) (Ey/E0y) cos = sin2

which is the general equation of an ellipse.
This ellipse represents the trajectory of the E vector = state of
polarization (SOP)
The axis of the ellipse makes an angle relative to the x axis
given by
tan 2 = 2E0xE0y cos / (E0x2 E0y2)

 To get a better picture, let us align the principal axis of the ellipse
with the x axis. Then = 0, or equivalently, = /2, 3/2, , so that
(Ex/E0x)2 + (Ey/E0y)2 = 1
This is the familiar equation of an ellipse.
When E0x = E0y = E0 and the relative phase difference = /2,
3/2, , then we have circularly polarized light.
Ex2 + Ey2 = E02

which defines a circle

Choosing the positive sign of ,

Ex (z, t) = ex E0 cos(kz - t)
Ey (z, t) = -ey E0 sin(kz - t)
In this case, the endpoint of E traces out a circle at a given point in space.
10

 Consider an observer located at some arbitrary point toward which the wave is
approaching. For convenience, we choose this point at z = /k at t = 0.
Ex (z, t) = -ex E0, Ey (z, t) = 0

E lies along the x axis.

At a later time, say t = /2, the electric field vector has rotated through 90o and now lies
along the -y axis. Thus, as the wave moves toward the observer with increasing time, E
rotates counterclockwise at an angular frequency . It makes one complete rotation as
the wave advances through one wavelength. Such a light wave is right circularly
polarized.
If we choose the negative sign for , then the electric field vector is given by
E = E0 [ex cos(kz - t) + ey sin(kz t)]
Now E rotates clockwise and the wave is left circularly polarized.

k
LHC

k
RHC

E
11

Electromagnetic fields
The electromagnetic field in a medium is generally characterized by
the following four field quantities:
Electric field
Electric displacement
Magnetic intensity
Magnetic field
or magnetic induction

V m-1

E(r, t)
D(r, t)
H(r, t)

C m-2
A m-1
B(r, t)

Wb m-2 or T

(The units are in SI units)

(coulomb C = As)
(weber Wb = Vs)
E and H are the electric and magnetic field vectors, and D and B are
12
the corresponding flux densities.

Maxwell equations
Faradays law of induction

curl
equations

E = -B/t

divergence
conditions

D =

Gauss law for the electric field

B = 0

Gauss law for the magnetic field

(No free poles)

H = J + D/t

Ampere-Maxwell law

where the current density vector J (= E, is the conductivity)

and the charge density represent the sources for the electromagnetic
field.
13

Constitutive relations
The flux densities (arise in response to E and H propagating
inside the medium) are related to the field vectors by the
constitutive relations
D(r, t) = oE(r, t) + P(r, t)
B(r, t) = oH(r, t) + 0M(r, t)
where o = 8.854 10-12 F m-1 (1/36) 10-9 F m-1 is the
electric permittivity of free space, o = 4 10-7 H m-1 is the
magnetic permeability of free space,
polarization (electric polarization)
magnetization (magnetic polarization)

P(r, t) C m-2
M(r, t) A m-1

For nonmagnetic materials such as silica glass, M = 0, and

thus B = 0H.

14

Electric susceptibility
The relation between E and P is through the electric
susceptibility function e.
P(r, t) = 0e(k, ) E(r, t)
D = o (1+ e(k, )) E(r, t) = 0 r(k, ) E(r, t) = (k, ) E(r, t)
where the dielectric constant (relative permittivity) r is
defined as 1+e, and the permittivity of the medium = r 0.
For isotropic medium, e and r are scalars so that E // P and
D // E. (E = (1/) D = 0 in free space)
In general, e and r are second-rank tensors (expressed in 33
matrices), in which case the medium they describe is
anisotropic. (E not // P, D not // E, in general E 0)
15

 The four field vectors are related by the relations:

D = E
B = H
where is the dielectric permittivity and is the magnetic
permeability of the medium
= 0 r
= 0 r
where r and r are the relative permeability and relative
permittivity for the dielectric medium, and 0 and 0 are
the permeability and permittivity of free space
(for non-magnetic materials, r = 1)
16

Maxwell equations in a medium with no sources

The basis for the study of electromagnetic wave
propagation is provided by Maxwell equations.
For a medium with zero conductivity these vector
relationships may be written in terms of the electric field
E, magnetic intensity H, electric flux density D and
magnetic flux density B as the curl equations and the
divergence conditions:

Curl equations

E = -B/t
H = D/t

Divergence equations

D = 0

(no free charges)

B = 0

(no free poles)

17

Wave equations
Maxwell equations can be used to obtain the wave
equations that describe light propagation.
( E) = - 2E/t2
( H) = - 2H/t2
Using the vector identity ( ) ( ) - 2( )
For homogeneous (source free), isotropic media, E = (1/) D = 0
We obtain the wave equations:
2E = 2E/t2

and

2H = 2H/t2

18

Scalar wave equations

For rectangular Cartesian and cylindrical polar
coordinates the above wave equations hold for each
component of the field vector, every component
satisfying the scalar wave equation:
2 = 2/t2
where may represent a component of the E or H field
If planar waveguides, described by rectangular Cartesian
coordinates (x, y, z), or circular fibers, described by
cylindrical polar coordinates (r, , z), are considered,
then the Laplacian operator takes the form:
2 = 2/x2 + 2/y2 + 2/z2
or

2 = 2/r2 + (1/r) /r + (1/r2) 2/2 + 2/z219

Uniform plane waves as a basic solution

The basic solution of the wave equation is a harmonic wave.
The most important form of which is a uniform plane wave:
= o exp i(k r t)
where is the angular frequency of the field, t is the time,
k is the propagation vector which gives the direction of
propagation and the rate of change of phase with distance, the
components of r specify the coordinate point at which the field is
observed
is the optical wavelength in a vacuum. The magnitude of the
propagation vector or the vacuum phase propagation constant k
(where k = |k|) is given by k = 2/
(k is also known as the free space wave number)

20

To see the plane wave as a solution to the wave equation:

Consider a plane wave propagating in free space in the z direction,
E = Eo exp i(kz - t)
1-D wave equation

2E/z2 = 2E/t2 = 00 2E/t2

k2 E = 00 2 E
k2/2 = 00

k2/2 = (2/)2 / (2)2 = 1/()2 = 1/c2 = 00

21

Phase velocity in free space

It is known that o = 8.854 x 10-12 F m-1 (1/36) 10-9 F m-1
is the electric permittivity of free space, o = 4 10-7 H m-1 is
the magnetic permeability of free space,
(0 0)-1/2 = (4 10-7 (1/36) 10-9)-1/2 = 3 108 (FHm-2)-1/2
[F = C/V = A s/V; H = Wb/A = V s/A; FH = s2]
Maxwell realized that light is an electromagnetic wave from the fact
that the phase velocity derived from the wave equation agrees with the
measured speed of light.
22

Phase velocity in dielectric media

vp = 1/(0) = 1 /(00r)
The velocity of light in a dielectric medium is therefore
vp = c /r
where we used the relation 00 = 1/c2 and c is the speed of light.
vp = c / n
n = r
The refractive index n is rooted in the material relative
permittivity.

23

Transverse waves
For plane waves in a non-conducting isotropic medium the Maxwell
equations take the following forms
H

k E = H
k H = - E
kE=0
kH=0

E
k

The three vectors k, E, and H constitute a mutually orthogonal triad.

24

Vector Helmholtz equations

Using the operator form /t = -i, we find that the wave
equations become
2E + k2E = 0
2H + k2H = 0
where k = (0) is the wavenumber, having units of m-1.
These two equations are known as the vector Helmholtz
equations.
They form the starting point for the analysis of all types of
waveguides that are constructed from linear, homogeneous,
and isotropic materials.
25

Energy flow and the Poynting vector

Poyntings theorem states that the time rate of flow of
electromagnetic energy per unit area (or optical power per unit area)
is given by the vector S, called the Poynting vector,
S=EH
This vector specifies both the direction and the magnitude of the energy
flux. (watts per square meter)
Consider the case of plane harmonic waves in which the fields are
given by the real expressions
E = Eo cos (k r - t)
H = Ho cos (k r - t)

26

 For the instantaneous value of the Poynting vector

S = Eo Ho cos2 (k r - t)
As the average value of the cosine squared is , then for the
average value of the Poynting vector
<S> = Eo Ho
*if the complex exponential form of the wave function for E and H
is used, the average Poynting flux can be expressed as Eo Ho*
As the wavevector k is perpendicular to both E and H, k has the
same direction as the Poynting vector S.
27

Relationships among the directions of E, D, H, B, k,

and S in free space or in simple media
H // B

E // D
k // S
In isotropic media the direction of the energy flow is specified
by the direction of S and is the same as the direction of the
wavevector k. (In anisotropic media (e.g. in certain crystals and
semiconductors) S and k are not always in the same direction.) 28

Intrinsic impedance (0/)

The electric and magnetic field amplitudes are related by the
intrinsic impedance Z = (0/). (in units of )
In free space, it becomes Zo = (0/0) 120 377 . We
can express Z = Z0/n.
Consider a uniform plane wave that propagates in the +z
direction. Suppose the polarization is along x, so that its
phasor form is E = axE = ax E0 exp(-ikz), where ax is a unit
vector along x. Apply the curl E equation
x E = (E/z) ay = -ikE ay = -i0H
H = H0 exp(-ikz) ay, where E0/H0 = 0/k = (0/) Z.
29

 An alternative expression for the average Poynting flux is

<S> = I k/k
unit vector in the
magnitude of the
average Poynting flux direction of propagation
I is called the irradiance or intensity, given by
I = EoHo = (n/2Zo) |Eo|2 |Eo|2
[W/cm2] = [V2/(cm2)] = [1/] [V/cm]2
Thus the rate of flow of energy is proportional to the square of the
amplitude of the electric field. Z0 is the intrinsic impedance of free
space in units of .
30

Reflection and refraction

We now review the phenomena of reflection and refraction of light
from the standpoint of electromagnetic theory.
Consider a plane harmonic wave incident upon a plane boundary
separating two different optical media.

ki
incident

kr
i r reflected
t transmitted
kt

*The space-time dependence of these

three waves, aside from constant
amplitude factors, is given by
exp i(kir t)
exp i(krr t)
exp i(ktr t)

incident
reflected
transmitted
31

 The condition that

ki r = kr r = kt r

is required at the interface for the boundary conditions to be satisfied

at all points along the interface at all times.
This implies that the three wavevectors lie in the same plane known
as the plane of incidence.
The projections of these three wavevectors on the interface are all
equal so that
ki sin i = kr sin r = kt sin t
where i is the angle of incidence, r is the angle of reflection and
t is the angle of refraction.
32

 Because ki = kr and ki/kt = n1/n2

i = r

(Law of reflection)

n1 sin i = n2 sin t

(Snells law)

Boundary conditions
Medium 1
Medium 2

n H1
n H2

B1n

D1n

B2n

D2n

n E1

n E2

Because B = oH for optical fields, the tangential component of B and the

normal component of H are also continuous. All of the magnetic field
components in an optical field are continuous across a boundary. Possible
discontinuities in an optical field exist only in the normal component of E or the
33
tangential component of D.

TE polarization (s-wave)
The electric field is linearly polarized in a direction perpendicular
to the plane of incidence, while the magnetic field is polarized parallel to
the plane of incidence. This is called the transverse electric (TE)
polarization. This wave is also called s-polarized.
n
Hi

ki
n1
n2

x
Ei

Hr
i

x
Er

kr

x
Et

Ht
kt

34

 The reflection coefficient, r, and the transmission coefficient, t,

of the TE electric field are given by the following Fresnel equations:
rs Er/Ei =

ts Et/Ei =

n1 cos i n2 cos t
n1 cos i + n2 cos t
2n1 cos i
n1 cos i + n2 cos t

n1 cos i - (n22 n12 sin2i)1/2

n1 cos i + (n22 n12 sin2i)1/2
2n1 cos i
n1 cos i + (n22 n12 sin2i)1/2

The intensity reflectance and transmittance, R and T, which are also

known as reflectivity and transmissivity, are given by
Rs Ir/Ii =

n1 cos i n2 cos t 2
n1 cos i + n2 cos t

Ts It/Ii = 1 - Rs

35

TM polarization (p-wave)
The electric field is linearly polarized in a direction parallel to the
plane of incidence while the magnetic field is polarized perpendicular
to the plane of incidence. This is called the transverse magnetic (TM)
polarization. This wave is also called p-polarized.
n
Ei

ki
n1

Hi

Er
i

kr

Hr

n2
t
Ht

Et

kt

36

 The reflection coefficient, r, and the transmission coefficient, t,

of the TM electric field are given by the following Fresnel equations:
rp Er/Ei =

tp Et/Ei =

-n2 cos i + n1 cos t

n2 cos i + n1 cos t
2n1 cos i
n2 cos i + n1 cos t

-n22 cos i + n1(n22 n12 sin2i)1/2

n22 cos i + n1(n22 n12 sin2i)1/2

2n1n2 cos i
n22 cos i + n1(n22 n12 sin2i)1/2

The intensity reflectance and transmittance for TM polarization are

given by
Rp Ir/Ii =

-n2 cos i + n1 cos t 2

n2 cos i + n1 cos t

Tp It/Ii = 1 - Rp

37

Total Internal Reflection

For i > c

sin i > n2/n1

|rs| =

|rp| =

n1 cos i - i (n12 sin2i - n22)1/2

n1 cos i + i (n12 sin2i - n22)1/2

-n22 cos i + i n1(n12 sin2i n22)1/2

2

n2 cos i + i

n1(n1 sin2i

n2

2)1/2

=1

=1

38

total internal reflection

for > c

n1 = 1.5 (internal
n2 = 1.0 reflection)
B ~ 34o (Brewster angle)
c ~ 42o

Rp

Rs
B

c
39

Phase changes in total internal reflection

In the case of total internal reflection the complex values for the
coefficients of reflection, given by the Fresnel coefficients rs and rp,
imply that there is a change of phase which is a function of the angle
of incidence.
As the absolute values of rs and rp are both unity, we can write
rs = ae-i / aei = exp is

rp = -be-i / bei = -exp -ip
where s and p are the phase changes for the TE and TM cases, and
the complex numbers ae-i and be-i represent the numerators in
rs and rp. Their complex conjugates appear in the denominators.
40

2
2
2 1/2
ae-i = n1 cos i - i (n1 sin i - n2 )

be-i

2 cos - i n (n 2 sin2 n 2)1/2

n
i
1 1
i
2
= 2

We see that s = 2 and p = 2. Accordingly, tan = tan (s/2) and

tan = tan (p/2).
We therefore find the following expressions for the phase changes that
occur in internal reflection:
tan (s/2) = (n12 sin2i - n22)1/2 / (n1 cos i)
tan (p/2) = n1(n12 sin2i n22)1/2 / (n22 cos i)
41

Phase change (radian)

Total internal reflection phase shifts

n1 = 1.5, n2 = 1
p
s

Angle of incidence
Useful for our discussion on the phase-matching condition of
42
waveguide modes

Evanescent wave
In spite of the fact that the incident energy is totally reflected when
the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle, there is still an
electromagnetic wave field in the region beyond the boundary. This
field is known as the evanescent wave.
Its existence can be understood by consideration of the wave
function of the electric field of the transmitted wave:
Et = Et exp i (kt r t)
Choose the coordinate axis such that the plane of incidence is on the xy
plane and the boundary is at y = 0.
43

exp (-y) exp i((ki sin i)x t)

y wavefronts

/(n1sin i)
vp = /(ki sini)

n2

n1

/n1

Ei

i > c

kt r = kt x sin t + kt y cos t

Er

total
internal
reflection

= kt x (n1/n2) sin i + kt y (1 (n1/n2)2 sin2 i)1/2

= ki x sin i + i kt y ((n12sin2i/n22) 1)1/2
44

 The wave function for the electric field of the evanescent wave is
Eevan = Et exp (-y) exp i ((ki sin i)x - t)
where

= kt ((n12sin2i/n22) 1)1/2

The factor exp (-y) shows that the evanescent wave amplitude drops
off very rapidly in the rarer medium as a function of distance from the
boundary.
The oscillatory term exp i ((ki sin i) x - t) indicates that the
evanescent wave can be described in terms of surfaces of constant phase
moving parallel to the boundary with phase velocity /(ki sin i).
The evanescent field stores energy and transports it in the direction of
surface propagation, but does not transport energy in the transverse
direction. Therefore, evanescent wave is also known as surface wave.
45

Evanescent wave amplitude normal to the

interface drops exponentially
e-y
y
n2=1
= 600 nm

i n1=1.5
i= 42o c

1/e
i= 60o

i= 44o

Position y (nm)
46