Groundwater Essentials

National Water Commission | Groundwater Essentials

CommonwealthofAustralia2012
Thisworkiscopyright.TheCopyrightAct1968permitsfair

dealingforstudy,research,newsreporting,criticismorreview.
Selectedpassages,tablesordiagramsmaybereproducedfor
suchpurposesprovidedacknowledgementofthesourceis
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writtenpermissionfromtheNationalWaterCommission.Requests
andenquiriesconcerningreproductionandrightsshouldbe
addressedto:
CommunicationDirectorNationalWaterCommission
95NorthbourneAvenueCanberraACT2600
oremailbookshop@nwc.gov.au
ISBN9781921853289
Groundwater Essentials March2012
PublishedbytheNationalWaterCommission
95NorthbourneAvenue
CanberraACT2600
Tel:0261026000
Email:enquiries@nwc.gov.au

Dateofpublication:March2012
DesignbyArup
PrintedonImpact100%Recycled(FSCRecycled100%)
PrintedbyFinsbury

FrontcoverphotocourtesyofCSIRO
Anappropriatecitationforthispublicationis:
NationalWaterCommission2012,
Groundwater Essentials, NWC,Canberra

About the National Water

Commission
TheNationalWaterCommissionisresponsible
fordrivingprogresstowardsthesustainable
managementanduseofAustraliaswater
resourcesunderourblueprintforwater
reformtheNationalWaterInitiative(NWI).
EstablishedundertheNational Water Commission
Act 2004,theCommissionadvisestheCouncil
ofAustralianGovernmentsandtheAustralian
Governmentonnationalwaterissuesandthe
progressoftheNWI.
TheCommissionassistsgovernmentsin
implementingtheNWIandadministersthe
AustralianGovernments$250millionRaising
NationalWaterStandardsProgram.

Acknowledgments
TheCommissionacknowledgestheassistanceof
ArupPtyLtd,whichhasdevelopedthisbookleton
behalfoftheCommission.

Foreword
Groundwatermakesupabout17percentof
Australiascurrentlyaccessiblewaterresources
andupto30percentofourwaterconsumptionin
particularregions.However,thisvaluableresource
isneitherunderstoodnormanagedaswellasit
needstobeifitistobesustained.

James Cameron
ChiefExecutiveOfficer
NationalWaterCommission
March2012

Continuingwaterscarcityandclimatechange
areplacingpressureonAustraliasgroundwater
reservesandthesecurityofsupply.These

hiddenreservesareincreasinglybeingtappedto
supplementsurfacewatersupplies.Infact,much
ofourgroundwaterisconnectedtosurfacewater,
withconsequentimpactsonstreamflows,aquifer
recharge,groundwaterdependentecosystems,
andwaterquality.

ThroughtheNationalGroundwaterActionPlan,
theCommissionhasfundedprojectsthataddress
groundwaterknowledgegapsandreformsagreed
undertheNationalWaterInitiative(NWI).
Thisbookletwillprovidegroundwateruserswith
informationtohelpthemunderstandandmanage
groundwaterresourcestothebestoftheirability.
Thebookletexplainsgroundwatersplaceinthe
hydrologicalcycle,itsimportancetothecountry,its
varioususes,surface/groundwaterconnectivityand
riskstogroundwaterresources.

Groundwaterqualityalsorequirescareful
management.Risksincludeuncontrolledurbanand
industrialdischarges,thecrosscontaminationof
aquifers,andseawaterintrusionintoheavilyused
coastalaquifers.

II

MoundSpringsintheGreatArtesianBasin,SA.
PhotocourtesyofGABCC.

Contents
Foreword

II

What is groundwater?

Why is groundwater so important?

Groundwater in the water cycle

Understanding groundwater: key concepts

Extraction and use of groundwater by humans

20

Key challenges to the sustainable management of groundwater

27

Groundwater management in Australia

35

Emerging challenges and opportunities: the future of groundwater

40

Glossary

44

Where to go for more information

47

IV

What is groundwater?

1
A
B

D
1

Whatisgroundwater?
What is groundwater?
1. Waterseepagenotgroundwater
2. Poresfilledwithairandwaternot
groundwater
3. Watertableboundary
4. Poresfilledwithwatergroundwater

Groundwateriswaterlocatedinthesaturatedzone
belowtheearthssurface.
Althoughitisanintegralpartoftheglobalwater
cycle,manypeopleimaginegroundwaterrefers
onlytolakesorriversinundergroundcaverns.
Groundwaterisactuallysurfacewaterthathas
migratedfromthesurfacethroughthegroundand
becomestoredinporoussoilsandrocks.

Typically,thewatersitsintinypores,spaces
betweenthesmallestsoilorrockparticles,or
narrowcracksintherockitself.Onlyinexceptional
casesdoeswatergetstoredinopeningsthatare
manymetresacross.
Groundwatercomesfromtwoprimarysources.
Whenitrains,waterinfiltratesthesoiluntilit
reachesthewatertableinanaquifer.
Aquiferscanalsogainwaterfromriversand
streamsdrainingintotheground.

A. Unsaturatedzone
B. Watertable
C. Saturatedzone(groundwater)
D. Impermeablelayer

Keypoint
Rocksandsoilsthatholdandtransmitusable
quantitiesofwaterarecalledaquifers.The
topofthesaturatedportionofgroundis
knownasthewatertable.

Keypoint
Itiscrucialtoappreciatethebalance
betweeninputsandoutputsfrom
groundwaterandwaterqualitytoachieve
sustainableuse.
Thestudyofthedistributionandmovement
ofgroundwateriscalledhydrogeology.

Whyisgroundwatersoimportant?
Groundwaterisavitalsourceofwaterthroughout
Australiaandtheworld.
Itisestimatedtomakeup98percentofthe

earthsavailablefreshwater.Putanotherway,
groundwateris60timesasplentifulas
freshwaterfoundinalloftheearthslakes
andstreamscombined.
Groundwaterisavailableforusethroughoutlarge
partsofAustralia.Inmanyareasandoutback
communities,particularlyinsemiaridandarid
zones,itistheonlyreliablesourceofwater.Many
Indigenouscommunities,miningoperationsand
remotepastoralpropertiesrelysolelyonitfortheir
watersupply.
Groundwaterisafiniteresource.Itisreplenished
onlywhensurfacewaterseepsintoaquifers(see
page8foradescriptionofthetypesofaquifer).
Thisprocessofaquiferreplenishmentiscalled
recharge.Aquifersbecomedepletedifgroundwater

extractionratesexceedrechargerates.

Aquiferdepletionaffectscommunities,agriculture
andtheindustriesthatrelyongroundwater
supplies.Depletedgroundwaterreservescanalso
affecttheenvironmentforexample,byreducing
riverflowsthatdependonflowsfromshallow
groundwater,orbydryingoutecosystemssuchas
somewetlandsthatdependongroundwaterinputs
tomaintainwaterlevels,knownasgroundwater
dependentecosystems.

Didyouknow?
Groundwatermakesupabout17percentof

Australiasaccessiblewaterresourcesand
mayaccountforupto30percentoftotal

waterconsumptioninparticularregions.

Likeriversandsurfacewater,aquifersand
groundwatercanbecomepolluted.Thisaffects

communitiesorbusinessesthatrelyoncleanwater
supplies.Also,manyenvironmentshaveevolved

totolerateveryspecificwaterchemistry,and
changingthechemicalmakeupofgroundwater
couldcauseanentirespeciestodieoutata
locallevel.
Itisthereforeimportanttominimiseoravoid
activitiesthatmayimpairthequalityand
quantityofgroundwateravailabletohumans
andtheenvironment.

LeftAugmenteduseofgroundwaterandsurfacewater
PhotocourtesyofNWC
4

The water cycle

1
8
2

B
C
5

Groundwaterinthewatercycle
The water cycle
1. Precipitation
2. Infiltration/recharge
3. Watertable
4. Runoff
5. Groundwaterdischarge
6. Groundwaterflow
7. Evaporation
8. Transpiration
A. Unconfinedaquifer
B. Impermeablelayer
C. Confinedaquifer

Thewatercycle,orhydrologicalcycle,describes
theendlesscirculationofwaterbetweenocean,
atmosphereandland.Itisavast,complexprocess
drivenbythesunsenergy.
Becauseitcantbeseen,groundwaterisoften
forgotten.Butitisanimportantandproportionately
largepartofthelandbasedcomponentofthe
hydrologicalcycle.
Inthecycle,precipitation(rain,sleetorsnow)
fallsonthegroundandiseitherinterceptedby
plantsandtranspiredorbecomesoverlandflow
contributingtothesurfacewaternetwork,or
infiltratestheground.
Whensurfacewaterpercolatesslowlydown
throughsoilandrock,iteventuallyreachesa
layerthatitcannotpassthrough,whereitslowly
accumulatesandsaturatesthegroundabovethis
layer.Thetopofthesaturatedzoneisknown

asthewatertable.

Keypoint
Groundwaterformsalongtermstorage
componentofthewatercycle,withsome
groundwaterremaininginrocksformillions
ofyearsbeforeitnaturallydischargesoris
abstracted.

Didyouknow?
Groundwaterqualitycanvaryconsiderably
fromplacetoplace.Laboratoryanalysiscan
revealchemicalcluesthatmaybeusedto
tracethesourceofwaterthatenteredthe
ground,thegeologicalmaterialthroughwhich
thewaterpassed,andthetimeittooktodoso.

Groundwaterusuallyflowsthroughtinyporesand
jointsinsaturatedrocktowardsnaturaldischarge
pointssuchassprings,wherethewatertable
intersectsthegroundsurface.Groundwaterwill
alsodischargewherethewatertableintersects
waterbodiessuchasstreams,riversorseas.
6

What is an aquifer

4
6

A
B
C
2

Understandinggroundwater:keyconcepts
What is an aquifer

What is an aquifer?

1. Recharge

Anaquiferisanundergroundgeologicalformation
whichtransmitsandcontainsappreciable
quantitiesofgroundwater.

2. Confiningbed
3. Artesianborehole
4. Artesianboreholeflowing
5. Watertable
6. Piezometricsurface
7. Unconfinedaquiferwell
A. Unconfinedaquifer
B. Impermeablelayer
C. Confinedaquifer

Waterinthegroundtravelsslowlythroughpores
orfractures,dependingonthetypeofsedimentor
rockmaterialtheaquiferismadeof.
Aquiferscanvarymarkedlyinthequalityand
quantityofwatertheyholdandtheextentof
theirconnectivitywithotheraquifersorsurface
waterbodies.
Therearetwomaintypesofaquifers:unconfined
andconfined.

Unconfined aquifers

Didyouknow?
Unconfinedaquiferscontributeabout60per

centofgroundwaterextractioninAustralia.
AgoodexampleisPerthsGnangaraMound,
whichsupplies70percentofthecityswater

(seecasestudypage37).

Unconfinedaquifersarecharacterisedbythe
absenceofalowpermeability(confining)layer
abovethem.Theirwatertablesaretypicallycloseto

thesurfaceandroughlyfollowthechangesinthe
landsurface(topography).

Inlowlyingareas,groundwaterfromthese
aquifersisoftenreleasedasnaturalsprings,
streamsandwetlands.

Confined aquifers
Confinedaquifersarepermeablerockunitsdeep
underthegroundandoverlainbylesspermeable
layers.Replenishmentoccursinareasknownas
rechargezoneswheretheaquiferisunconfined
andwhichmaybealongdistancefromthe
confinedportionoftheaquifer.
Pressurefromtherechargezonescreateshigh
waterpressureintheaquiferbeneaththeconfining
layer.Sometimesthepressureissogreatthat,
wherethereisabreakintheconfininglayer,water
willnaturallyriseandbubbletothesurfacewithout
theneedofapump.Thisiscalledartesianflow.

Thewatertableinaconfinedaquiferiscalledthe
piezometricsurfaceanddoesnotnecessarily
followthelandsurface

Theseaquifersareanimportantsourceof
groundwaterinAustraliabecauseoftheirrelative
shallownessandhenceeaseofaccess.
8

National Water Commission | Groundwater Essentials

Other types of aquifers

Aquiferscanbefurthercategorisedbytheir
physicalpropertiesasunconsolidated,
sedimentaryandfracturedrock.

Different types of aquifers

2. F racturedrockaquifer
(fracturesingranite)

Unconsolidated aquifers
Unconsolidated,orsurficialaquifers,consistof

mixturesofclays,silts,sandsandgravels.Theyare
formedbythedepositionoferodedmaterialand
foundinrivervalleys,deltasandbasins,aswellas
inlakeandwindformedenvironments.

1. Unconsolidatedaquifer
(wellsortedsand)

3. S edimentaryrockaquifer
(cavernsinlimestone)

Theseaquifersarecommonlyusedbecause
theyareclosetothegroundssurfaceandeasily

accessed.Theyareamajorsourceofpotable
groundwaterinAustralia.

Didyouknow?
TheGreatArtesianBasin(GAB)ofcentral
Australiaisanexampleofaconfinedaquifer.

TheGABstoresanestimated64900million

megalitres(ML)ofwaterenoughtofill
SydneyHarbour130000times.TheBasin

containswaterthatseepedintothegroundup
to2millionyearsago.

TheGABcovers22percentofthecontinent,

includingpartsofQueensland,NewSouth
Wales,theNorthernTerritoryandSouth
Australia.

Fractured rock aquifers

Sedimentary rock aquifers

Theseaquifersoccurinigneous(e.g.basaltor
granite)andmetamorphosed(e.g.marble)hard
rocksthathavebeensubjectedtodisturbance,
deformation,orweathering.Watermaymove

throughandbestoredinthejoints,beddingplains,
faultsandzonesofweatheringpresentinthe
rockformations.

Sedimentaryaquifersoccurinolder,consolidated
sedimentsthathaveformedintorocks,including
poroussandstonesandotherfracturedor
weatheredconglomeraterockformations.

Theseaquifersarefoundoverwideareas,butthey
storefarlessgroundwaterpercubicmetrethan
otheraquifers.Yieldsfromthemaredifficultto

predictandarefrequentlylow.

Watermaymovethroughandbestoredinthetiny
spacesbetweenunconsolidatedparticles,orin
joints,beddingplanesandzonesofweathering.
Theseaquifersareoftenfoundinlarge,continuous
sedimentarybasinsthatrangefromtensto
hundredsofmetresthick.
Becauseoftheirsizeandporosity,theycontain
thelargestoverallquantityofgroundwaterofall
otheraquifertypes,althoughtheirwatermay
beofpoorerqualityanddifficulttoaccessdue
toitsrelativedepth.Theyarelesssusceptible
tovariationsinrainfall(drought)andimpactsof
surfacewaterpollution.

Keyconcept:Fossilwater
Fossilwaterformswhereaquifershavebeen
essentiallycutofffromrechargeforthousands
orevenmillionsofyears.Insomecases,
rechargeratesaresoslowtheyaremeasured
ingeologicaltime.
Fossilwatercanbeabstractedandexploited
but,unlikeothergroundwater,itisnot
replenished.Itsusagecanbecomparedto
thatofanyothernonrenewablemineral
resourcesuchasoil,coalorcopper.Thatis
whyabstractionoffossilwaterisreferredto
asgroundwatermining.
Theuseoffossilgroundwater,however,is
increasinginsomeofAustraliasaridareas.

Despitetheirlimitations,theyprovideclean
waterandareofcriticalimportanceovermuch
ofinlandAustralia.

10

National Water Commission | Groundwater Essentials

Groundwater recharge

3
2

A
B
C

11

Groundwater recharge

Groundwater recharge

1. Precipitation

Rechargeisthereplenishmentofwatertoa
groundwatersystemfromthegroundsurface.
Itcanoccurnaturallyorartificially.

2. Watertable
3. Stream/river
4. Managedaquiferrechargewell
A. Unconfinedaquifer
B. Impermeablelayer
C. Confinedaquifer

Infiltrationofrainfallbeneaththelandsurfaceand
itsmovementtothewatertableisawidespread
formofnaturalrecharge.
Aquiferscanalsoberechargedfromsurfacewater
infiltratingthegroundfromwaterbodiessuchas
rivers,creeks,damsandwetlands.

Keypoint
Managersneedtoknowrechargevolumes
andtherateatwhichwateristransmitted
throughtheaquifertoavoidoverextraction.
Eveniftheamountofgroundwaterbeing
pumpedfromanaquiferislessthanits
recharge,localisedimpactsmayoccurif
pumpingexceedstherateatwhichwater
canbetransmittedthroughtheaquiferfrom
rechargeareas.

Itispossibletoartificiallyrechargeanaquiferfor
subsequentrecoveryorenvironmentalbenefit.
Thisisoftenreferredtoasmanagedaquifer
recharge(MAR)oraquiferstorageandrecovery
(ASR).Inurbanareas,MARcanbeusedtostore
desalinatedseawater,recycledwater,stormwater
andevenmainswater,reducingtransportation
costsandwaterlosttoevaporation.Seepage40
foranexampleofanAustralianASRproject.

12

Groundwater discharge

3
1

2
4

A
13

Groundwater discharge

Groundwater discharge

Groundwatersurface water connectivity

1. Pumpingwell

Dischargeistheprocessbywhichwaterleaves
anaquifer.Forunconfinedaquifers,groundwater
generallyflowsfromrechargeareasonhigher
groundtolowlyingdischargeareas.

Althoughitisnotalwaysapparent,manyrivers,
dams,lakesandwetlandsaredirectlyorindirectly
connectedwithgroundwaterinaquifers.

Groundwatercandischargefromanaquiferin
anumberofways.Wheretheflowfromanaquifer

isslowandspreadoveralargearea,itdischarges
byseepage;whereitislocalisedandrapid,it
dischargesthroughaspring.Groundwatercan
dischargedirectlyintostreams,rivers,lakes
andwetlandswheretheyintersectthe
groundwatertable.

+groundwa

terthatdischargesandbecomesbase
flowofstreamsandrivers

2. Stream/river
3. Watertable
4. Spring
A. Aquifer
B. Impermeablerock

Keypoint
Aspartofintegratedwaterresource
management,itisimportanttoplanforand
managesurfacewaterandgroundwater
systemsasoneconnectedentity.

Arivermayreceivewaterfromanaquiferthrough
itsbedaprocessthatmaynotbevisible.
Dischargestoriversaccountformostoftheflow
fromaquifers.Indrought,groundwatermaintains
surfacewatersuppliesforhumanuse.
Groundwaterisintricatelyconnectedwithsurface
waterthroughrechargeanddischargeand
commonlyaffectsthevolumeandqualityofrivers,
lakesandwetlands.Whenaquifersexceedtheir

storagecapacity,excesswaterflowstosurface
waterbodies.

Examplesoftheseconnectionsinclude:

+streamsandriverstha

tinfiltratethegroundand
rechargeaquifers
+groundwa

terextractionthatreduces
groundwaterdischargetostreamsandrivers,
possiblymanykilometresaway.

Managing connected systems

Historically,groundwaterandsurfacewater
systemshavebeenmanagedseparatelyin
Australia.Thishascontributedtooverallocation
ofwaterresourcesinsomeareas.
Theimpactsofgroundwaterextractiononstream
flowscanbeveryrapidinsomesystemsbutmay
takedecadesinothers.Inthesecases,historical
overuseofgroundwaterwillcausesurfacestream
flowstocontinuedecliningformanyyears,even
aftergroundwaterextractionshavebeenreduced.
14

3
15

Groundwater surface water connectivity

1. Watertable
2. Rechargemound
3. Groundwater

A. Losingstream
B. Gainingstream

Keypoint
Managingconnectedsystemsiscomplex,
asitcantakesometimefortheeffectsof
managementchangesinoneareatobecome
evidentinanother.

Groundwaterdependent
ecosystems
ManyecosystemsinAustraliarelyongroundwater
tosurvive.
Somearecompletelygroundwaterdependent,
whileothersrelyongroundwaterforpartofthe
time,suchasduringthedryseasoninnorthern
Australia.Groundwatercanalsoprovidebaseflows
toriversandcreeksonwhichecosystemsdepend.
Thewaterregimesandwaterqualityof
groundwaterdependentecosystemsarechanging
becauseofcompetinghumanuseandotherland
managementfactors.Humaninducedchangesin
groundwaterregimescanposeasignificantthreat
togroundwaterdependentecosystems,unless
actionistakentomaintainadequate
groundwaterdischarge.

AboveMoundSpringsintheGreatArtesianBasin,SA.
PhotocourtesyofGABCC.

16

17

Types of groundwaterdependent
ecosystems
InAustralia,groundwaterdependentecosystems
canbedividedintothefollowingcategories:
+terrestrialvegetationthatreliesonshallow
groundwater
+groundwaterfedwetlandssuchaspaperbark
swampforestsandmoundspringsecosystems
+riverbaseflowthatreliesongroundwater
dischargefromaquifers
+aquiferandcaveecosystemswherelifeexists
independentofsunlight
+terrestrialfauna,bothnativeandintroduced,that
relyongroundwaterdischargefordrinkingwater
(e.g.naturalsprings)
+estuarineandnearshoremarinesystems,such
assomecoastalmangroves,saltmarshesand
seagrassbeds,whichrelyonthesubmarine
dischargeofgroundwater.

Case study: Karst environments in

Tasmania

Case study: Mound springs in the Great

Artesian Basin

Karstformationsareshapedbythedissolution
ofcarbonatebedrocks(usuallylimestone,
dolomiteormarble).Thisgeologicalprocess

occursovermanythousandsofyearsand
resultsinunusualsurfaceandsubsurface
features,includingsinkholes,verticalshafts,
disappearingstreams,largespringsand
complexundergroundcavesystems.

TheGreatArtesianBasinisthesourceofmany
artesiansprings,someofwhichformmound
springsthatsustaingroundwaterdependent
ecosystems.

Aquaticecosystemsinkarsticcave
environmentssupportspecialisedfaunathat
areoftendistinctfromthatofsurfacewaters.
Speciesthatlivesolelyintheseenvironments
havedevelopedcuriousfeatures,includingthe
degenerationorlossofeyesandbodypigment,
elongatedantennaeandlegs,andenhanced
sensorystructures.

Themoundspringsprovidehabitatforawide
rangeofspecies,includingfish,invertebrates
andaquaticplants,andareuniquetotheBasin.

Keypoint
Changesingroundwaterquantityand
qualitycanseverelyaffectgroundwater
dependentecosystems,someofwhichmay
haveevolvedtotolerateveryspecificwater
conditions.Thechangescanleadtochanges
inthecompetitiveadvantagethatallows
otherspeciestoinhabitanecosystem,atthe
costoflosingthelocalspecies.

LeftSpoonbillsinnorthernAustralia
PhotocourtesyofNWC
18

19

Extractionanduseofgroundwaterbyhumans

National

Humanshaveextractedgroundwaterforcenturies,
anditcontinuestoprovidetheprimarywater
supplyformanysettlementsaroundtheworld.

Agricultural
ThroughoutAustralia,groundwaterisusedto
irrigatecropsandpasture,providewaterforstock
andincreaseagriculturalproductivity.

Urban and domestic

GroundwaterisWesternAustraliasmost
importantsourceofwater,providingtwothirds
ofthestateswaterneeds.

Groundwaterprovidesreliabletownwatertomany
communities,particularlythoseinruralandremote
areas.Individualurbanhouseholdsandcommunity
facilitiesmayalsousegroundwaterforirrigation.

Itisamajorsourceofschemewatersupplies
andprivatelydrawnsuppliesforagriculture,
industryandpastoraluse,andisalsotappedby
householdboresforwateringgardens.

Keypoint
Withoutaccesstocleanandreliable
groundwater,manypartsoftheworld,
includingpartsofAustralia,wouldbe
uninhabitable.

Groundwater use in Australia

Industry and mining

Australiasrelianceongroundwatersupplieshas
increasedinrecentdecadesbecauseofgrowing
competitionforsurfacewaterresourcescombined
withfrequentperiodsofdrought,whichrapidly
depletesurfacewatersupplies.

Manylargescaleminingprojectsandmuchofthe
petroleumproductionindustryacrossthearidzone
arewhollydependentongroundwater.

Waterfortowns,industryandagriculturecanbe
sourcedfrombothsurfacewaterandgroundwater.
Insomeareas,surfacewateristheprimary
resource,andwateruserswillrelyongroundwater
onlywhensurfacewateristemporarilyunavailable.
Insomeregionalareasandmajorcities,particularly
inaridandsemiaridAustralia,groundwateristhe
onlyreliablesourceoffreshwater.

Case study: Groundwater use in

Western Australia

Keypoint
WithAustraliafacingafutureofcontinued
climatevariabilityandincreasedpopulation
growth,groundwateruseislikelytoincrease.

Case study: Charlevilles water supply

Charleville,aruraltown660kmwestof
Brisbane,insouthcentralQueensland,often
experienceslongperiodsoflowrainfall.
DespiteitsproximitytotheWarregoRiver,
Charlevillehasbeendependentongroundwater
foritswatersupplysincethe1880s.

LeftBlueLake,whichservesasthewatersupplyforMount
Gambier,isfedalmostentirelyfromalimestoneaquifer.
PhotocourtesyofCSIRO
20

Extraction and use of groundwater

9

10
11

A
B
C

8
5

12

13

15

16

21

14

National Water Commission | Groundwater Essentials

Extraction and use of groundwater

1. Watertable

A. Unsaturatedzone

2. Groundwaterdependentecosystem(GDE)

B. Saturatedzone

3. Diversioncanal

C. Impermeablelayer

4. Irrigatedagriculture
5. Agriculturalsupplywell
6. River
7. Urbanuse
8. Urbansupplywell
9. Spring
10. Runoff
11. Stream
12. Mine
13. Miningwaterextraction
14. Watertreatmentplant
15. Industrialuse
16. Industrialsupplywell

22

National Water Commission | Groundwater Essentials

Groundwater extraction:
wells and bores
InAustralia,groundwateristypicallyextractedvia
aboreorwell.Itmayalsobeextractedwhenwater
issourcedfromnaturalgroundwaterfedsprings,
riversandlakes.
Aboreisapipeoropenholeintheground
thatintersectssaturatedgroundandfillswith
groundwater.Inmostcases,apumpisneeded
tobringwatertothesurfacealthoughsome
groundwatercanflowtothesurfacenaturally.
Thishappenswhenaboreintersectsaquifers
thatareoverlainbythick,verylowpermeability
layers,whichkeepthegroundwaterunderenough
pressuretoforceittothesurface(artesian
groundwater).
Wellsweretraditionallyconstructedbymanual
digging,drivingorpiling.Todaydependingonthe

groundconditionsadrillrig,rotarydrillorauger
isusedtobuildmostbores.
Borescanbesunktovaryingdepths,dependingon
theaquifertobetapped,thetypeofrockandthe
desiredwateryield.

23

1
1
2
2
3

44
55
6
6

7
7

88

9
9

11
10
11
10

Bore components
1. Manholecover
2. Deliverypipe
3. Seal
4. Headworks/Borecap
5. Accesspoint(diptube)
6. RisingMain
7. Powercable
8. Casing
9. Submersablepump
10. Screen
11. Gravelpack
Keyconcept:Coneofdepression
Thepumpingofgroundwaterlowersthe
watertableimmediatelyaroundthebore,causing
adimple,calledtheconeofdepression,toformin
thewatertablearoundthewell.
Theconeofdepressiongrowslargerasthe
pumpingrateisincreasedbutoncepumping
stopsthewatertablewilleventuallyreturntoits
originalshape,althoughthewaterqualitymay
havechanged.

Cone of depression
1. Streamandwellrundryduetooverpumpingofindustrialwell
2. Largeindustrialabstraction
3. Originalwatertable

24

National Water Commission | Groundwater Essentials

Bore construction
Boreconstructioncanbecomplexandhazardous.
Generally,thedeeperthewellandtheharderthe
rock,themoreexpensiveaboreistoconstruct.
Aquiferyieldcanvaryconsiderablywithdepth.
Accurateinformationshouldbesoughtusually
fromalocalgroundwaterexpertonthespecific
locationofapotentialboresitebeforeconstruction.
Boresshouldalwaysbeplacedawayfrom
potentialcontaminationsourcesandeitherbe
locatedonlocallyhighgroundorhavecorrectly
sealedheadworkstopreventsurfacerunoffand
otherpollutantsenteringthesupply.
Constructionshouldalwaysbecarriedoutto
approvedstandards,requiringaprofessional
andqualifieddrillerusingcorrectlymaintained
equipment.

LeftGroundwatermonitoringstation,
Condaminerivercatchment,DarlingDowns,Qld.
PhotocourtesyofMDBA

25

Didyouknow?
Extractionofwaterfromaborelowersthe
waterlevelintheaquiferaroundit.Water
levelswilldropinotherboressuppliedbythe
aquifer,reducingtherateatwhichwatercan
beextracted.
Generally,closelyspacedbores,together
withhighextractionrates,causethegreatest
waterlevelinterference.Itistherefore
importantthattheregulatingauthoritiesand
neighbouringboreownersareconsultedto
ensurethelocationofanewboreminimises
interferenceonsurroundingbores.
Stateandterritorygovernmentwaterplans
takethisintoaccountwhenallocatingwater
extractionlicences.

Operation and maintenance of bores

Bore decommissioning

Correctoperatingandmaintenanceprocedures
oftendictatedbyabstractionlicenceconditionsand
governmentguidelinesensureaboreoperates
sustainablyandminimisestheimpactonthe
aquiferandnearbygroundwaterusers.

Ifaboreisdamagedbeyondrepairorisnolonger
needed,itmustbedecommissionedinaccordance
withstateregulations.

Informationonboreoperationandmaintenance
andlicencerequirementsisavailablefromrural
waterauthoritiesorstategovernmentdepartments.
Ataminimum,boreownersandoperatorsshould:
+ regularlymonitorborewaterdepthforevidence
ofoverextraction
+ regularlytestwaterquality,especiallyforsalinity
andcontaminantsofconcern
+ maintainpumpsinaccordancewiththe
manufacturersinstructions
+ keepdetailedrecordsofboreperformance
(groundwaterlevelsandabstractionrates)to
tracklongtermchanges.

Adecommissionedboreistypicallybackfilledwith
grout,fromitsbaseuptogroundlevel.
Decommissioningensurestheboredoesnot
provideapathwayforcontaminantstoenterthe
aquiferormovebetweenaquifersifthereismore
thanonelayer.

Keyconcept:Disinfection
Disinfectionofanewboreprotectsagainst
naturallyoccurringironbacteria.
Thesebacteriaexcreteiron,causing
encrustationontheboresurfacethatcan
greatlyreducetheefficiencyofborewater
extraction.
Adrillercandisinfecttheborewithamild
chlorinesolution,whichmayneedtobe
periodicallyreapplied.

26

Challengestothesustainablemanagementofgroundwater
InAustralia,groundwaterbenefitsawiderangeof
peopleandenvironments.Butthereareanumber
ofthreatstothesustainabilityofthisnatural
resource,whicharecompoundedbyalackof
understandingofit.
Thissectionpresentssomeofthekeychallenges
facinggroundwatermanagementinAustralia.

Knowledge of groundwater

Overallocation and overuse

ThehydrogeologyandmanagementofAustralias
groundwaterresourcesarejustbeginningtobe
understood.Thefactthateveryaquiferisdifferent
makesitmoredifficulttoformaclearpictureof
theircharacterandextent.

Groundwaterisoftenseenasaresourcethat
canbedrawnonwhensurfacewaterisscarce.
However,itisnotaninfiniteresource,andits
connectivitywithsurfacewatermeanswemust
takecaretousebothgroundwaterandsurface
watersuppliessustainably.

Alllevelsofgovernmentarenowmakingconcerted
effortstobetterunderstandtheresourceand
manageitproactively.

Keypoint

Anumberofprogramsbeingfundedaimto:

Failuretoaddresstherangeofchallengesto
thesustainablemanagementofgroundwater
inAustraliacouldresultinirreversible
degradationofthisvitalresource.Degradation
may,inturn,leadtolongtermdetrimental
impactsonindustries,communitiesand
environmentsthatrelyongroundwater.

+ improvetheskillsofgroundwatermanagers
andusers
+ improveourknowledgeoftheresource
+ quantifyhowgroundwatersystemsfunctionand
areaffectedbyextraction
+ determinesustainableextractionregimesfor
surfaceandgroundwatersystems.

Overextractioncancausegroundwatersalinisation,
resourcedepletionandsaltwaterintrusion,and
disturbthebalancedinteractionbetweensurface
waterandgroundwater.
Becauseofanhistoricallackofunderstandingand
ashortfallinresourcingtomanage,measureand
monitorgroundwater,toomanylicenceshavebeen
issued(i.e.overallocated)insomeareas.Insome
cases,thishasledtotheunsustainableextraction
ofgroundwater(i.e.overuse).
Poormanagementpracticehasbeen
exacerbatedby:
+ failuretometerlicensedgroundwaterusagein
manypartsofAustralia
+ groundwaterbeingprovidedfreeorunderprice
+ managementplansfailingtorecognisethe
connectivityofgroundwaterandsurfacewater.

27

Increasing demand

Threats to groundwater quality

Demandongroundwaterresourcescontinuesto
increaseinAustralia.Thisisdueto:

Landmanagementpracticescancreatediffuseor
pointsourcesofgroundwatercontamination,or
alternaturalgroundwaterrechargeandflowpaths.

+developmentandgrowthpressures
+theperceivedneedtodiversifywaterresources
tocomplementexistingsupply
+frequentdrought,whichincreasespressureon
surfacewaterresources.

Keypoint
Poorqualityandpollutedgroundwatercan
seriouslythreatenthehealthandviabilityof
communities,agriculturaloperationsandthe
environment.Oncepolluted,aquiferscanbe
verydifficulttorestore.

Poorgroundwaterqualitycanaffectarangeof
environmental,socialandeconomicvalues.For
example,lowgradeextractedgroundwaterthat
isdisposedoftowaterwaysandwetlandsused
bythepastoralcommunitywouldindirectlyaffect
agriculturalandhorticulturalproductivity,aswellas
causingenvironmentaldamage.
Whenitisakeycomponentofacommunitys
orhouseholdsdrinkingwater,poorquality
groundwatercanalsoposeriskstohumanhealth.

Inter-aquifer contamination
Somemanagementactivitiescanposeariskthat
aquiferswithgoodwaterqualitywillbepollutedby
waterleakingfromaquifersofpoorwaterquality.

+ Extractionofwaterfromagoodqualityaquifer
createsapressuregradientintoit.Waterfroman
adjacentaquifer,whichmaybeofpoorquality,
canseepinifitisonlypartiallyconfinedfrom
theextractedaquifer.
+ Hydraulicfracturingmayconnectaquifersof
varyingwaterquality.
Risksofinteraquifercontaminationcanbe
minimisedby:
+ monitoringaquiferstodetectproblemsearly
+ usingappropriate(e.g.strong,noncorrosive)
materialsintheconstructionofbores.
+ ensuringoperationsavoidmixingaquifersof
varyingwaterquality
+ maintainingboreswhiletheyareactive
+ decommissioningboresintheappropriate
manner;and
+ usinglicenseddrillerswhoemployproper
standards.

+ Groundwaterboresmayintersectandconnect
multipleconfinedaquifersofvaryingwater
quality.

28

National Water Commission | Groundwater Essentials

Groundwater contamination

4
7

2
1

6
13

11

8
A

12
10

9
B

C
D

29

Groundwater contamination

Contamination

1. Landfills

Groundwaterisvulnerabletocontaminationfroma
rangeofactivities.Theseinclude:

2. Mining
3. Urbanrunoff

+ industrialdischargesandprocesses

4. Leakingsewers

+ agriculturalpractices

5. PetrolStation
6. Oilstoragetanks
7. Illegaldumping
8. Publicwatersupply

+ landusechanges
+ miningpractices

Unconfinedaquifersaremostatriskofpollution.
Theycanbecontaminatedby:
+ pointsourcessuchaslandfills,leakingpetrol
stationsorlocalisedchemicalspills
+ diffusesourcessuchasagriculturalfertiliseruse
orpollutedrunofffromurbanareas.
Groundwaterpollutantsarevaried.Theyinclude:

+ oilandgasextraction

+ detergents

+ landfill.

+ excessivenutrients
(e.g.phosphatesandnitrogen)

9. Watertable

+ heavymetalssuchaslead

10. Septictank

+ industrialsolvents

11. Fertilisersandpesticides

+ microbiologicalcontaminantsfrom
sewageandeffluent

12. Ploughing

+ pesticides

13. Energyextraction

+ petroleumfuels.

A. Groundwaterflow
B. Unsaturatedzone
C. Saturatedzone
D. Impermeablelayer

AboveTransparentboreholesamplingtube(bailer)

showinglayeroffueloilcontaminationfloatingon
topofgroundwater.Kwinana,WA.

PhotocourtesyofCSIRO

30

National Water Commission | Groundwater Essentials

Salinity
Whenthesaltcontentofgroundwaterreaches
certainthresholdsitbecomesunsuitableforsome
uses.Salinewatercandamagesoil,beunpalatable
todrinkandaffectthegrowthofcropsandpasture.
Irrigationpractices,inappropriatedisposalof
wastewaterandlandclearingcanallincrease
groundwatersalinity.Salinegroundwatercanalso
resultifextractionfromaquifersisgreaterthan
therateofnaturalrecharge.Thisdrawssaline

groundwaterintoaquiferzonesthatpreviously
containedonlyfreshwater.
Groundwatercanbethesourceofdissolvedsalts
thatcausesalineaffectedland.Drylandsalinity
occurswhenasalinewatertableclosetoground
levelevaporatesandleavessaltsatandnearthe
soilsurface.
Clockwisefromtopleft
SalinestreamnearQuairading,WA,1989.

Treeskilledbyhighsalinityandrisinggroundwaternear
Hanwood,NSW,2001.
SalinebuilduponthedrybedoftheBrukungaPyrites
Minetailingsdam,eastofAdelaide,intheMountLofty
Ranges,SA,1992.
PhotoscourtesyofCSIRO

31

Seawater intrusion
Freshgroundwaterstoredincoastalaquifersisan
importantresourceformanyurban,agricultural
andindustrialactivities.
Dependencyongroundwaterhasincreasedon
Australiascoastalfringeduetorapidpopulation
growthcombinedwithfrequentperiodsofdrought.
Excessiveextractionofgroundwaterincoastal
settingscausesthesalinisationofaquifersbecause
freshwaterdrawnfromthemismorerapidly
replacedbyseawaterthanbyfreshwaterrecharge.
Seawaterintrusioncanhavemajorimpactson
thewaterqualityofaquifers,riversandestuaries,
aswellasfloodplainandwetlandecosystems.In
somecases,thedamagecausedcanbereversed
but,inmanycases,itisirreversible.

Treatment and disposal of extracted

groundwater

Difficulty of remediation
Remediationofgroundwater(removalof
pollutantsandcontaminants)isdifficultand

timeconsuming.Thisisnormallyduetothe
complexanduniquedynamicofgroundwater
movementineachsystem.
Extensivestudyisusuallyneededtodevelop
amanagementstrategyandremediationcan

beexpensive.Thatiswhyitisalmostalways
preferabletominimiseoravoidactivitiesand
practicesthatdegradegroundwaterquality.
Differentremedialtechniquescanbeusedto
improvegroundwaterquality.Forexample,
extractionlicencesmayneedtobeacquiredand
thenretired(surrendered)tolimitextractionfrom
overexploitedaquifers.Expensiveextractionand
treatmentsystemsthatdirectlyremovedissolved
groundwaterpollutantscanalsobeused.

AboveLaboratoryfortestinggroundwaterquality.
PhotocourtesyofGeoscienceAustralia

Poorqualitygroundwatermaybeextracted
fromaquifers,forexampletopreventsalinity
inrisingwatertablesfromenteringrivers,orto
depressuriseanaquifersoitwillreleasenatural

gas.Thetreatmentanddisposalofthiswater
presentsamanagementchallenge.
32

Seawater intrusion

1
2
5
3

Whatisanaquifer
4

33

Seawater intrusion
1. Abstractionborehole
2. Originalwatertable
3. Loweredwatertable
4. Transitionzone,mixtureoffresh
andsaltwater
5. Recharge
A. Freshwater

B. Seawater

Casestudy:Botany,NSW
ThegroundwaterbeneaththeBotanyIndustrial
Parkandnearbyareasbecamecontaminated
bychemicalcompounds,commonlyknownas
chlorinatedhydrocarbons.Thiswascausedby
morethanacenturyofindustrialoperationsin
thearea,beforetheimplementationofstrict
governmentregulatedenvironmentalcontrols.
Thenaturalgroundwaterflowbeneath
theindustrialparkisinasouthwesterly
directiontowardsBotanyBay,anditmoves
about110to150metresayear.Groundwater
plumesofdifferentcontaminantsvaryingin
concentrationsanddepthsarepresentinthe
areabetweentheparkandBotanyBay.

Orica,aglobalchemicalandmaterials
supplier,isnowresponsibleformanagingthe
contaminationandhasestablishedtheBotany
GroundwaterCleanupProject.Theprojectaims
tointerceptthecontaminatedgroundwaterto
preventitenteringBotanyBayandtotreatitto
ausablestandard.
A$167millionplantnowtreatscontaminated
groundwaterandprovideswaterforreuse.In
2007,theplantbecamefullyoperationaland
treatedgroundwateratanaveragerateofmore
than5MLaday.Theplantwasdesignedto
operatefor30years.

34

GroundwatermanagementinAustralia
Science to underpin sustainability

Groundwater management plans

Amajorchallengetomanaginggroundwater
sustainablyispoorunderstandingofthe
connectivityofgroundwatertosurfacewater
systemsanddependentenvironments.
Theexistingandpossiblefuturedemands
forhumanuseareoftenpoorlyunderstood.
Developmentofrobustandeffectivemanagement
practicesrequiresthisdetailedunderstandingof
groundwatersystems.

Statesandterritoriesapplyenvironmental,
resourceandwatermanagementpoliciesto
managegroundwater.Groundwatermanagement
canberefinedatalocallevel,whereagreaterand
moredetailedknowledgeofindividualaquiferscan
beincorporatedintomanagementpractices.

Casestudy:NationalCentrefor
GroundwaterResearchandTraining
TheNationalCentreforGroundwaterResearch
andTrainingaimstoproduceanewgeneration
ofskilledgroundwaterscientistsandpolicy
makerswhowilldeveloptheknowledgeand
practicesvitaltotheongoingsustainable
managementofourgroundwaterresources.

35

Detailedmanagementplansaimtostrikeabalance
betweenwateravailability,peopleswaterusesand
thewaterneedsofthenaturalenvironment.They

alsoprovidethemeanstocontrolgroundwater
pollutionandoveruseinthoseareas.

TheAustralianResearchCouncilandthe
NationalWaterCommissionjointlyfundedthe
establishmentofthecentre,whichwilltrain
postgraduateandpostdoctoralscientistsin
advancedhydrogeologicalandrelatedsciences.
Thecentrewillalsoimproveknowledgeof
policyandmanagementissuesconfronting
watermanagers.

Groundwatermanagementplansarenormally
developedonlyforareaswithwellused
groundwaterresources,i.e.thosewithhigh
qualitywaterandyieldsthatareeconomically
viabletoextract.Thecomplexityanddetailina

managementplanreflectthelevelofeconomicor
environmentalvalueassociatedwiththeresource.

BelowSignnearLyrup,SouthAustraliain2005.Testwells

andfloatingflagshavebeeninstalledintheRenmark
toBorderLAPAreatodisplaytheeffectofirrigationin
developingperchedwatertableswhereaBlanchetownClay
layerexists.Afloatingflagindicatesthelevelofthewater

table. PhotocourtesyofMDBA

Toimplementplans,usersareallocatedpermits
orlicencestoextractgroundwateratspecified
ratesfromspecifiedlocationsanddepths.
Permitconditionsmayrequiretheusertocollect
groundwatermonitoringdata(e.g.extractionrates,
groundwaterlevelsorgroundwaterquality),or
tobuildtheboresoasnottodegradethe
resourceunnecessarily.
BelowInattemptingtocontrolsalinitylevelsnearLoxton
inSouthAustraliagroundwaterispumpedintoevaporation
ponds.ImagewastakeninOctober2008.
PhotocourtesyofMDBA

Keypoint
Someareaslackgroundwatermanagement
plansbecausethereisnoeconomicor
environmentalincentivetodevelopthem,
i.e.thereisnousablegroundwaterresource.
Thebalancebetweenwateravailability
andtheenvironmentalneedismaintained
naturallyandthereisnoneedforresource
management.

Developingawatermanagementplan
WesternAustraliahasinitiatedamultiagency
approachtoaddresstheimpacts,management
andcostofanumberoflanduseandland
managementstrategiesaimedatincreasing
rechargetotheGnangaraMound.
TheGnangaraSustainabilityStrategy(GSS)
aimstoassistthedevelopmentofastatutory
watermanagementplanfortheGnangara
groundwaterareas.
ThedraftGSSwasreleasedforpublic
commentinJuly2009.Sixtytwosubmissions
comprisingwellover1000individual
commentsfromthepublicwerereceived.
Inthelightofissuesraisedduringpublic
consultation,theWAGovernmentisnow
consideringafinalGSS.
Meanwhile,anewwatermanagementplanfor
theGnangaragroundwaterareaswilladdress
someshorttermoptionsforwaterallocation
onthemound.

36

National Water Commission | Groundwater Essentials

Casestudy:GnangaraMound,WA

Australiaslargesturbansubsurfacefreshwater
resource,theGnangaraMound,isunder
stressfromincreasingextractiondemandand
diminishingrechargerates.Boundedbythe
SwanRivertothesouthandGinginBrookto
thenorth,themoundextendsinlandtothe
DarlingFault.
Itsuppliesabout70percentofthegreater
Perthmetropolitanareaswaterrequirements
andsupportsahorticulturalindustryvaluedat
morethan$100millionannually.Italsoprovides
watertotheGoldfieldsAgriculturalSupply
Scheme,supplyingtownsinregionalareas
andKalgoorlieBoulder.

GroundwaterextractionfromtheGnangara
Withgroundwaterlevelsdecliningacrossmostof Moundhasmorethandoubledoverthepast20
themound,thesustainabilityofsupplywillneed years.However,thereisalimittotheamount
thatcanbesustainablyextracted.Groundwater
carefulmanagement.Sincethemid1990sthe
managementinitiativesarebeingdevelopedto
rateofdeclinehasincreased.Thisisdueto:
ensurethemoundcontinuestocontributetothe
+reducedrechargetogroundwaterresulting
sustainablesocioeconomicdevelopmentofthe
fromthesignificantreductioninaverage
region.Thedevelopmentofastatutorywater
annualrainfallsincethemid1970s
managementplanwillenabletheadoptionof
morerobustmanagementarrangementsfor
+increasedabstractionofgroundwaterfor
publicmunicipalwatersupplyandprivateand themound.
industrialuse.
A threatened resource

Longtermweatherpredictionsindicatethat
belowaveragerainfallislikelytocontinuefor
theforeseeablefuture,withapossibilityof
greaterdecreases.
Changesinlanduseshaveexacerbatedthe
rechargeproblem.Extensivepineplantations
andincreaseddensityofnativewoodlandreduce
theamountofrainfallinfiltrationavailableto
rechargethemound.

37

Key reforms, programs and

initiatives to improve groundwater
management
Groundwater and the National
Water Initiative
Between2004and2006,allAustralian
governmentssignedtheNationalWaterInitiative
(NWI),whichcallsforawholeofwatercycle
approachtowatermanagementandaimsto
improvegroundwatermanagement.TheNWIhas
committedallgovernments:
+toimproveknowledgeofgroundwatersurface
waterconnectivitybymanagingconnected
systemsasoneintegratedresource
+toreturnallcurrentlyoverallocatedoroverused
systemstosustainablelevelsofextraction

+toimproveunderstandingofsustainable
extractionratesandregimes,andtodevelop
commonapproachestoachievingsustainability
+todevelopabetterunderstandingofthe
relationshipbetweengroundwaterresources
andgroundwaterdependentecosystems
Toprogressthegroundwaterreformsagreedunder
theNWI,theAustralianGovernmentestablished
the$82millionNa

tionalGroundwaterActionPlan.
Undertheplan,theNationalWaterCommission
isinvestinginprojectstoimproveknowledge,
understanding,planningandmanagementof
Australiasgroundwaterresourcesatalllevels.

State and territory arrangements

Eachstateandterritoryhasitsownmanagement
arrangementsforpromotingthesustainableand
efficientuseofgroundwaterresources.Itisalways
advisabletocontacttherelevantgovernment
departmentforguidanceandadviceonlocal
managementpractices.
NewSouthWalesNSWOfficeofWater
VictoriaDepartmentofSustainabilityand
Environment
QueenslandDepartmentofEnvironmentand
ResourceManagement
WesternAustraliaDepartmentofWater
SouthAustraliaDepartmentforWater
TasmaniaDepartmentofPrimaryIndustries,

Parks,WaterandEnvironment
AustralianCapitalTerritoryDepartmentofthe
Environment,ClimateChange,EnergyandWater
NorthernTerritoryDepartmentofNatural
Resources,Environment,theArtsandSport

38

Aquifer storage and recovery

1
2

A
B
C

39

Emergingchallengesandopportunities:thefutureofgroundwater
Aquifer storage and recovery
1. Injectionbore
2. Watertable
3. Abstractionbore
4. Groundwaterflow
A. Unconfinedaquifer
B. Impermeablelayer
C. Confinedaquifer,wherewaterisstored

Sustainable levels of extraction

TheNWIrequiresthereturnofallcurrently
overallocatedandoverusedsurfaceand
groundwatersystemstoenvironmentally
sustainablelevelsofextraction.Italsorequires
otherlessstressedsystemstobemaintainedat
environmentallysustainablelevels.
TheNationalWaterCommissionsupportsthe
developmentofnationalguidelinesforwater
planningandmanagementparticularlythe
clarificationofthemeaningofsustainablelevels
ofextractionandotherkeyconcepts.

Aquifer storage and recovery

Aquiferstorageandrecovery(ASR)isthe
reinjectionofwaterintoanaquiferforlater
recoveryanduse.Developedformunicipal,
industrialandagriculturaluse,ASRisbecoming

morecommoninruralandurbanareasinAustralia.
Whileitissometimestechnicallychallenging,
ASRhasthepotentialtoprovidemanybenefitsfor
improvedwatermanagementpracticesinAustralia.
Whereisprovidesadequateandusefulstorage,
ASRwillprobablybepreferredtolargereservoirs
anddams,whichhavelowerwaterstorage
efficienciesandgreaterenvironmentalandsocial
impacts.

WaterreuseinAliceSprings,NT
TheWaterReuseintheAliceprojectrecycles
andstoresupto600MLannuallyoftreated

wastewaterinanundergroundaquifer.The
wateristhenreusedbyAridZoneResearch
Institutehorticultureprojects.

Casestudy:GreatArtesianBasin
SustainabilityInitiative
Untilthe1950s,artesianwatercametothe
surfaceundernaturalpressureandwas
allowedtoflowuncontrolledintoopendrains
fordistributiontostock.Upto95percentof
thiswaterwaswastedthroughevaporationand
seepage.
Theuncontrolledflowofwaterfromboresand
openboredrainsintheGreatArtesianBasin
(GAB)reducedthepressureoftheconfined
aquiferandthreatenedthehealthofimportant
groundwaterdependentecosystemsand
farmerscontinuedaccesstoartesianwater.
UndertheGreatArtesianBasinSustainability
Initiative,theAustralianGovernmentisinvesting
about$140millionover15years(19992014)to
repairuncontrolledartesianboresandreplace
openboredrainswithpipedwaterreticulation
systemssothatwastefuluseofGABwaterisa
thingofthepast.

40

National Water Commission | Groundwater Essentials

Mining
Miningextractsvaluablegeologicalmaterialsfrom
theearth.Thisincludesfossilfuels,suchascoal

andgas,raremineralsandmetals,andbulkraw
materialssuchassandsandgravels.
Theminingindustryofferssubstantialbenefits
toAustraliansocietybut,ifitisnotmanaged
appropriately,itsprocessesriskaffectingthe
qualityandquantityofgroundwaterresources.
BelowSeepageofacidifiedwaterfromtailingsdamat
theRenisonTinMineinwesternTasmania1993.
PhotocourtesyofCSIRO

Miningactivitiesthatcanaffectthequalityof
groundwaterinclude:
+ theconstructionofshaftsandtunnelsthat
intersectandconnectgroundwatersystems
+ theoxidationofcertainminerals,whichcan
causeacidicgroundwatertodevelopandinduce
othercontaminantstodissolve
+ storageoftailingsorothermaterialsthatleach
contaminantsintogroundwater
+ increasedinterceptionofgroundwater
+ disposalofsalineandcontaminatedwastewater
producedintheminingprocessbyallowingitto
infiltrateintotheground.
Miningactivitiesthatcanaffectthequantityof
groundwaterinclude:
+ thedeliberateloweringofgroundwatertables
bypumping,topermitthesafeandefficient
removalofmaterials
+ extractionofgroundwaterforuseinmining
processes.
Aswithanyindustrialorcommercialprocessthat
mayaffectgroundwaterorthewiderenvironment,
miningactivitiesareregulated,managedand
assessedbystategovernments.

41

Casestudy:Coalseamgas
Coalseamgas(CSG)isanemerging
energyresourceinAustralia.Development
isconcentratedmostlythroughoutcentral
Queensland,withtheremainderinNew
SouthWales.
ThepotentialimpactsofCSGdevelopments,
particularlythecumulativeeffectsofadjacent
projects,needtobebetterunderstoodand
assessed.Thisistomanageandminimise:
+reducedflowandwaterstorageinnontarget

groundwater(andpotentially,surfacewater)
systemscausedbyconnectivitywiththe
dewateredcoalseam

+contaminationofgroundwatersystems
throughtheintroductionofchemicals
sometimesusedinhydraulicfracturing
+contaminationofshallowgroundwater
systemsorsurfacewatersfollowingthe
disposaloflowgradeCSGwater.
Aswithanylargeextractiveindustry,the
impactsofCSGprojectsareinvestigatedand
assessedbyeachprojectproponent,who
mustdefinemeasurestominimiseornegate
them.Aspartoftheplanningprocess,project
proponentsmustmaketheirassessment
availableforpublicreview,andusuallyhave
strictandbindingconditionsimposedonthem
bythestategovernment.

LeftGasfiredpowerstationatDalby,QLD.
Naturalgasistakenfromlocalundergroundcoal
seamstopowerthepowerstation.Imagetaken
in2009.
PhotocourtesyofMDBA
42

National Water Commission | Groundwater Essentials

Geothermal power generation

Geothermal energy

Geothermalenergytheheatcontainedwithin
theearthcanbeusedtogeneraterenewable
electricitywithlittletonogreenhousegas
emissions.Thisisdoneinoneoftwoways:

1. E lectricityproduction,buildingheating
andcooling,desalinisation,industrial
heating,etc.

+ traditionalhydrothermalprojects,which
usenaturallyoccurringhotwaterorsteam
circulatingthroughpermeablerock

3. Productionwell

+ enhancedgeothermalsystems(EGS),which
artificiallycirculatefluidthroughnaturally
occurringhotdryrocks(usuallyhigherthan
200C)thatmaybemanykilometresbelow
theearthssurface.
Geothermaltechnologyhasthepotentialtoaffect
groundwaterbyconnectingpreviouslyunconnected
aquifers.Additionally,geothermalpowergeneration
plantsmayusewaterforcooling,whichincreases
demandandpressureonexistingwaterresources.
Agenerallackoftraditionalhydrothermalresources
andtherelativeinfancyofEGStechnologymean
geothermalpowergenerationisnotyetwell
developedinAustralia.However,anumberofEGS
pilotprojectsareunderway.

43

2. Heatexchanger
4. Injectionwell

4
A

A. Insulatinglayer
B. Hotsedimentaryaquifer
C. Heatsource
Example:Birdsvillegeothermalpowerstation

Ageothermalpowerplanthasbeen
periodicallyinoperationatBirdsville,Qld,
since1992.
Theplantusesaborethatproduceswater
fromtheGreatArtesianBasinat98Cto
generateabout80kWnet,supplyingabout30
percentoftheplantoutput.Theremainderis
fuelledbydieselandliquefiedpetroleumgas.

Glossary
aquiferRockorsedimentinaformation,group
offormations,orpartofaformationwhichis
saturatedandsufficientlypermeabletotransmit
quantitiesofwatertowellsandsprings.

capAlimitonthevolumeofwaterthatcanbe

takenfromawaterway,catchment,basinor
aquifer,orasealonthetopofaboreorwellto
preventthelossofwaterinartesianconditions.

aquiferstorageandrecoveryTheinjectionof

waterintoanaquiferforsubsequentrecoveryof
rechargedwaterfromthesameaquifer.

confinedaquiferAnaquiferoverlainbyaconfining

layerofsignificantlylowerpermeabilityinwhich
groundwaterisundergreaterpressurethanthatof
theatmosphere.

artesianWhenthepiezometricsurfaceofa

confinedaquiferisaboveground.Anopenartesian

wellorborewillspurtwaterfromtheground.
artesianboreAborewhichintersectsanaquifer

andinwhichthewaterlevelrisesabovethenatural
groundlevelduetothehydrostaticpressureacting
ongroundwaterwithoutmechanicalassistance.
baseflowThecomponentofstreamfloworriver

flowthatissuppliedbygroundwaterdischarge.
bore(alsoknownasaborehole,wellor
piezometer)Anarrow,artificiallyconstructedhole
orcavityusedtointercept,collectorstorewater
fromanaquifer,ortopassivelyobserveorcollect
groundwaterinformation.

confininglayerAlowpermeabilityrockor

sedimentoverlyinganaquifer.Theconfining

bedhasasignificantlylowerpermeabilitythan
theaquifer.
connectivityAdescriptivemeasureofthe

interactionbetweenwaterbodies(groundwater
and/orsurfacewater).
consumptivepoolTheamountofwaterthatcan
bemadeavailableforconsumptiveuseinawater
systemundertherulesoftherelevantwaterplan.
consumptiveuseTheuseofwater,including

forirrigation,industry,urbanandstockand
domesticuse.

contaminantBiologicalorchemicalsubstance
orentitynotnormallypresentinasystem,or
anunusuallyhighconcentrationofanaturally
occurringsubstancecapableofproducingan
adverseeffectinabiologicalsystem,seriously
affectingitsstructureorfunction.
dischargeWaterthatmovesfromagroundwater

bodytothegroundsurfaceorsurfacewaterbody
(e.g.ariverorlake).
diversionSeeextraction.
ecosystemAcommunityoforganismsandthe

nonlivingenvironment,allinteractingasaunit.
entitlementholderTheowner(holder)ofa

perpetualorongoingentitlementtoexclusive
accesstoashareofwaterfromaspecified
consumptivepool,asdefinedintherelevant
waterplan.
environmentallysustainablelevelofextraction
(ortake)Thelevelofwaterextractionfroma

particularsystemwhich,ifexceeded,would
compromiseimportantenvironmentalassetsand
theproductivebaseoftheresource.

44

National Water Commission | Groundwater Essentials

extractionTheremovalofwaterforusefrom

waterwaysoraquifers(includingstorages)by
pumpingorgravitychannels.
extractionrateTherateintermsofunitvolumeper

unittimeatwhichwaterisdrawnfromasurfaceor
groundwatersystem.
filtrationRemovalofparticulatematterinwaterby
passagethroughporousmedia.
formationAunitinstratigraphydefininga

successionofrocksofthesametype.
gigalitre(GL)1billion(1000000000)litres,
or1km2ofwater1metredeep.

groundwaterWateroccurringnaturallybelow
groundlevel(whetherinanaquiferorotherlow
permeabilitymaterial),orwateroccurringat
aplacebelowgroundthathasbeenpumped,
divertedorreleasedtothatplaceforstoragethere.
Thisdoesnotincludewaterheldinunderground
tanks,pipesorotherworks.
groundwaterdependentecosystemEcosystems
thatrelyongroundwatertypicallythenatural
dischargeofgroundwaterfortheirexistenceand
health.

45

groundwatermanagementunitAnhydraulically
connectedgroundwatersystemthatisdefined
andrecognisedbyAustralianstateandterritory

agencies.Thisdefinitionallowsformanagement
ofthegroundwaterresourceatanappropriate
scale,atwhichresourceissuesandintensityof
usecanbeincorporatedintogroundwater
managementpractices.
groundwaterrechargeReplenishmentof
groundwaterbynaturalinfiltrationofsurfacewater
(precipitation,runoff),orartificiallyviainfiltration
lakesorinjection.
groundwatersystemSeewatersystem.
groundwateruseSeewateruse.

hydrogeologyThestudyofgroundwater,including
flowinaquifers,groundwaterresourceevaluation,
andthechemistryofwaterrockinteraction.

hydrostaticpressureThepressurewhichis
exertedonaportionofacolumnoffluid(suchas
water)asaresultoftheweightofthefluidaboveit.

infiltrationTheprocessofwaterenteringthesoil

throughitssurface.Thedownwardmovementof
waterintothesoilprofile.

inflowSurfacewaterrunoffanddeepdrainage
togroundwater(groundwaterrecharge)and
transfersintothewatersystem(bothsurfaceand
groundwater)foradefinedarea.

managedaquiferrechargeAtermappliedtoall
formsofintentionalrechargeenhancement,forthe
purposeofreuseorenvironmentalbenefit.
megalitre1millionlitres.

overallocationWherethetotalvolumeofwater
licensedtobeextractedbyentitlementholdersata
giventimeexceedstheenvironmentallysustainable
levelofextractionforthatsystem.

overuseWherethetotalvolumeofwaterextracted
forconsumptiveuseexceedstheenvironmentally
sustainablelevelofextraction.Overusemayarise
insystemsthatareoverallocatedorwherethe
plannedallocationisexceeded.

permeabilityThemeasureoftheabilityofarock,

soilorsedimenttoyieldortransmitafluid.The
magnitudeofpermeabilitydependslargelyonthe
porosityandtheinterconnectivityofpores/spaces
intheground.

piezometricsurfaceAtheoreticalsurface
representingthetotalheadofgroundwaterinan
aquifer.Itisdefinedbythelevelthatwaterwould
risetoinawell.

porosityTheproportionofthevolumeofrock

consistingofpores,usuallyexpressedasa
percentageofthetotalrockorsoilmass.
runoffRainfallthatdoesnotinfiltratetheground
orevaporatetotheatmosphere.Thiswaterflows

downaslopeandenterssurfacewatersystems.
salinegroundwaterGroundwaterthatexceedsa
salinityof3500mg/lofsodiumchloride.
salinityThemeasureofsaltinsurfacewateror

groundwater,orthelandscape.
saturatedzoneThepartofthegroundinwhichall
thevoidsintherocksorsoilarefilledwithwater.
Thewatertableisthetopofthesaturatedzonein
anunconfinedaquifer.
springAnaturallyoccurringdischargeof

groundwaterflowingoutoftheground,often
formingasmallstreamorpoolofwater.Typically,

itrepresentsthepointatwhichthewatertable
intersectsgroundlevel.
stratigraphyThestudyofstratified(layered)rocks

andtheirhistory.

surfacewaterWaterthatflowsoverlandandin

watercoursesorartificialchannelsandcanbe
captured,storedandsupplementedfromdamsand
reservoirs.
sustainablediversionlimitAnenvironmentally
sustainablelimitontheamountofwaterthatcan
betakenfromasystem.
sustainableyieldThelevelofwaterextraction

fromaparticularsystemthat,ifexceeded,would
compromisetheproductivebaseoftheresource
andimportantenvironmentalassetsorecosystem
functions.
unconfinedaquiferAnaquiferinwhichthereare

noconfiningbedsbetweenthesaturatedzoneand
thegroundsurface,sothewatertablecanfluctuate.
unsaturatedzoneThezoneinsoilsandrocks

occurringabovethewatertable,wherethereis
someairwithintheporespaces.
wateraccessentitlementAperpetualorongoing

entitlementtoexclusiveaccesstoashareofwater
fromaspecifiedconsumptivepool,asdefinedin
therelevantwaterplan.
waterallocationThespecificvolumeofwater

allocatedtowateraccessentitlementsinagiven
season,definedaccordingtorulesestablishedin
therelevantwaterplan.

waterplanStatutoryplansforsurfacewaterand/
orgroundwatersystemsdevelopedinconsultation
withrelevantstakeholdersonthebasisofavailable
scientificandsocioeconomicassessmentto
provideresourcesecurityforusersandsecure
ecologicaloutcomes.
watersystemAsystemthatishydrologically

connectedanddescribedattheleveldesired
formanagementpurposes(e.g.subcatchment,
catchment,basinordrainagedivision,or
groundwatermanagementunit,subaquifer,aquifer,
groundwaterbasin).
watertableTheuppersurfaceofabodyof

groundwateroccurringinanunconfinedaquifer.
Atthewatertable,porewaterpressureequals
atmosphericpressure.
wateruseThevolumeofwaterdivertedfroma

stream,extractedfromgroundwaterortransferred
toanotherareaforuse.Itisnotrepresentativeof
onfarmortownuse.Itrepresentsthevolume
takenfromtheenvironment
wellAmanmadeholeintheground,generally

createdbyboring,toobtainwater(alsoseebore).

46

Wheretogoformoreinformation
NationalWaterCommission
www.nwc.gov.au
NationalCentreforGroundwaterResearchand
Training
www.groundwater.com.au
DepartmentofSustainability,Environment,Water,

PopulationandCommunities
www.environment.gov.au
CSIRO
www.csiro.au
GeoscienceAustralia
www.ga.gov.au/groundwater
TheGroundwaterFoundation
www.groundwater.org
InternationalAssociationofHydrogeologists
www.iah.org
MurrayDarlingBasinAuthority
www.mdba.gov.au
UnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey
water.usgs.gov

47

AustralianCapitalTerritory,Departmentof
Environment,ClimateChange,EnergyandWater
www.environment.act.gov.au
NorthernTerritory,DepartmentofNatural
Resources,Environment,TheArtsandSports

www.nt.gov.au/nreta/water
NewSouthWalesOfficeofWater
www.water.nsw.gov.au
QueenslandDepartmentofEnvironmentand
ResourceManagement
www.derm.qld.gov.au
SouthAustralianDepartmentforWater
www.waterforgood.sa.gov.au
TasmanianDepartmentofPrimaryIndustries,
Parks,WaterandEnvironment

www.dpiw.tas.gov.au
VictorianDepartmentofSustainabilityand
Environment
www.dse.vic.gov.au
WesternAustralianDepartmentofWater
www.water.wa.gov.au

Water Commission | Groundwater Essentials

48